Personality Psychology

Scientific study of the psychological forces Issues in the study of personality:

that make people uniquely themselves. The
 Unconscious is important?
dynamic organization within the individual of
 What is self?
those psychophysical systems that determine
 Nomothetic or idiographic
his unique adjustment to his environment”.
approaches?
Relatively stable.
 Gender differences.
Eight aspects of personality such as cognitive,  Person or situation affect behaviour?
biological etc. “  Is personality a useful concept`?

Measuring Personality
Objective tests include measures that are  Participant changes : Mood,
easily quantified and defined, but they may motivation
miss more subtle aspects of personality.
Validity
Subjective tests rely on interpretations by Def: Level of accuracy in measuring intended
observers or test-givers, but they may result construct
in disagreements about interpretations.
Types of validity:

1. Face validity: Does the test appear to

Reliability measure what it is intended to
Def: Consistency of results across time, items measure. It “looks” valid to test takers.
and researchers. a. Poor measure, subjective…
2. Content validity: Are the different
Three types of reliability:
dimensions of the construct
1. Longitudinal stability: Test-retest represented in the test…
reliability same result in different 3. Criterion validity:
occasions. a. Concurrent validity: Does the
2. Internal consistency: Split-half result match correlate with
reliability gaged with Cronbach’s alpha. criteria from i.e. expert’s
a. Different items that measure evaluation.
the same construct should b. Predictive validity: Will the
correlate prediction made from
3. Inter-rater reliability: Different research be true when the
observers getting consistent result. actual event takes plays. Job
screening vs the worker when
Verification of these can counter three employed.
sources of error: 4. Convergent validity: Result should
 Observer error correlate with other tests that
 Environmental changes: Time of measure similar constructs. Ex
day,distractions Aggression test vs Neuroticism test
 5. Discriminant validity: The results • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) : 31
should not correlate with tests of other achromatic cards. Tell me a story based on the
constructs. Popularity should not picture. Personal feelings appear in the story.
correlate with anxiety.
• Draw-a-Person Test (DAP Test):
Types of Personality Measures. Interpretation of drawings of human figures
Questionnaire Evaluation:
 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI)  Less direct: To lower personal
o Gold standard for detection of defence mechanisms.
personality disorders  Low reliability and validity
 Revised NEO Personality Inventory  Icebreaker for initial sessions.
(NEO-PI-R)_ The Big Five.
Behavioural measures
o Form S participants self-
To see how People act in a laboratory or
reports and Form R, third naturalistic setting.
person report
o Parsimonious •Situation specific traits: Simulate situation
o Moral behaviour- not and see their response
captured by Big Five
•Relatively _ unlike questionnaires.
Evaluation of Questionnaires:
Ethical issues in viewing others’ behaviours or
+ Convenient and reliable method. manipulating situational circumstances

 Self-report errors  Coding schemes: How to develop

 Errors of omission: Fail to include this?
or do something. Not pressing  Costly: Time and energy
stop.  Social desirability: When being
 Errors of commission: Additional watched.
incorrect action. Pressing stop  Situational rather than dispositional
twice. factors: Data collection on situation
 Self-deception from one occasion.
 Lack of self-awareness  Laboratory approach-artificiality_
 Informant reports: How does the person act in natural
+ An observer perspective on world.
personality.  Unclear link between a specific
+ More complete description. behaviour and a specific personality
 Costly and impractical characteristic.
 Bias: Enhance or diminishing report. Neuroscientific methods
 Lacks assess from other persons  Neuroimaging (e.g., MRI, PET)
emotion and cognition. o Conscietiousness: Middle
Projective measures frontal gyrus
Based on concepts of preconsciousness,  Molecular genetics
unconsciousness. Indirect measures.  Electrophysiological techniques (e.g.,
EEG, EDA)
• Rorschach Inkblot Test: 10 symmetrical  Assays of endogenous psychoactive
inkblots. What do you see? substances or their byproducts
 Psychopharmacological manipulation
Evaluation:

 Relatively fast stimulus-based

responses
 Low statistical power: Bigger samples
are needed! Discovering actual
changes
 Methodological variability
 Demographic information Is essential
in all measures.

Structure of personality traits

Traits can be arranged hierarchically.

Big five good determinant of Qol factors.

Correlations among the big five fall into :
Stability and Plasticity.

Sources of bias in CROSS CULTURAL

Personality research
 Method bias: Incompatibilities of bias,
different backgrounds of participants,
o Observer effects, and
interview effects.
 Item bias: Poor translation of items to
local language. Items favour certain
cultural groups.
o Ethic bias: Neglection cultural
differences.
 Construct bias: May not exist in other
cultures or misinterpreted.
Biological perspective
Def: Using physiological changes to explain Four basic aspects:
variations in personality.
1. Activity level: Hyper or Hypoactive
Risks: 2. Emotionality: Aroused to emotions
like anger, fear happy or calm
 Minimises human growth potential.
3. Sociability: Extent they Enjoy being
Reductionistic. Not capturing
with others.
consciousness.
4. Impulsivity: Aggressive and cold vs
 Oversimplified adaptions by
friendly
politicians i.e Biological determinism-
Genes in criminals are to blame vs Theoretical models of Temperament
Bad genes = criminal eugenics. Drugs
Eysenck’s model of temperament
for theraphy
Three dimensions:
Pros- Emphasizes tendencies and limits
1. Extroversion – Sociability, activity and
imposed by physiological and genetical
sensation-seeking. Low baseline of
influence on personality.
arousalStimulating activities to reach
Direct Genetic effects on Personality optimum.
 Angelman Syndrome: Chromosome 15 a. Introversion: High baseline of
not fully functioning. arousal. Less social activities to hit
Symptoms: “optimal levels”. Stimuli can get
o Developmental delay, visible at on their nerves easily.
1yr 2. Neuroticism: Tense, anxious and
o Impaired speech – no or minimal depressed. Very reactive nervous system.
use of words. 3. Psychoticism: Cold, impulsive, and
 Receptive and Non-verbal Egocentric
skills higher than verbal.
We Track hormone and nervous systems to
o Ataxia: Coordination and balance
changes to make inferences temperament
disorder. “Puppet walk” variance.
o Personality: Happy, easyily
excited Reticular activating System(RAS) : Ranging
 Williams Syndrome: Chromosome 7 from midbrain. Neurological Arousal
lacking 2 x 12 genes. regulator. Selective filter for incoming stimuli.
Symptoms:
Difficulties with NS based theory: 1) How to
o Poor spatial skills: Pinpointing
define and measure “arousal”. 2) Homeostasis
location, “problem”.
o Global intellectual deficits
o …Very social. Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity
Reward or punishment for appropriate
Behavioural Genomics behaviours. Two brain systems:
How individual variations in genes affect Behavioural Inhibition System (Bis): Activated
behaviour. Done by mapping genes and in times of punishment and negative events.
discovering instructions they give. Frontal cortex and limbic system.
Temperament Behavioural activation/approach System
Def: Stable Individual differences in emotional (BAS): Responds to rewards. Overactivation-
reactivity.
Constant reward seeking and drug addictions. 3. Self-transcendence (spirituality,
Basal Ganglia, happy neurotransmitters. beyond)

Sensation seeking

“Biological primed to seek out highly

stimulating activities. Sky diving….
Twin Studies
Low level of internal activation Seek “Tool for separate genetic and environmental
arousal from environment. influences”

Higher risk for alcohol and drug abuse. Any substantial difference in personality in
Monozygotic (MZ) twins is attributed to the
Nervous System-Based Model of individual
environment.
Differences in Susceptibility to Drug Addiction:
MZ twins = same genes, tend to have similar
1. Weak dopamine regulation +
personality traits.
impulsive/anxious  Seek wild
parties. Heritability Estimates
2. Seeking stimulation + Peer
MZ are 2x genetically similar as DZ.
pressure Narcotics intake.
3. Narcotics affect reuptake of  Falconer’s formula: Heritability as
neurotransmitter such as twice the difference in correlation
dopamineProlonged pleasure between MZ and DZ twins. H^2
experience. =2(r(MZ) - r(DZ)).
4. Brain overstimulated over time  o Same environment among MZ
seeks homeostasis by reducing and DZ . Only difference is in
dopamine production and removing genes. 2 x 50% genetic
dopamine receptors. similarity.
5. Social and normal activities not
rewarding enoughDrug only can Twins reared apart are significantly less alike
provide reward. in personality than twins reared together
6. Higher and frequent drug when you compare their C.A.N.O.E of Big five.
uptakeEven less satisfaction with NOTE: Heritability estimates apply to groups
normal activitiesDrug addiction. not to individuals.
Psychobiological model (Cloninger)  Same environment can have different
Temperament dimensions are inheritable and effects depending on individual Gene
connected to “biological reinforcements” makeup.
1. Harm avoidance.  Missing-heritability gap – Yes
2. Novelty seeking Heritability account for 50% variance
3. Reward dependence (recall BIS and in different traits yet we don’t which
BAS) gens are responsible.
4. Persistence (perseverance) Environmental effects on Biology and
Character influenced by socio-environmental Personality
influences  Drugs: Dramatic change of personality in
stronger drugs like cocaine. Mood swings.
1. Self-directedness (goal-oriented) o Effects:, hypersensitivity to
2. Cooperativeness sensory stimuli, Paranoia
depression
 Poisoning: Application: Analyse aggression, courtship and
o Mercury: People start acting attachment to infants. E.g child smile and
strangely. Found in Fish, cavity attract nuture.
filings.
Social behaviour that favours survival will be
o Lead: At toxic levels affect the
linked to genes.
child’s developing NSimpaired
cognitive and social functions. #Darwinism.
 Physical illness:
Key concepts for analysis
o Alzheimer’s disease: Memory
loss, dramatic personality shifts.  Genetic (d)effects, behavioural
We love people for their genomics
personalities ☹  Temperament
 Strokes: Aggressive and o 4 basis aspects
uncooperative. Depending on  Eysenck’s temperament model
region of damage.  Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity
o BIS & BAS
Frontotemporal dementias, Pick’s disease
 Envriomental effects on biology
o Toxins, sickness, drugs
 Therapy approach to fix
Socio-biology
annie/alvy
Explain social behaviour in terms of evolution
 Evaluate +/- of your bioanalytical
Studies: Function of social behaviours in perspective.
animal: dances, colours… duels for mates.

Mates, pack hunting, sex.

Trait perceptive

Trait: Many core dimensions that explain our “bodily humours”: Sanguine, melancholic,
consistent patterns of behaviour.” choleric and phlegmatic.

 Internal characteristic of a person that

is relatively stable over a period of
Carl Jung’s Extrovert -Introvert
time and consistent across
situations”
conceptualisation.
 Extroversion: Outgoing
Personality has:  Introversion: Orient inwards and
explore feelings and experiences.
 a biological base.
 Is a combination of more or less You can be both, yet ONE is more dominant.
adaptive traits.
Gordon Allport
Individual differences when traits are Lexical hypothesis: When individual
combined is important. differences are socially relevant, we create a
word to express them. The opposite goes.
No consensus on number of traits.
-Allport analysed all dictionary words
History: Ancient Greece with Hippocrates
describing personality characteristics.
trying to explain temperament by referring to
Best definition of personality:
The dynamic organization within the Factor analysis: Eliminate overlapping
individual of those psychophysical systems synonymous variables and organise variables
that determine his characteristic behaviour that correlate under a “factor / “title”.
and thought”
Gathered data from Q-data (questionnaire,
 Dynamic org : It is not just self-reports), T-data (testing situations) and L-
constant but is becoming. data (Life data, school ,work…)
 Psychophysical systems: Not
Developed 16 factors
exclusively mental nor exclusively
neurological. 1. outgoing –reserved
 Determining: A person is not a 2. more –less intelligent
passive reactor to environment 3. stable –emotional
rather behaviour is generated 4. assertive –humble
from within. We have a choice! 5. happy-go-lucky –sober
 Both variability and consistency. 6. conscientious –expedient
7. venturesome –shy
8. tender-minded –tough-minded
An idiographic approach: Individual
9. suspicious –trusting
uniqueness and qualities.
10. imaginative –practical
Functional equivalence: Many behaviours of 11. shrewd –forthright
individuals are similar because we tend to 12. apprehensive –placid
view many situations and stimuli in the same 13. experimenting –conservative
way. Similar perception=>Similar action. 14. self-sufficient –group-tied
15. controlled –causal
Importance of culture: Some traits are more 16. 16.tense –relaxed
valed
Hans Eysenck’s Theory (biology based)
Common traits: People of same culture have 1. Extraversion: Outgoing, low arousal
common cultural heritage and therefore have level.
common traits. 2. Neuroticism; Unstable emotions,
Three levels of Traits or Personal dispositions anxious
(particular to an individual): 3. Psychoticism : Impulsive, cruel,

1. Cardinal Traits: Dominates my life and America students extrovert rate went up.
shapes my behaviour. Ex: Punctual, christ- Biology doesn’t change but Cultural
like development happens
2. Central traits: Summarises the Eysenchks personality questionnaire.EPQ
consistency in an individual's behaviour to
the point that the individual becomes The Big Five model
known for them. Ex: Honest, Kind Nomothetic : General for all people.
3. Secondary traits: Traits that appear in
Genes lay foundation for personality and
specific situations and circumstances. Ex:
environment regulates how it is expressed.
Kind person gets angry?
Research driven theory: This means..
Cattell’s Theories
Systematically analysed and quantified Cross-culturally valid. Yet certain traits are
Allport’s list from dic. using factor analysis: more desirable depending on culture.

Implicit personality theory: A bias. Seeing

consistency in others and wrongly perceive
certain traits to co-occur. It is more in the Level of cooperativeness and empathy.
observers head than in behaviour
High: Too submissive
Conscientiousness
Low: Rude and suspicious.
High: Ambitious, Disciplined, goal-oriented.
2. Neuroticism
Rigid and stubborn
Level of “negative emotional stability”,
Low: impulsive, disorganized. Perceived as
Nervous, tense, worry, anxious
Lazy yet spontaneous
High : Anxious, pessimistic
#Strongest success predictor
Low: Calm in the storm
1. Agreeableness

3. Openness to Experience •This operationalization represents a new

way of diagnosing personality disorders
High: imaginative, liberal , spontaneous, Lack
focus and unpredictable Critics on Trait perspective:

Low: prefers routine, practical Factor analysis: Are the correlations in it not
just based on raters own interpretation…
4. Extraversion
Social Situation: Understimating the role
High: sociable, fun-loving. Attention-seeking
social situations.
and dominante
Self-reports: Covering people’s ideas about
Low: reserved, thoughtful
their own traits and not the objective
Big Five and psychopathology PDTS dimensions

• Newest version of the Diagnostic and Key concepts for analysis:

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-
 Carl jungs extrovert and introversion
5) has a maladaptive version of the Big five:
 Allport
 Negative affectivity o Cardinal, central and
 Detachment: Avoid social secondary traits
relationships  Catells’ 16 factors
 Antagonism: Manipulative, cold and  Eysenchk’s biological theory
hostile  The Big Five
 Disinhibition: Impulsive  *Moral emotions include
 Psychoticism: Bizarre psycho  Therapy: Change goals, skills and
perception of reality. orientations. Not your “nature”.
 Evaluate myself as Implicit personality
theory.

Psychoanalytic Perspective
Freud Psychosexual theory Secondary D. M: Sophisticated. Adulthood.
 Unconscious: Consciously inaccessible
*Problem: If using same D.M. always.
part of mind.
 Libido 1. Regression
2. Reaction Formation: Doing opposite.
1. ID: Pleasure principle. Satisfy pleasure 3. Repression: Pushed in to unconscious.
immediately. a. Posttraumatic stress
2. Ego: Reality Principle. The Conscious 4. Rationalization
self. 5. Displacement
3. Superego: Internalised ideals and 6. Sublimation: Changing dangerous
social rules. A guide more ethics and urges to more socially accepted
morality. behaviours.
7. Projection: Place it in others.
Their relationship = structure of personality.
8. Denial
Conflict resolution in one stage leads to
progression. Criticism on Freud’s theories

Development characterised by the shift of  Lack of scientific evidence

pleasure and sexual desire across different  Contradiciting scientific evidence. Ex:
body parts. Erogenous zones. Prolonged breastfeeding Secure,
1. Oral stage: 0-1yr. Id. independent person.
a. Fixation: dependency,  Too much emphasis on sexuality.
attachment problems.
i. Smoking, eating a lot,
2. Anal stage: 1-3yrs. Bowel movement.
a. Fixation: Like bathroom Jung’s Analytic Psychology
humor and making messes OR The mind/Psyche is divided into:
OCD
i. Anal retentive: stingy 1. The conscious ego: Part that
and passive embodies the “sense of self”.
aggressive. 2. The personal unconscious: Thoughts
3. Phallic Stage: 3-6yrs . Genitals. and feelings that are not currently
a. Oedipal part of our conscious awareness.
b. Electra complex and Penis
Based on my life
Envy: The blame for inferiority
3. The collective unconscious: Universal
feelings.
powerful emotions and symbols called
 Superego appears
4. Latency Stage: Repress sexual interest “archetypes” (mother, hero..)
and develop social skills “Unconscious and conscious
5. Genital Stage: Puberty, Genitals and
people outside family create pleasure.  Must be parallel connected to avoid
Ego appears. psychological disturbance”
Fixation: Failure to gratify pleasure or  Dynamically interact in our lives.
overgratify in a stageStuck
PONDER:

• The components of personality: Are the

Defense Mechanisms personal and collective unconscious
independent or overlapping ideas?
Flight from anxiety and protect Ego.

Primary D.M: Primitive. Childhood.

• The structure of personality: Attitudes, and 3. Away from people: Self-sufficiency,
functions constitute the basic core leading to perfectionist.
rational or irrational outlook to personality
*Combination is healthiest.

Eye opener:
Alfred Adler
 Reinterpretation of dynamic concepts.
We all have a unique individual motivation
 Seeing societal limitations of women,
and sense of belonging in society.
cultural limitations and “internally
Everyone has a sense of inferiority. From derived perfectionism”
childhood, people work toward overcoming
this inferiority by "striving for superiority." Object relation Theories

 The motivating force behind human Focus on how we use our interaction and
behaviours, emotions, and thoughts. relationship with others to construct/define
self.
Reaction to inferiority:
Margaret Mahler’s Symbiosis : Finding the
 Compensation: Hard work and goals balance between autonomy and need of
towards autonomy attachment to others. Resolution of this
 Overcompensation: Inferiority feels defines personality
intense Pathological focus on goal
 Inferiority complex: Can be a result of Melanie Klein’s play therapy: We both love
overcompensation. Exagerated and hate those closest to us and this conflict
Inferior feeling and Lack of self- is resolved through deeper comprehension of
esteem. Staying in comfort zones the “object”. The mother’s love is more than
 Superiority complex: The need to her breast.
prove superiority when he is not Erikson’s Lifespan Approach.
superior. Personality develops throughout life.

Solving problems in each stage = progress or

Karen Horney Culture and feminist problems.
“No penis envy rather autonomy envy” https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-
Basic anxiety: A child’s fear of loneliness, Erikson.html
helplessness and insecurity resulting from
problems with parents. Three reactions:

1. Passive style: Compliance

2. Aggressive style: Fight
3. Withdrawn style: No emotional
engagement.

Ideal self. Real self. Despised self. Goal it to

accept the Real self rather than becoming the
ideal self. How:

Neurotic coping strategies: Moving Remember: Is theory development is

influenced by the culture, ideas and
1. Towards people: People pleaser development of each era.
2. Against people: Power, prestige
Key concepts for analysis:
  Psychosexual stages o And coping strategies.
o Fixations  Eriksons stage theory
 Anxiety o Initiative vs guilt
 Defence mechanisms o Industry vs inferiority
 Jung’s analytic psychology o Identity vs role confusion
o Three aspects o Intimacy vs isolation
 Alfred’s Theory of inferiority  Therapy fix: Introspection
o Inferiority complex  Evaluate my analysis
o Other reactions
 Horney’s Basic anxiety

Behaviouristic Perspective

Study of overt and observable behaviour. Operant conditioning

WYSIATS. Consequences create a voluntarily change in
behaviour.
Purer science. Rejects mentalism “ID,ego..”
+/- reinforcement
Radical behaviourism: Personality, is clearly a
the result of present and past +/-punishment.
reinforcements. NO FREE WILL.
Environmental events and circumstances
Learning determine behaviour.
A long-term change of thought patterns,
 “Personality”: The adaptive or
feelings and action as a result of new
maladaptive personality (i.e.,
experience.
behavior) is learned by
Ways of learning: reinforcement.
o T.ex Extroversion: Reach out
 Modelling
Mothers breast, reward.
 Instructions/rule learning
 Trial and Error Patterns of behaviour are maintained when
 Classic and operant conditioning they are rewarded

Classical conditioning Habit Hierarchies: Implicitly selecting the

1. Unconditioned stimulus  response that will most likely produce the
"natural"/unconditioned response + a greatest reward
neutral stimulus.
Shaping: Instead of waiting(as in Operant…)
2. Later the neutral stimulus  same
for a subject to exhibit a desired behaviour,
response as the unconditioned
any behaviour leading to the target
stimulus.
behaviour is rewarded.
“No other choice but to respond”

Extinction: Gradually cutting the connection Learning and Psychological problems

between conditioned stimuli and response
These problems are a result of
when the reinforcement is gone
  Inadequate or lack of learning + Real life applications: Therapy, phobia
 Inaccurate learningDysfunctional  Deterministic: No free-will
solutions and behavior.  Ignores biology: testerone
 Blocking existing knowledge and  Low ecological validity
existing skills. Animals are not humans!

Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) Law of effect: Satisfactory consequence of a

Using principles of classical and operant behaviour increases its frequency.
conditioning to change socially significant
Primary drive is sex, food and water.
behaviours:
Secondary drive, actions that are connected
How: Assessing the functional relationship to 1st drive
between a targeted behaviour and the
Avoidance: It is associated with conflicts
environment Develop an appropriate
between primary and secondary drive.
alternative.
Attempting sex leads to punishment which
Application: School positive behaviour Fear response to sex.Drawn towards and
support, Treating phobias, early interventions away from sexAnxiety and neuroticism.
for autism…
--Avoidance is associated with conflicts
Social learning theory (Bandura): Behaviour between primary and secondary drive.
learnt from modelling.
For example, children have (primary) sexual drives
but sometimes may be punished
Generalisation for acting on them. If the punishment results in the
conditioning of a fear response
Similar response from one stimulus is to this drive, the primary and secondary drives may
generated during another stimulus. Operant conflict in an approach–avoidance
and classical conditioning. “Over conflict.
generalisation problem” Looking at avoidance from a behaviouristic
perspective is interesting. Why? Because this
Systematic desensitization: Decrease perspective can explain avoidance in terms of how a
unwanted stimuli response by Gradually person LEARNED to satisfy basic drives. This
exposing you to that stimulus. Fear/ anxiety perspective can explain concepts from other theories
with great emphasis on the “learning aspect =
triggering stimuli to until fear it gone.
reinforcements /punishments”.
Goal is to reduce anxiety by: Instead talking about internal conflict between Ego
and ID , this perspective highlight conflict between
1. Learning to relax primary and secondary drive. Neurosis
2. Constructing a stimulus hierarchy
(least to most stressful) Key concepts
3. Exposure from least to most stressful
 “Personality is learned”
stimulus.
 Different ways of learning
Discrimination: Being able to distinguish o Modelling_ + Bandura
between different stimulus. Generalisation o Trial and error ; law of effect.
based on past traumatic experience es would  Operant conditioning
be “removed”. o Reinforcements
o Punishments
Strengths and limitations
 Generalisation
+ Falsifiable theories, with predictive
 Therapy
power.
o Systematic desensitization
Humanistic perspective

 Holistic analysis focusing on the Culture affects your desire towards self-
“whole” and uniqueness of everyone. actualization.
o Humanism: Personal worth
Childhood conditions affect your probability
and human values important.
of reaching it.
 Includes existentialism: Meaning of
existence. Logical inconsistencies not  Being cognition: Holistic and
important. accepting way of thinking. Lead to
 We have free will & are Motivated to peak experiences
self-actualize. People are basically  Deficiency cognition: Focus on needs.
good.
Peak experiences: Profound moments of
 Nondeterministic: You are incharge of
love, happiness and self-fullfilled and with
your life and happines
greater awareness.
Phenomenological: Subjective experiences
Self-actualization only 1% of population.
are valid data for investigation
Why?
Maslow’s hierarchy of human
 Being at the top is the weakest of all
motivation
needs
Progression depends on satisfaction of
 Fear of the kind of knowledge that
previous needs. Regression if lower level is
self actualization requires
frustrated.
Criticism:
 Deficiency needs (D-needs)-
Deprivation of these needs motivate  Unscientific approach.
people.  Western biased.
 Too many exceptions.
Exceptions: You may never progress if needs
not satisfied in a long time. Roger’s Self theory of personality
Personality =
Levels: Physiological SafetyLove and
belonging Esteem 1. “The organism” and
2. The self: Who I belief I am.
Expanded version includes Aesthetic needs:
a. Sources: childhood XP and
appreciation and search for balance and
others evaluation.
closure
State of congruence: Ideal self = or very
 Being value/Meta motives (B-needs):
similar actual behaviour Self actualization
Needs not from lack of something but
an inner desire for personal growth. State of incongruence: Self image not like
o Failure to reach b- ideal self. Unacceptable to them, denied or
needsdiscontent and distorted in the self-image anxiety
frustration (meta
pathologies) Basic tendency: to actualize, maintain, and
enhance the experiencing organism.
Self-actualization: Reach potential, goals
and grow spiritually. Acceptance,  Unconditional positive regard  Feels
Spontaneous, look at life objectively. free to explore and make mistakes, no
matter the outcome.
 o When received as children self- Fromm’s dialectical humanism
actualisation. Craved by “self”. People can surmount the forces of biology
and society become spontaneous, creative, an
Psychotherapy: Client centred - personality
loving:
growth by helping individuals gain insight into
and acceptance of their feelings. Let go of the The productive character: Uses the brain to
past! love and create and spontaneous.

Therapist: emphatic non judgemental, - More freedom + individualism Loneliness

unconditional + regard in modern society. Covered with “having fun”

#phenomenology Love toward others + patience and living in

present is the cure.
Fully functioning individual: Is actualizing. An
ideal that is steadily becoming, not a finish Love requires effort, knowledge and
line. experience

Criticism Victor Frankl’s personal choice:

Logotherapy is the search for the meaning of
 Too optimistic
existence.
 Simplisitic.
 Ignores aspects of personality like :??? The gap between stimulus and response = the
power to choose our response. In our
response lies our growth and our freedom.”
Rollo May’s existential approach
- Useful for those with life threatening
Central themes: Existence and freedom
illnesses.
Human dilemma:
Points to ponder…
 Object : Acted upon VS
• Role of the ’unconscious’ in
 Subject: Active agents. At the same
the ’organism’
time.
• Applications in broader areas
Anxiety and guilt: like education, employment…
• Guidelines/training for
 Part of human condition. existential therapists
 Triggered by a threat to one’s core • Relevance of Frankl’s life
values of existence. T.ex: Ostracism by experiences today
parents and co.
 Sense of powerlessness Key concepts for analysis
 Combated by: Drugs, cultism, sex
 Stage on Maslow’s steps
Neurotic is not good. o Love belonging…
 Deficiency needs
Values: classes of experience that help deal
 Failure to reach beta-motives
with anxiety.
 “Lack” of self-actualisation
Psychotherapy: Transform neurotic o USA culture on becoming
anxiety/guilt to normal levels. More rational  “Fluctuating” Peak experiences
way of facing life.  Search of “Self”
o “Lack of “Unconditional positive
regard
o State of incongruence->anxiety.
 Human dilemma: Obj. vs subj  Therapy: Client centred
o Anxiety struggles. o Logotherapy
 Fromm: Loneliness and Love
Interpersonal/Situational perspective.
People change across situations. Therefore: Typical combination of needs and presses of
Personality is the outcome of social an individual = Thema
interactions.
The thematic apperception test (TAT): A
It is immersed in context. projective test, tell me story behind the
picture. Discloses needs and presses
Harry Sullivan’s interpersonal
psychology Mischel’s debate
Personality is the relatively enduring pattern Focused on the best predictor of behaviour.
of recurrent interpersonal situations. Focuses
 Most correlations involving traits are
on the recurring social situations we face.
around 0.30. Good predictor or
Chumship: chums, Friends in preadolescence behaviour??
influence formation of ID. Fear of loneliness,  No reason to assume that other
rejection and isolation. Chums reaction = aspects are straightforward
behaviour thermostat. predictors of personality.

Social self: “self” built from interactions. Personality is complicated, and behaviour is
partly dependent on the situation.
Illusion of individuaility: Nobody has fixed
personality. Various situations elicit various An individual’s actions are the result of both
personality. 1. Environmental constraints 2. internal
cognitive characteristics (strategies) of the
Personality is primarily a function of social
individual
expectations:
Personal meaning given to stimuli and
 Locking psychos away will only out
reinforcements= Cognitive “personality”
them in environment that elicit
strategies:
psycho behaviour. Anxiety comes
from outside. 1. Competencies (ability and knowledge)
2. Encoding strategies (how you encode
OBS: We need to map all the different
info, and schema for processing)
environments and people (family, school,
3. Expectancies: Expectations on self-
work, neighbourhood around a person in
efficacy and your results.
other to understand their personality!
4. Plans: Intentions for action

Example: Delay of gratification uses cognition

Henry Murray’s motivation and goals and environment(out of in sight)
Individual are complex organism responding
Personality that is unique exists but is in a
to a specific environment- An integrated
state of constant flux
dynamic nature.
The situation-behaviour connections that we
Need vs press
find become the behavioural signatures of
Environmental press: Events and other people personality.
exert a directional force on an individual.
More concepts of Situational/
Needs: Internal desires. Yet it requires acting interpersonal perspective
in the social environment. Ex. Sex, autonomy, Biological basis of social response : Mirror
order, understanding, affiliation neurons, imitate empathy.
The power of the situation: So strong that 1. Assertiveness (dominance and
is sometimes overrides your behaviour. Same conscientiousness)
situation elicits different behaviour on people. 2. Affiliation (warmth and harmony)

Understand that each situation has a

personality. Yet each situation is unique.

You could create or seek the right situation.

The Life-Course Approach

Patterns of behaviour change, are a function
of :

1. External factors (culture,age, life

events)
2. Internal drives, motives and traits

- Individuals create their own person-situation

Complementarity: Our interpersonal actions
interaction over many years:
are designed to evoke ’restricted classes’ of
Selection of situations: to fit our personality = reaction from people with whom we interact
reinforce our self-conceptions resulting in
- Control over others’ responses lead to
consistency.
mutual satisfaction or insecurity and tension
Cumulative continuity: The tendency of
• Behaviours are considered complementary
personality to remain stable over time
when they are opposite on the vertical axis or
through consistency of environment,
similar on the horizontal axis.
interpretation and reaction

Principles of personality development in

adulthood Lorna Benjamin’s structured analysis of
• The maturity principle: Most people become social behavior
more dominant, agreeable, conscientious • Synthesizes the interpersonal circle with
and emotionally stable over the course of Shafer’s circumplex of parental behaviour
their lives.
SASB: A natural biological model describing
• The cumulative continuity principle: The social interaction through three different
stabilization that comes with age is influenced types of interpersonal focus, attention,
by four factors: affiliation and interdependence
1. Genes, Childhood perceptions and social learning
2. niche building: environment force u are encoded in memory and then “copied” in
3. identity development : you know self 3 basic ways:
4. normative developmental changes
Copy processes: The result of the self actively
• The corresponsive principle: The most likely doing to oneself what others have done to
effect of life experience on personality him/her.
development is to deepen the characteristics
that led to those experiences. 1. Identification: interpersonal behavior
in the present copies that of an
Timothy Leary’s circumplex model important other person. “I behave like
Independent dimensions characterize social him or her”
interactions:
 2. Recapitulation: Current interpersonal  Sullivan interpersonal view
behavior is like past interpersonal o Chumship
behavior with an important person. “I o Social self
behave as if he or she is still present and
o Illusion of individuality
in charge.”
 Environmental press vs Needs
3. Introjection: Current ways of relating  Mischeh’s cognitive strategies
to oneself that mimic prior treatment o 4 strategies
from an important attachment figure, o Delay of gratification
“I treat myself as I was treated by him or
her.”1  Power of the situation
 Cumulative continuiuty
 Circumplex model
Longitudinal approach: The only good way to  Copy processes
study personality over time is to follow  Therapy approach: Change situation
people as they react, grow, and change in the  Evaluate +/- of your perspective.
real world. We learn about: consistency or
changes of personality,

Key concepts for analysis:

Cognitive Perspective
The diversity in Perception, thinking, learning Field: —all the internal
and metacognition are the essence in and external forces that act on an individual
personality.
1. Field dependence: People that are
 Can study internal “behaviour” . context sensitive, even social context.
Beyond behaviourism. They respond more holistically and
intuitively.
Cognitive Pioneers
2. Field- independent: More analytical
Jean Piaget: Assimilation and and abstract responses. More
accommodation individualistic behaviours,
George Kelly
Aaron Beck:
• CBT founder. People high in cognitive complexity tend to be
• Negative Triad: Negative view relatively more comfortable in dealing with
of Self, world, and future uncertainty, and those lower in cognitive
Depression. Automatic complexity are more oriented toward
thoughts. certainty
Albert Ellis:
Schemas
• Rational emotive behaviour
Mental structures for organising knowledge
therapy (REBT)
and experiences Understanding and
• Illogical beliefs and negative
learning
thinking Psychological
problems  Depends on demographics and bodily
states.
Gestalt theory
 Person schemas: Personality,
Problem solving by insight and perceptual
preferences
gestalt laws. Yet includes
  Self-schemas: Knowledge of me General Cognitive Model (Beck)
today, yesterday and future. An internal or external stimulus situation
 Social schemas: Behave in social activates a schema
situations
 The activated schema uses a template
 Event schemas/Scripts:
(belief) to extract meaning.
Representation of sequence of
 Initiates maladaptive thought processes
events. A Social guide.
(e.g., rumination or worry) and affective
Personality is our series of scripts that guide motivational, physiological, and
behaviour. behavioural responses.
 The sequence is becomes an interacting
 Schemas can be altered through
network by multiple feedback vehicles,
Assimilation and accommodation.
and once formed, it functions as a unit.
 Affects learning process through
 An adaptive response on the stimuli
o Categorisation: For understanding
o The protoschema :Is it good or
and simplifying info but losing
bad = preliminary interpretation,
some details.
o Elaborated process by the more
 Same event, but different
reflective schema, later.
interpretation from
 Automatic process: Driven by
different people.
protoschema to rapidly put stimuli in to
o Stereotype
gross categories of “threat, win or loss”
o Attention: to what? ADHD
 Reflective process: A slower process that
Problems: Retroactive inference by schemas. refines and gives a more accurate
intepretatoin.
CategorisationMisinterpretations(biased
recallsPrejudice and creation and From NORMAL adaptive REACTIONS
maintenance of stereotypes. to Disorders
False or Exaggerated interpretation
Rigid schemas: Negative impact of personality
Excessive avoidance and anxiety
development. T.ex less open and agreeable.
Negative bias: Sees danger in everything to
ensure survival but  Anxiety.
Cognitions on three levels of Cognitive distortion/trap: Negative patterns
consciousness of thoughts, self-reinforcing. Hopeless
Levels of rigid/pathologic schemas vary from outlook. Overgeneralisations, all-or-nothing
time to time. thinking
1. Core beliefs: I, others and the word IS Cognitive behavioural therapy: Understand
a. Primary beliefs: Functional or thoughts and feelings that affect behaviour.
dysfunctional Change negative thoughts.
b. Secondary belief: Changeable
by corrective XP Theory of Mode
2. Underlying assumptions: Therefore, I A network of cognitive, affective, motivational
must… Personal truths such as and behavioural systems
prejudice and self-image
For pursuit of life goals and the management
3. Automatic: Conscious and identifiable.
of other specific demands or problems.
Seen in thoughts and actions.
Subsectors of personality. Form:
Self-expansive mode, major sector of Learned helplessness
personality
+ Positive self-expansion. Utilize your -Being often exposed to punishment that you
resourcesPleasure and increases can’t avoid. You soon give up and accept even
self-esteem avoidable punishmentsStress, Depression,
 Negative self-expansionPain apathy.
decreased self-esteem CBT can help
• Negative extreme:
Depression.

Both are based on performance and

evaluation.

Self-protective mode
 Protoschema: Early detection of
danger situations
• Flight and flight follows
 Negative extreme:
anxiety disorders and
Paranoia.

Beck argues that experiential learning takes

place in the cognitive unconscious and that
life experiences can be both positive and
negative. He then introduced the concept of
modes as an integrated network of cognitive,
affective, motivational, and behavioral
systems that form subsectors of personalit

Personal construct theory, Kelly

“Unique system of constructs that we humans
use to understand and predict behaviour.

- “each of us is a personality theorist”

Social intelligence and emotional intel.

Social intel :Ability to understand and
influence other people. Interpersonal
situations

Emotional intelligence: Understand and

manage emotions but yours and others.

Explanatory style a personality variable

How a person habitually interprets events in
their lives.

1. Pessimistic: Focus on negative

potential, depressing.
2. Optimistic style: ++ Better
outcomes
Social-cognitive theory (Rotter)
Choosing behaviour based on : Internal process: Goals and self-
reinforcementsSelf-regulation of behaviour.
1. Behaviour potential: Likelihood of
behaviour Self-efficacy: Belief that you will successfully
2. Outcome expectancy: expected perform a behaviour. A result: past, vicarious,
result/rewards. persuasion….
3. Reinforcement value: Is the result
Human agency the capacity of a person to
desirable?
exercise control over own thoughts, actions,
Combination of these three = Psychological and motivations.
situation
Key points for analysis
Locus of control
 Negative Triad
 Internal LOC: Expect my actions lead
 Schemas
to desired outcomes. High achievers
o Self schema
 External LOC: Others, universe and
o Social schema
chance determine the nature of
outcomes. o Person schema
o Less independent, stressed  Accommodation: nihilist
and depressed.  Stereotype
 Explanatory style: +/-
Bandura’s social-cognitive learning  Learned helplessness.
theory  Locus of control
 Self-system
Human agency:  Self-efficacy and self regulation
 Social-cognitive theory.
Self-System: Cognitive process a person uses  Self expansive mode, self protective
to perceive, evaluate and regulate own mode
behaviour in order meet goals.  Core beliefs, underlying
Observational learning (vicarious learning): assumptions…
learning of novel behaviours in the absence of  General cognitive model: show the
any observable reinforcement. process in action
o Protoschema
Underlying Four components: Attention, o Automatic process
Retention, Motor reproduction and o Reflektive process
Motivation  Field independent
 Learn which outcomes to expect
Emotions
Emotions is defined by 4 components:  Disgust-Repulsion: Vomit
and be clean. Social
1. Affects: Subjective feelings.
distancing.
2. Bodily changes: NS, heartbeat
 Shame- Humiliation:
3. Cognitions: Appraisal.
Disappear or repair.
4. Action tendencies: Probabilities of
Achieve our ideals.
certain behaviours.
o Neutral emotions
Together create changes that prepare you for  Surprise-Startle: Stop and
fight or flight focus. Clears away other
emotions.
 Function of emotion: Generate a o Positive:
short-term adaptive action to ensure
 Interest: Explore.
survival.
Momentum in socialising
 Different personalitiesPeople differ and learning
from each other in their emotional  Happiness-Joy: Play.
reactions Strengthens attachment
Conceptual levels boosts self-confidence
1. Affect: Innate reaction patterns in the  Pride.
body. Biology’s arousal  Characteristics:
2. Feeling: A brief conscious experience o Unique physical expressions,
of the affect; recognition evolutionary based
3. Emotion: Interpretation of an affect o Cross cultural, stimulus-amplifiers
based on XP. and motivators.
4. Script: “Schemas” or templates for
Dimensional approach: Gather data from self-
interpreting new experiences.
reports on different emotions. Place them on
Internalised.
two primary dimensions:
Emotional states vs Emotional Traits
1. Pleasantness/unpleasantness
Emotional states: They come and go and
2. high-low arousal.
depend on the situation you are in.
Adjective that describes emotions are placed
Emotional traits: A pattern of emotional
around these dimensions.
reactions across variety of life situations. Like
the climate. Focus on how people experience their
emotions.
Categorical approach and Dimensional
Categorical approach: Emotions are several Emotion regulation
primary distinct emotions. Our interpretation of the situation determines
which emotion we react with.
 Primary emotions and their functions:
o Negative emotions  Emotions helps us manage and make
 Fear- Terror: Flight sense of situations.
 Anger-Rage- Fight  Interpretation via scripts motivates
 Sadness-Despair- Reflect different action tendencies
and make new social  With maturity comes regulation these
bonds. tendencies.
 Emotion regulation is governed by the
ability to communicate emotion
Emotion communication Neuroticism: determined a person’s negative
“Ability to symbolise and interpret emotion emotions.
through language and non-verbal cues”
Personality has a direct influence on
 Important for “normal social functioning” emotions: More positive emotions
 It mirrors and shows our personality. wellbeing.
 We need self-image confirmation from
Moral emotions
others.
 Can they not understand my Emotion that are linked to the interests or
feelingsAlienation, welfare of people and society. A force of
good.
Content vs Style of Emotional life
Content: The typical emotions that a person t.ex Shame, guilt, embarrassment and pride
likely experiences over time E.x a cheerful
man. The what of emotional life  Relates to our sense of self and our
conscious awareness of other
Unpleasant emotions people’s reactions to us
Neuroticism (anxiety proneness or emotional Like display of submissiveness in animals
instability): Overreact to unpleasant events
and easily irritated. More emotionally  Requires self-awareness and self-
proned. representation is only in humans.

Limbic system easily activated Emerges later than basic emotions

(Eysenck,1990)  Empathy is a “shared emotional
Relates to anxiety, fear, worry… response between an observer and a
negative emotions. stimulus person.” - Feel what they
*Other negative emotions: Anger and feel
hostility. Bad self-regulation. Caring about others makes empathy easier
Style approach: The way an emotion is but being ashamed blocks empathy.
experienced. E.x High in mood variability. The Guilt and Shame
How of emotional life.
Th Guilt involves a negative evaluation of a
 Affect intensity: Magnitude of specific behaviour.
emotions, weak or strong
controllable or not.  Adaptive emotion and benefits
o Low affect intensity- stable individuals. Take action
and calm but not high positive  Forms empathic connections with others.
neither. Focus on bad behaviourListen more to
o High affect intensity: others negative experiences
Experience more Mood Shame involves a negative evaluation of the
variability and more global self. Your core self is at stake.
fluctuations in emotional life
over time.  May easily go awry. Hide and
defend self.
Personality and wellbeing  Less empathy due to the egocentric
Extraversion: Influenced positive emotions
nature of shame.
and mood.
 High shame pronenessPathology,
depending on coping style.
Function in social life: Coping with shame
 Makes us behave or correct our Coping: How you manage stressful situations.
demeanour based on our norms and
 Not coping leads to distress.
ideals.
 Level of shame proneness determines
which coping style you will choose.

Affect theory and Shame The balance of maintaining positive self-

Shame turns down positive affect, without image and preserve social relations at are at
extinguishing it completely. stake.

Changes in posture, blushing and “protecting Styles of coping with shame

the core.
Maladaptive:
Explaining “elevated shame proneness”:
 Attack Self:
 Early traumatic experiences of shame a. Hopelessness
can become significant for b. Depression & eating disorders
subsequent interpretation of shame self-harm
affect  Withdrawal:
a. Social phobia/anxiety/PTSD
 Avoidance:
Attachment theory and Shame
a. Avoiding one’s own negative
Shame is strongly related to attachment-"the
self-perception through
need to belong.
denial, repression
 Secure attachment: trust in others,
b. Alcohol/substance abuse
realistic expectations of them to be
sympathetic. Protects against mental Strong predictor for dysfunction in both
illness normal-and clinical groups)

Type of attachment early in life determines  Attack other:

how easily we feel shame. a. Blaming the victim or external
causes; Lashing out verbally
Explaining “elevated shame proneness”:
and in action.
 Child felt unwanted by parents. So, b. PS cluster B
he tends to feel unwanted by people
Adaptive.
later. Fear of abandonment and Fear
of closeness. #Insecure attachment. Seek support
Positive reappraisal.

Shame proneness and psychological Level of shame proneness + interpretation and

distress management negative health
Shame proneness distorts social functioning, consequences.

 Positively Correlates with psychiatric Insecure attachmentsMakes it difficult to

symptoms. manage personal failures.
 Very low shame proneness is
Fixing elevated shame Proneness?
maladaptive, linked to Psychopathic
Affective proneness is relatively stable but
traits.
affective scripts brought into awareness may
be changed.
 Affective: (1) awareness, (2) tolerance, (3)  Emotional states and traits
competence  Primary emotions
 We tend to repeatedly seek out  Emotion regulation
relationships which confirms our self-  Emotion Communication
image - feels safer and more predictable  Moral emotions
than change- o Guilt vs Shame.
o Shame & Attachment.
 Coping with shame
1. Bringing shame into awareness  Styles of coping
2. Adaptive shame management strategies o Attack self
to reduce negative consequences. o Avoidance
Key concepts for analysis:

Personality, Stress adjustment and Health

Psychosomatic medicine: A treatment based Maladaptive way to cope with stress: No
on the idea that mental health affects organic/medical condition + Extreme stress
physical health. sick role.

Disease-Prone personalities Symptom perceptions depend on attention to

 Risktakers bodily sensations. Neuroticism more prone to
 Impulsive, takes drugs report symptoms.
 Rebellious, aggressiveness, alienation-
Disease-Caused Personality changes.
smoking.
Somatopsychic effect: Disease or genetic
Problems in emotional regulation may seek predisposition in the body affect the mind,
the stimulating or tranquilizing thus personality.
effects of cigarettes. Ex. Temperament
Oxygen depreviationChronic depression.
problems.
AlzheimersPersonality changes
Social factors- Alienation and inclusion. Risky
Down syndrome
behaviours or health promoting.
Diathesis-Stress- model
Type T theory: Thrill seeking and sensation
The predisposition to illness exists due to
seeking due to low internal arousal. Based on
genes and upbringing but only onset when
Eysenck’s. Better to channel motives to safe
elicited by stress in the environment.
activities instead of risky ones.
E.g: Electrical instability in heart + pervasive
The sick role
emotional state like depression + triggering
“Societal expectations of how a sick person
event like loss of spouseHeart attack .
should behave” Ex: moody, see doctor
Personality disorders  Conscientious and dependable -live
Maladaptive style of behaving that impairs longer. Clear evidence
the person’s functioning and wellbeing.  Self control, better coping
 Less likely to: suffer an early death
1. Paranoid: Super suspiscious bear grudges
from injury and engage in unhealthy
easily.
habits
2. Schizoid: Self isolation and apathic
3. Schizotypal: Extreme loners and odd. Sociability
4. Antisocial: Cruel, criminal behaviour and
attracted to drugs.  Good social relations are healthy. Not
5. Borderline: Super emotional + unstable. a predictor longevity though…
Suicidal, 0 self-esteem.  Yet too social + extrovert = risk takers
6. Histrionic: Extreme emotional and Cheerfulness
attention and assurance seeking.
Seductive dressing. “Optimism and a sense of humor” Clear
7. Narcissistic: Self-important and approval evidence
seeking.  Cheerful kids died early as aduts
8. Avoidant: Timid and avoid close friends.  Due to: Risk taking, extrovert, drugs.
Feel Inferior
9. Dependent: Crave approval and fear of Happiness itself is not = health , but the other
abandonment. Submissive healthy factors that influence it.
10. Obsessive-Compulsive: Rigid
a. High energy
perfectionists. Do things my way.
3. High Motivation
Type A behaviour pattern / Type A 4. Permanency of Mood- Slightly
personality beneficial for men.
“Tense, competitive behaviour likely
Stressed Termites
associated with coronary disease”
Children of divorced parents:
Challenging work and activity are not the
problem.  Have mental illness in future,
difficulties adjustingDrug intake
The problem:
 Stressful childhood
1. Excessive achievement at  Future divorce
perfectionist levels.
Self- healing personality
2. Refuse to rest and react hostility hen
Factors of those became sick and those that
frustrated.
do not:
 Highly neurotic and low
agreeableness.  Control: Feeling of having some power
rather helplessness.
Human Termites
 Commitment: to something meaningful
Name of genius IQ >135 participants in
 Challenge: From vocation is exciting,
research.
rather than threatening.
Six personality dimensions to predict
There are two major types of self-healing
longevity:
personalities:
“Based on Terman’s scale”
1. Zealous type: Outgoing and fun
Conscientiousness seeking
2. Relaxed type: Calm and responsible.
Both types achieve a balance that is  Critical to a variety of human behaviours
appropriate for themselves. & aspects of mental health

The Influence of Humanistic and Overfocus on specific temporal dimension is a

Existential Aspects on Understanding symptom of psychopathology.
Self-Healing
 There is an optimal/balance perspective.
Find meaning.
 Mindfulness neg correlates with stress.
Sense of coherence: Comprehensibility, Related to balanced Time perspective.
manageability, and meaningfulness of life.  Overfocus on “Past”-
Higher in SOC = healthier. psychopathology.

-Life has given me meaning no matter the Key concept for analysis
lemons.
 Disease prone- personalities
Salutogenesis: The world must not necessarily o Temperament
be controlled or ordered, but the individual o Type T theory
must have a sense of coherence. E.x belief in  Sick role for stress coping
God.  Diathesis stress model
 Personality diorders list
Further research: Time perspective
o Paranoid
How individuals perceive and relate to three
 Stress healing personalities
temporal frames: past, present, future
 Type A behaviour.

Gender and Personality Perspective

Theories of gender differences and
similarities
Historical influences
1. Evolutionary theory:
Evolutionary theory:
Evolutionary selectionDifferent behaviours
 Maternal instinct left women with no
adaptable and “advantageous” for males &
energy left to learn other skills.
females.
 Sexual selection: Males compete,
women passive Maternal instinct, sexual selection… inherited
 Number of sexual paterners. differences.

Women/Feminist movement  Males and females share 22/23 pairs

of chromosomes.
 -Demanding equal civil rights 2. Behaviourism: Cognitive social learning
Science theory
Reinforcements, punishments and
 More Focus on techniques that modelling and imitationShapes
investigated differences than behaviour, gender roles. Ex: don’t flip
similarities. cartwheels, play with dolls vs wrestle
Gender or Sex and play rough in sports.
Children grow to internalise gender
Sex is determined by biological normsSelf-regulation. External
differences such genitalia and factors no more necessary
chromosomes.  Decrease in Punishments for breaking
Gender is are socially constructed gender normsmore similar
roles, expressions and ID behaviours across genders.
3. Sociocultural theory Motor behavior.
Sexual behavior : More focus on
Biological differences  Division of labour
romance and love vs sexual
and drives all psychological gender
pleasure(m). Not always the case.
differences.
Attitudes
Hunter becomes leader, gains power
Moderate differences in aggression,
keeps it and is more dominant.
assertiveness, spatial perception, and mental
Mother cares for child and stays
rotation.
submissive.
 Gender equality in nations have more Small differences in moral reasoning,
gender similarities. Eg. Small gender perceptual speed, and mathematical abilities.
difference in mate preferences
Gender-based psychological differences:
Cross cultural variation exists: E.g
Critique of gender difference research
Expectancy-Value theory: Expectancies (will I Falsely inflated claims of differences have had
succeed) and value best predict a person’s costs on individual and society. E.g Women=
likelihood of taking up a challenging task. “Care oriented” affected policies, researchers
and wages.
Influenced by: Different types of self-
efficacy and representation in jobs.  Gender differences has clouded
4. Psychoanalytic view other sources of differences.
 Focus on individual
Odeipus complex in phallic stageCastration
differencesLess focus on group
anxietyID with father and gain “male”
inequalities.
character
Can you really discover the true psychological
Penis envy; feels inferiorreplaced with
differences?
desire for a child  learns dependence,
nurturance. Gender difference findings lack meaning due
to quasi experimental designs??
5. Cognitive view, Gender schema theory
Any meaning comes are social constructed by
Gender schemas: Org. mental structures that
scientists that belong to polarized and
is a guide for suitable male vs female
hierarchical systems.
behaviour, for each situation.
Men/women categories in blankets imply
- Cognitive filter Selective attention of
that there is a difference between men and
features. Men-doctor; woman-nurse
women<- a risk not capturing variation
- Affect our interactions

6. Trait perspective
A critical review of the concept of
Masculine traits: Agression viewed as gender
dominance. Explanations for different mental lives:
Biological: Hormones and brain structures and
Feminine traits : Submissive, Display emotions
functions
more
Psychodynamic and social learning theories:
Empirical findings, Contemporary Different childhood experiences
research
Major differences are in
Limitations: You can’t study emotions and Language and gender stereotyping
abilities without looking at the context and
 It sets and upholds restrictions
situation that create their meaning.
between manly and womanly.
Power of situation: Your experience and  Children learn these expressions that
reaction is influenced by situational locally accepted, for each gender
expectation and rewards/penalties. category.

 Therefore, One situation= Different Intersectional perspective of gender and

experience by each gender Identity
 Only attributing social and cultural Simultaneously considers multiple categories
phenomena to only individual of identity, difference, and disadvantage,
psychology Limited understanding such as gender, race, class, sexual
orientation, disability, and religion.
Ongoing debate of the meaning of “men” and
“women” as categories. -Superiority and inferioties. Norms

Stereotypes, Creation and perpetuation Gender is never just gender: It’s effects can
Androcentric tendency: Men being the focus never be understood in isolation and must
of research thinking they are representing all always be examined in context.
humanity
“Which woman’s experience- movement: Civil
Doing gender: How individuals perform rights and equality not only for white folks.
gender categories in everyday life.
People are not just ’subjected to
 If Gender categories those *social categorization’; an individual is also ’becoming
stratification and continue deciding a subject???
people’s fate; then doing gender is
Challenges
inevitable. Categories based on $...
 Remove society and culture instead…  Identity is not psychologically defined,
rather sociological defined.
Femininity and masculinity as cultural
 Not enough information: little theory
manifestations: If meanings shift with cultural
or empirical work to serve as guide or
and social change, it pointless to search for
resource
enduring differences between men and  A perspective in search of a method:
women. View intersectionality in limited terms
Focus instead on local processes that create Currently using qualitative methods
“ideals” for masculinity & feminity.

Cultural perspective
History  The reverse impact: The changing
“Culture and personality” arose 1st ½ of 1900. process of culture. Take things from
culture & as adult you give it back to
 Uniformity assumption: Culture
the culture.
unique way in solving problem,
 Intra culture variation: The modal
absorbed by people raised there.
personality. The mode personality in
 The continuity assumption: Culture
a group.
exposure during childhood is greatly
determinant, Used in WWII : “National character”
Culture & Personality come back in 1990. o Ind. Look at body and words.
o Coll. Look at context and people
 Ethnocentrism means to evaluate
around.
other cultures based of your own
 Labelling of emotions: Not all cultures
cultural views
have ccorresponding words for basic
 Etic means: A cross-cultural approach
emotions. Eg: Low= depression or sad.
looking for similarities across.
Conceptual comparability varies
 Emic mean: Focusing on a single
 Desirability: Well, replicated cultural
culture.
differences are obvious. Pride desirable in
Theoretical models Ind. Not in Collective.
Cultural psychology: Without culture there is  Frequency varies cross culturally
no personality, only a biological unit remains.
Variation of affect: Intensity affect is
-Study: The influence of culture on Self influenced by genes whereas the ’if – then’
process and social behaviour. pattern is influenced by culture

Cross cultural psychology: Culture is a Cross cultural perspective on “Self-

separate and independent variable “outside” concept”
the individual. Description of self is based on:

-Study: Cultural influences on personality.  Ind. Traits (happy,hard working)

 Collective. Social indicators (father,
Combined approaches: Traits and Situational student, wife)
predictors are important in all cultures. Lacks
predictive power in Collectivistic/ Self-esteem: East Asians score lowest.
Individualistic cultures.  Acculturation effects: Assimilation,
integrate, segregation of culture.
Cross cultural perspective on traits
 Developmental trajectory: High
 All cultures endorse implicit trait
esteem preschool, decreases at
beliefs. Especially in individualistic
adolescence.
cultures. Eg:??
 Big five is cross cultural. Openness is No consensus on how to measure implicit self-
the one that presents list variants esteem. Consensus on explicit.
among the Five. More on Collectivism and Individualism
Prediction: Use of a combined approach is Individualism: Autonomy and independence.
ideal Self is unique and worthy. Better in ex
- Quasi indigenous personality dimensions : competence, IQ than average peers.
Define based on B5. See how it is manifested Dichotomous thinking.
culture. Then you create questions.
Collectivism: Interdependent and group
focus. Okay with ambiguity of opinions
Cross cultural perspective on “Affect”
Two factor structure of affect: “Hedonic tone Motivation
(high/low) and Affect intensity” on a Achievement imagery in folk tales correlate
circumplex. with entrepreneurial activities in countries.
 “Vicarious experience” from history
 Facial recognition and expression: Many  Stability for need of achievement
emotions are accurately recognised Recent empirical work: Culture differences in
universally. Yet a ingroup advantage – motivation
recognise emotion faster or even when
subtle.
  Avoidance oriented: Russia, Koreans You become an exemplary human by:
and Asian americans.
 Dedication to a path that fulfils your
 Promotion oriented: Americans,
interpersonal roles and responsibilities.
Australians, Japanese and chinsese.
Eg: Mother, father*
Cross cultural perspective on gender  Personality develops as these roles are
roles fulfilled in wider “concentric circles” .
Gender based stereotypes: Stereotypical From family and working outwards.
responses emerge during the age 5 to 8. (25 a. Start with a set of inclinations
countries) and dispositions that a change
and develop through self-
 We see a developmental pattern. conscious effort
 Formal education might be the cause; b. Family, school, work ,
“Blame” the system. community
 Stere
Developing as human fundamentally
Male stereotype items* were better known relational.
and learned faster than female’s.
 Change Is action oriented
Except for Sweden and Germany. Stereotypes  Personal dysfunction is the
of males and females were more similar in responsibility of the social network
Sweden.
 Strict hierarchy in relationships
 Occupation: Highly influenced by Ensure comprehension and
gender in Sweden. execution of roles.

Ponder Opposite Western theories of “independence

 Influence of culture on ’study of culture’ and being autonomous”
 Tendency of Western psychology to Implications: Only makes sense :
compartmentalize: How does the big
picture look like?  A person is not an independent “self”.
 Culture of origin Vs adopted culture:  Psychological wellbeing is not a
Which is primary and for how long? soloist venture.
a. Depends on: Personality,
Language influence on Personality
culture of origin, adopted
Language shows speaker membership in a
culture, developmental
group. Can exclude others from
status….
understanding.
 What else are factors that can
influence outcomes?  Shapes how we think and perceive
world.
 Vocabulary limits for : Emotion,
Eastern approach on understanding abstract words.
personality.  Marks Status and respect (tu-vous)
 Lack of gender neural 3rd pers.
Confucianism as a personality theory PronounMaking men the norm.
“Personality develops in the family, and it
continues to develop even as adults and Idiolects (individual version) and
parents” Dialect(regional)

 Classic literature on “relevance of Public language is perceived to define national

family” is important. identity.
Points to ponder…
• Role of larger systems (schools, employment
places, governments…) in shaping individual
personality

• Psychotherapy Vs community efforts to help

individuals: Different faces of the same coin?

• Challenge of integrating concepts from

cultural psychology into Western models; in
therapy.