SQL

Structured Query Language

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

standard computer language for accessing and
manipulating database systems. SQL statements are used
to retrieve and update data in a database. SQL works with
database programs like MS Access, DB2, Informix, MS SQL
Server, Oracle, Sybase, etc.

Unfortunately, there are many different versions of the

SQL language, but to be in compliance with the ANSI
standard, they must support the same major keywords in
a similar manner (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE,
INSERT, WHERE, and others).

Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their

own proprietary extensions in addition to the SQL
standard!
SQL Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is
identified by a name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain
records (rows) with data.
Below is an example of a table called "Persons":
LastName FirstName Address City
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
SQL Queries
With SQL, we can query a database and have a result set returned.
A query like this:

SELECT LastName FROM Persons

Gives a result set like this:
LastName
Hansen
Svendson
Pettersen
SQL Data Manipulation Language (DML)
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a syntax for executing
queries. But the SQL language also includes a syntax to
update, insert, and delete records.
These query and update commands together form the Data
Manipulation Language (DML) part of SQL:

•SELECT - extracts data from a database table

•UPDATE - updates data in a database table
•DELETE - deletes data from a database table
•INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database table
SQL Data Definition Language (DDL)
The Data Definition Language (DDL) part of SQL permits
database tables to be created or deleted. We can also define
indexes (keys), specify links between tables, and impose
constraints between database tables.

The most important DDL statements in SQL are:

•CREATE TABLE - creates a new database table

•ALTER TABLE - alters (changes) a database table
•DROP TABLE - deletes a database table
•CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
•DROP INDEX - deletes an index
SQL The SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a table. The
tabular result is stored in a result table (called the result-set).

Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
To select the columns named "LastName" and "FirstName",
use a SELECT statement like this:
SELECT LastName, FirstName FROM Persons
Persons

LastName FirstName Address City

Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

výsledok

LastName FirstName
Hansen Ola
Svendson Tove
Pettersen Kari
Select All Columns

To select all columns from the "Persons" table, use a *

symbol instead of column names, like this:
SELECT * FROM Persons

LastName FirstName Address City

Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
The Result Set

The result from a SQL query is stored in a result-set. Most database

software systems allow navigation of the result set with
programming functions, like: Move-To-First-Record,
Get-Record-Content, Move-To-Next-Record, etc.
Programming functions like these are not a part of this tutorial. To
learn about accessing data with function calls.
Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in

database systems that allow more than one SQL statement to be
executed in the same call to the server.
Some SQL tutorials end each SQL statement with a semicolon. Is
this necessary? We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000
and we do not have to put a semicolon after each SQL statement,
but some database programs force you to use it.
The SELECT DISTINCT Statement
The DISTINCT keyword is used to return only distinct (different)
values.
The SELECT statement returns information from table columns.
But what if we only want to select distinct elements?
With SQL, all we need to do is to add a DISTINCT keyword to the
SELECT statement:
Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
Using the DISTINCT keyword
To select ALL values from the column named "Company" we use
a SELECT statement like this:
SELECT Company FROM Orders
Orders
Company
Sega
Company OrderNumber
W3Schools
Sega 3412
Trio
W3Schools 2312
W3Schools
Trio 4678
W3Schools 6798
Note that "W3Schools" is listed twice in the result-set.
To select only DIFFERENT values from the column named
"Company" we use a SELECT DISTINCT statement like this:
SELECT DISTINCT Company FROM Orders

Orders
Company
Sega
Company OrderNumber W3Schools
Sega 3412 Trio
W3Schools 2312
Trio 4678
W3Schools 6798
Select All Columns
The WHERE clause is used to specify a selection criterion.
The WHERE Clause
To conditionally select data from a table, a WHERE clause can be
added to the SELECT statement.
Syntax

SELECT column FROM table

WHERE column operator value
With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be
used:

Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern

Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=

Using the WHERE Clause
To select only the persons living in the city "Sandnes", we add a
WHERE clause to the SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'
LastName FirstName Address City Year
Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes 1951
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes 1978
Svendson Stale Kaivn 18 Sandnes 1980
Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger 1960

LastName FirstName Address City Year

Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes 1951
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes 1978
Svendson Stale Kaivn 18 Sandnes 1980
 Using Quotes
Note that we have used single quotes around the conditional
values in the examples.
SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database
systems will also accept double quotes). Numeric values should
not be enclosed in quotes.
For text values:
This is correct:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove'

This is wrong:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove

The LIKE Condition
The LIKE condition is used to specify a search for a pattern in
a column.
Syntax
SELECT column FROM table
WHERE column LIKE pattern

A "%" sign can be used to define wildcards (missing letters

in the pattern) both before and after the pattern.
Using LIKE
The following SQL statement will return persons with first names
that start with an 'O':
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE FirstName LIKE 'O%'

The following SQL statement will return persons with first names
that end with an 'a':
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE FirstName LIKE '%a'
Using LIKE 2
The following SQL statement will return persons with first names
that contain the pattern 'la':
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE FirstName LIKE '%la%'
SQL The INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new rows into
a table.
Syntax
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2,....)

You can also specify the columns for which you want to insert
data:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2,...)
VALUES (value1, value2,....)
Insert a New Row
LastName FirstName Address City

Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

And this SQL statement:

INSERT INTO Persons
VALUES ('Hetland', 'Camilla', 'Hagabakka 24', 'Sandnes')

LastName FirstName Address City

Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Hetland Camilla Hagabakka 24 Sandnes

Insert Data in Specified Columns
LastName FirstName Address City

Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Hetland Camilla Hagabakka 24 Sandnes

And This SQL statement:

INSERT INTO Persons (LastName, Address)
VALUES ('Rasmussen', 'Storgt 67')

LastName FirstName Address City

Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Hetland Camilla Hagabakka 24 Sandnes
Rasmussen Storgt 67
SQL The UPDATE Statement
The Update Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to modify the data in a table.
Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = new_value
WHERE column_name = some_value
Update one Column in a Row
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Storgt 67

We want to add a first name to the person with a last name of

"Rasmussen":
UPDATE Person SET FirstName = 'Nina'
WHERE LastName = 'Rasmussen'
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Nina Storgt 67
Update several Columns in a Row
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Storgt 67

We want to change the address and add the name of the city:
UPDATE Person
SET Address = 'Stien 12', City = 'Stavanger'
WHERE LastName = 'Rasmussen'

LastName FirstName Address City

Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Nina Stien 12 Stavanger
SQL The Delete Statement
The Delete Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE column_name = some_value
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Nina Stien 12 Stavanger
Delete a Row
LastName FirstName Address City
Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Rasmussen Nina Stien 12 Stavanger

"Nina Rasmussen" is going to be deleted:

DELETE FROM Person WHERE LastName = 'Rasmussen'

LastName FirstName Address City

Nilsen Fred Kirkegt 56 Stavanger
Delete All Rows
It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the
table. This means that the table structure, attributes, and indexes
will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name
Or
DELETE * FROM table_name
Miscellaneous Commands Slide 35

• show databases;
▫ Show all the databases on the server
• show tables;
▫ Show all the tables of the present database
• show columns from table EMPLOYEE;
• drop table t_name;
▫ Delete the entire table t_name
• drop database db_name;
▫ Delete the entire database db_name
• load data infile f_name into table t_name;
▫ To be discussed with the next homework.
DCL (Data Control Language) Commands

• The rights or permissions assigned to user(s) to use some

or all of Oracle objects are known as privileges.

• Granting Privileges: It is used to assigning permissions

to users. (Only DBA can assign)
• Syntax: grant <permissions> ‘select, insert, delete,
update
• on <object_name>
• to <username>;

• Eg. grant insert on emp to user1; ‘only user1 can

insert
• grant all on emp to public; ‘assign all permissions to
all users.
• Revoking Privileges: It get back permissions from the users.

• Syntax:revoke <permission> on <object_name> from

<username>;

• Examples
revoke all on emp from user1; ‘get back all permissions
from user1.

revoke select on emp from public; ‘get back select permission

from all users.
 TCL

• (Transaction Control Language): It

controls over transaction processing by
specifying the beginning and ending of
transactions.
• Eg. Commit, Rollback, Rollback to, Save point
etc.
 TCL Commands
• Oracle treat a transaction as a single entity & incase of successful
termination of transaction the changes are made permanent. The
commands used with transactions are:

• COMMIT: It ends the current transaction by saving database

changes & starts a new transaction.
• Eg. commit; ‘i.e end or start a transaction

• ROLLBACK: It ends the current transaction by discarding

database changes & starts a new transaction.
• Eg. rollback; ‘i.e undo upto commit

• SAVEPOINT: It defines breakpoints or bookmarks for the

transaction to allow partial rollbacks.
• Eg. savepoint P1;

• ROLLBACK TO: Its undo up to given bookmark or breakpoint.

Eg. rollback to P1;
 TCL Commands
• Term: SAVEPOINT

• Definition:
In Oracle PL/SQL, SAVEPOINT is a TCL (Transaction Control
Language) statement that creates a break point as a specified
location in the current transaction. A transaction can be partially
rolled back to any one of the savepoints. If multiple SAVEPOINT
locations are set in the transaction, they are identified by their
names, which must be unique. The name specification is optional for
a single SAVEPOINT in the transaction.

Note :
Note that a COMMIT removes all the savepoints which may have
been set earlier in the transaction.
 Oracle ORDER BY Clause

In Oracle, ORDER BY Clause is used to sort or

re-arrange the records in the result set. The

ORDER BY clause is only used with SELECT

statement.
• Syntax:

• SELECT expressions

• FROM tables

• WHERE conditions

• ORDER BY expression [ ASC | DESC ];

• Syntax:

• SELECT * FROM database;

• ORDER BY name;

Syntax:
• SELECT * FROM student
• ORDER BY name DESC;
• Syntax:

• SELECT * FROM supplier

• ORDER BY last_name;

Syntax:
• SELECT * FROM supplier
• ORDER BY last_name DESC;
Oracle GROUP BY Clause:

In Oracle GROUP BY clause is used with SELECT

statement to collect data from multiple records

and group the results by one or more columns.

• CREATE TABLE "SALESDEPARTMENT"
• ( "ITEM" VARCHAR2(4000),
• "SALE" NUMBER,
• "BILLING_ADDRESS" VARCHAR2(4000)
• )
Oracle GROUP BY Clause:

•SELECT item, SUM(sale) AS ”Total sales”

•FROM salesdepartment
•GROUP BY item;
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS
(
NAME VARCHAR2(4000), AGE NUMBER,
SALARY NUMBER, STATE VARCHAR2(4000)
)

Synatax:

SELECT state, COUNT(*) AS "Number of customers"

FROM customers

WHERE salary > 10000

GROUP BY state;
CREATE TABLE "EMPLOYEES"
(
"EMP_ID" NUMBER,
"NAME" VARCHAR2(4000),
"AGE" NUMBER,
"DEPARTMENT" VARCHAR2(4000),
"SALARY" NUMBER
)

SELECT department,

MIN(salary) AS "Lowest salary"

FROM employees

GROUP BY department;
Oracle HAVING Clause:

In Oracle, HAVING Clause is used with GROUP

BY Clause to restrict the groups of returned rows

where condition is TRUE.

• Syntax:

SELECT item, SUM(sale) AS "Total sales"

FROM salesdepartment

GROUP BY item

HAVING SUM(sale) < 1000;

• Syntax:

• SELECT department,

• MAX(salary) AS "Highest salary"

• FROM employees

• GROUP BY department

• HAVING MAX(salary) > 30000;

• Syntax:

• SELECT state, COUNT(*)

• AS "Number of customers"

• FROM customers

• WHERE salary > 10000

• GROUP BY state

• HAVING COUNT(*) >= 2;

• SQL | SUB Queries:

• In SQL a Subquery can be simply defined as a

query within another query. In other words we
can say that a Subquery is a query that is
embedded in WHERE clause of another SQL
query.
• Important rules for Subqueries:
• You can place the Subquery in a number of SQL
clauses: WHERE You can place the Subquery in
a number of SQL
clauses: WHERE clause, HAVING clause, FROM
clause.
• Subqueries can be used with SELECT, UPDATE,
INSERT, DELETE statements along with
expression operator. It could be equality
operator or comparison operator such as =, >, =,
<= and Like operator.
• A subquery is a query within another query. The
outer query is called as main query and inner
query is called as subquery.
• The subquery generally executes first, and its
output is used to complete the query condition
for the main or outer query.
• Subquery must be enclosed in parentheses.
• Subqueries.
• Subqueries are on the right side of the
comparison operator.

• ORDER BY command cannot be used in a

Subquery. GROUP BY command can be used to
perform same function as ORDER BY command.

• Use single-row operators with single row

Subqueries. Use multiple-row operators with
multiple-row
• Syntax:
There is not any general syntax for Subqueries.
However, Subqueries are seen to be used most
frequently with SELECT statement as shown

• below:

• SELECT column_name FROM table_name

WHERE column_name expression operator (
SELECT COLUMN_NAME from TABLE_NAME
WHERE ... );
 DATABASE

• Table name is DATABASE:

PHONE_NU
NAME ROLL_NO LOCATION
MBER
Ram 101 Chennai 9988775566
Raj 102 Coimbatore 8877665544
Sasi 103 Madurai 7766553344
Ravi 104 Salem 8989898989
Sumathi 105 Kanchipuram 8989856868

• Table name is Student:

NAME ROLL_NO SECTION
Ravi 104 A
Sumathi 105 B
Raj 102 A
• Sample Queries:

• To display NAME, LOCATION,

PHONE_NUMBER of the students from
DATABASE table whose section is A.

• Syntax:

• Select NAME, LOCATION, PHONE_NUMBER

from DATABASE WHERE ROLL_NO IN
• (SELECT ROLL_NO from STUDENT where
SECTION=’A’);
• Explanation :
• First subquery executes “ SELECT ROLL_NO
from STUDENT where SECTION=’A’ ” returns
ROLL_NO from STUDENT table whose
SECTION is ‘A’.Then outer-query executes it and
return the NAME, LOCATION,
PHONE_NUMBER from the DATABASE table
of the student whose ROLL_NO is returned
from inner subquery.

PHONE_NU
• Output: NAME ROLL_NO LOCATION
MBER
Ravi 104 Salem 8989898989
Raj 102 Coimbatore 8877665544
 • Insert Query Example:
• Table1 : Student1
PHONE_NUMBE
NAME ROLL_NO LOCATION
R
Ram 101 chennai 9988773344
Raju 102 coimbatore 9090909090
Ravi 103 salem 8989898989
PHONE_N
• Table2: NAME ROLL_NO LOCATION
UMBER
• Student2 Raj 111 chennai 8787878787

Sai 112 mumbai 6565656565

Sri 113 coimbatore 7878787878

Output:

• To insert Student2 into Student1 table:

• INSERT INTO Student1 SELECT * FROM

Student2;
PHONE_NU
NAME ROLL_NO LOCATION
MBER
• Output:
Ram 101 chennai 9988773344

Raju 102 coimbatore 9090909090

Ravi 103 salem 8989898989

Raj 111 chennai 8787878787

Sai 112 mumbai 6565656565

Sri 113 coimbatore 7878787878

• To delete students from Student2 table whose
• rollno is same as that in Student1 table and
• having location as chennai

• Syntax:

• DELETE FROM
• Student2 WHERE ROLL_NO IN
• ( SELECT
• ROLL_NO FROM Student1 WHERE
• LOCATION = ’chennai’);
• To update name of the students to geeks in
• Student2 table whose location is same as
• Raju, Ravi in Student1 table.

• Syntax:

UPDATE Student2 SET NAME=’geeks’ WHERE

LOCATION IN ( SELECT LOCATION FROM

Student1 WHERE NAME IN (‘Raju’,’Ravi’));

 STUDENT

• We have the following two tables

• 'student' and 'marks' with common field
'StudentID'.

STUDENT_ID NAME
• Student:
S001 Raj
S002 Ravi
s003 Sana

• Marks: STUDENT_ID MARKS

S001 95
S002 80
s003 98
• Now we want to write a query to identify all

• students who get better marks than that of the

• student who's StudentID is ‘s002', but we do not

• know the marks of ‘s002'.

• Using the result of this query, to identify the

students who get better marks than 80.
• Oracle UNION Operator:

In Oracle, UNION operator is used to combine

the result sets of two or more Oracle SELECT

statements. It combines the both SELECT

statement and removes duplicate rows between them.

Each SELECT statement within the UNION operator must

have the same number of fields in the result sets with

similar data types.
• Syntax:
SELECT column name(s)
FROM table name(1)
UNION
SELECT column name(s)
FROM table name(2);

SELECT supplier_id, supplier_name

FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id <= 20
UNION
SELECT s_id, s_name
FROM shopkeepers
WHERE s_name = ’MRF'
ORDER BY 1;
Difference between UNION and UNION ALL
operators:

UNION operator removes duplicate rows while

UNION ALL operator does not remove duplicate

rows.
•Syntax:
SELECT column name(s)
FROM table name(1)
UNION ALL
SELECT column name(s)
FROM table name(2);
 Oracle Joins
Join is a query that is used to combine rows from
two or more tables, views, or materialized views. It
retrieves data from multiple tables and creates a
new table.

Join Conditions:
There may be at least one join condition either in
the FROM clause or in the WHERE clause for
joining two tables. It compares two columns from
different tables and combines pair of rows, each
containing one row from each table, for which join
condition is true.
• Types of Joins:

• Inner Joins (Simple Join)

• Outer Joins
▫ Left Outer Join (Left Join)
▫ Right Outer Join (Right Join)
▫ Full Outer Join (Full Join)
• Equijoins
• Self Joins
• Cross Joins (Cartesian Products)
• Antijoins
• Semijoins
 Oracle Joins
•Oracle INNER JOIN:
•Inner Join is the simplest and most common type
of join. It is also known as simple join. It returns
all rows from multiple tables where the join
condition is met.

•Syntax
•SELECT columns
•FROM table1
•INNER JOIN table2
•ON table1.column = table2.column;
• Suppliers:

orders:
Syntax:

SELECT suppliers.supplier_id, suppliers.supplier_name,

orders.order_number

FROM suppliers

INNER JOIN orders

ON suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id;
Left Outer Join:

Left Outer Join returns all rows from the left

(first) table specified in the ON condition and only
those rows from the right (second) table where the
join condition is met.

Syntax:
SELECT suppliers.supplier_id,
suppliers.supplier_name, orders.order_number
FROM suppliers
LEFT OUTER JOIN orders
ON suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id;
Right Outer Join:

The Right Outer Join returns all rows from the

right-hand table specified in the ON condition and
only those rows from the other table where the join
condition is met.

Syntax:

SELECT orders.order_number, orders.city,

suppliers.supplier_name
FROM suppliers
RIGHT OUTER JOIN orders
Full Outer Join:

The Full Outer Join returns all rows from the

left hand table and right hand table. It places
NULL where the join condition is not met.

Syntax:
SELECT suppliers.supplier_id,
suppliers.supplier_name, orders.order_number
FROM suppliers
FULL OUTER JOIN order1s
ON suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id;
Oracle EQUI JOIN:

Oracle Equi join returns the matching column

values of the associated tables. It uses a comparison
operator in the WHERE clause to refer equality.

Syntax:

SELECT column_list
FROM table1, table2....
WHERE table1.column_name =
table2.column_name;
Oracle SELF JOIN:

Self Join is a specific type of Join. In Self Join, a

table is joined with itself (Unary relationship). A
self join simply specifies that each rows of a table
is combined with itself and every other row of the
table.

Syntax:
SELECT a.column_name, b.column_name...
FROM table1 a, table1 b
WHERE a.common_filed = b.common_field;
Oracle SELF JOIN Example:
Let's take a table name "customers".
Syntax:

SELECT a.name, b.age, a.SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS a, CUSTOMERS b
WHERE a.SALARY < b.SALARY;
Oracle SELF JOIN:

Out put:
 Oracle Cross Join (Cartesian Products):

The CROSS JOIN specifies that all rows from first table join
with all of the rows of second table. If there are "x" rows in
table1 and "y" rows in table2 then the cross join result set
have x*y rows. It normally happens when no matching join
columns are specified.
In simple words you can say that if two tables in a join query
have no join condition, then the Oracle returns their
Cartesian product.
•Syntax
•SELECT *
•FROM table1
•CROSS JOIN table2;
•Or
•SELECT * FROM table1, table2
• Why do we use SQL constraints? Which constraints we can use
while creating database in SQL?
• Constraints are used to set the rules for all records in the table. If any
constraints get violated then it can abort the action that caused it.
• Constraints are defined while creating the database itself with CREATE
TABLE statement or even after the table is created once with ALTER TABLE
statement.
• There are 5 major constraints are used in SQL, such as
• NOT NULL: That indicates that the column must have some value and
cannot be left null
• UNIQUE: This constraint is used to ensure that each row and column has
unique value and no value is being repeated in any other row or column
• PRIMARY KEY: This constraint is used in association with NOT NULL
and UNIQUE constraints such as on one or the combination of more than
one columns to identify the particular record with a unique identity.
• FOREIGN KEY: It is used to ensure the referential integrity of data in the
table and also matches the value in one table with another using Primary
Key
• CHECK: It is used to ensure whether the value in columns fulfills the
specified condition
• NOT NULL Constraint
• NOT NULL constraint restricts a column from having
a NULL value. Once NOT NULL constraint is applied to
a column, you cannot pass a null value to that column. It
enforces a column to contain a proper value.
• One important point to note about this constraint is that
it cannot be defined at table level.

• Example using NOT NULL constraint

• CREATE TABLE Student(s_id int NOT NULL, Name

varchar(60), Age int);The above query will declare that
the s_id field of Student table will not take NULL
value.
Oracle CROSS JOIN:

Syntax: SELECT * FROM customer,supplier

Oracle Procedures:

A procedure is a group of PL/SQL statements

that can be called by name. The call specification
(sometimes called call spec) specifies a java
method or a third-generation language routine so
that it can be called from SQL and PL/SQL.
 • Oracle Create procedure example
• In this example, we are going to insert record in the "user"
table. So you need to create user table first.
• Table creation:
1. create table user(id number(10) primary key,name varc
har2(100));
• Now write the procedure code to insert record in user table.
• Procedure Code:
1. create or replace procedure "INSERTUSER"
2. (id IN NUMBER,
3. name IN VARCHAR2)
4. is
5. begin
6. insert into user values(id,name);
7. end;
Oracle Procedures insert values:

BEGIN

insertuser(101,'Rahul');

END;

DROP PROCEDURE pro1;

Oracle Function:

•A function is a subprogram that is used to return a

single value. You must declare and define a
function before invoking it. It can be declared and
defined at a same time or can be declared first and
defined later in the same block.
Oracle Function Example:

•Let's see a simple example to create a function.

•create or replace function adder(n1 in number,

•n2 in number)
•return number
•is
•n3 number(8);
•begin
•n3 :=n1+n2;
•return n3;
•end;
Oracle Function:

Syntax:

•Now write another program to call the function.

•DECLARE
• n3 number(2);
•BEGIN
• n3 := adder(11,22);
• dbms_output.put_line('Addition is: ' || n3);
•END;