AR563: HOUSING

LESSON and ACTIVITY PLAN: Week No. 10

Midterms

SpecificLearningObjectives:
1. Analyze the materials, design technologies for low-cost housing.
TopicsandActivities
1. Frents Technology
2. Compressed Earth Block

FRENTSTECHNOLOGY
 General Description
 Frents Block an interlocking hollow blocks, a non-load bearing wall material manufactured by Frents Housing Settlement, Inc.
 TechnicalInformation
 Production capacity: 500 pieces per day.
 Compressive strength at 28 days curing time: 217 psi
 Flexural strength at 28 days curing time: 11 psi
 Diagonal shear strength at 28 days curing time: 13 psi
 Construction time of 8 to 9 square meter wall: 1.89 hours
 Direct Cost per square meter as of 1991: P 217.49 per square meter
 Frents Block came out to be the most cost-efficient. It used the least amount of materials and the second least labor cost to build a
1 square meter wall.
COMPRESSEDEARTHBLOCKS
Compressed Earth Block often referred to simply as CEB, are a type of manufactured construction material formed in a mechanical press that
forms an approximate mix of dirt, non-expensive clay, and an aggregate into a compressed block. CEB blocks are installed onto the wall by hand
and slurry made of a soupy version of the same dirt/clay mix, sand aggregate, is spread or brushed very thinly between the blocks for bonding.
There is no use of mortar in the traditional sense.
The advancement of CEB into the construction industry has been driven by manufacturers of the mechanical presses, a small group of ecofriendly
contractors and by cultural acceptance of the medium in areas where it is seen as superior to adobe.
The advantages of CEB are in the wait time for material, the elimination of shipping cost, the low moisture content, and the uniformity of the block
thereby minimizing, if not eliminating the use of mortar and decreasing both the labor and materials cost.
 CEB can be pressed from humid earth. Because it is not wet, the drying time is much shorter. Some conditions permit the block to go straight from
the press onto the wall. A single mechanical press can produce from 800 to over 5,000 blocks per day, enough to build a 110 square meter house
in one day.
 Shipping cost: Suitable soils are often available at or near the construction site. Adobe and CEB are of similar weight, but distance from a
source supply gives CEB an advantage. Also, CEB can be made available in places where adobe manufacturing operations are nonexistent.
 Uniformity: CEB can be manufactured to a predictable size and has true flat sides and 90 degree angle edges. This makes design and costing
easier. This also provides the contractor the option of making the exterior look like conventional stucco houses.
CEB had very limited use prior to the 1980s. It was known in the 1950s in South America, where the Cinva Ram was developed by a Colombian
Engineer. The Cinva Ram is a lever-action, manual press that makes one block at a time.
During the 1980s, soil-pressing technology became widespread. France, England, Germany and Switzerland began to write standards. The peace
Corps, USAID, Habitat for Humanity and other programs began to implement it into housing projects.
Construction method is simple. Less skilled labor is required; wall construction can be done with unskilled labor encouraging self-sufficiency
and community involvement. If the blocks are stabilized with cement and or fly ash, they can be used as bricks and assembled using standard
masonry techniques of brick-laying.
Soil mix conditions: The soil mix is 15% - 40% non-expansive clay, 25% - 40% silt powder, and sharp sand to small gravel content of 40% - 70%. The
more modern machines do not require aggregate (rock) to make a strong soil block for most applications. Soil moisture content ranges from 4% to 12%
by weight. Clay with a plasticity index (PI) of up to 25 or 30 would be acceptable for most applications. The PI of the mixed soil (clay, silt and sand/gravel
combined) should not exceed 12 to 15; that is the difference between the Upper and Lower Atterburg Limits, as determined by laboratory testing.

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AR 563: HOUSING
LESSON and ACTIVITY PLAN: WeekNo.10
Midterms

 Other Advantages
 Non-toxic: materials are completely natural and do not out-gas toxic materials.
 Sound resistant: an important feature in high-density neighborhoods, residential areas adjacent to industrial zones
 Fire resistant: earthen walls do not bum
 Insect resistant the walls are solid and very dense, discouraging insects
 Mold resistant: there is no cellulose material such as in wood, oriented strand board or drywall that can host mold.
Completed walls require either a reinforced bond beam or a ring beam on top or between floors (8") and if the blocks are un-stabilized a plaster
finish, usually stucco wire/ stucco cement and or lime plaster. Stabilized blocks create a brick wall that if properly stabilized can be left exposed with
no outer plaster finish.
Foundations: Standards for foundations are similar to those for brick walls. A CEB wall is heavy. Footings must be at least 10" thick, with a minimum
width that is 33% greater than the wall width. If a stem wall is used, it shall extend to an elevation not less than 8" (203mm) above the exterior finish grade.
Rubble-filled foundation trench designs with a reinforced concrete grade beam above are allowed to support CEB construction.
The CEB code is cifferentfromtheadobecodeinnumerous aspects. Forinstance,theCEBcodeallows slip mortars and permit blocks ejected from a
presstogocirectlytothewall.
CEB Strength: Using ASTM D1633-00 stabilization standard, a pressed and cured block must be submerged in water for four hours. It is then
pulled from the water and immediately subjected to a compression test. The blocks must score at least 300 pound-force per square inch (psi)
minimum. This is a higher standard than for adobe, which must score an average minimum of 300 psi.
It must be emphasized that the compressive strength minimums for code compliance are nothing like the true strength of CEB blocks. New Mexico only
sought to assure that CEB would be at least as strong as adobe. The blocks are strong. CEB can have a compressive strength as high as 2000
psi.Blockswithcompressivestrengthsof1200psito1400psiarecommon.
Thermaladvantages:Also,duetotheenormousmass,theseare monolithic walls CEB has excellent thermal performance, reducing heating and cooling
costs.
Thermal testing" From May 31 to June 3, 2004, the Biology Department of Southwest Texas Junior College, Del Rio, Texas, conducted tests for thermal
change on three structures: concrete blocks, adobe and compressed earth block. Results indicate the interior temperature of the adobe and CEB modules were
significantlylowerthanforconcreteblocks.Witha minimumambienttemperatureof107° F (42°C),theinteriortemperatureswere:
ConcreteModule:111°F(44°C)(4°Fabove ambient)
Adobe Module. 95° F (35° C)
CEB Module: 91° F (33° C)
The CEB module wasconsistentlycoolerinsidethantheadobebyapproximately3°
CEB's strongest market in the USA is probably New Mexico, which has incorporated the method into its Earth Building Code Family. The first CEB Code
Development meeting in New Mexico took place last December 12, 2001. Code work was completed in June 10, 2002, and molded into New Mexico's new
section,R1100EarthenBuildingMaterials.

Arch. Dennis C. de Villa

August17,2008

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AR 563: HOUSING
LESSON and ACTIVITY PLAN: Week No. 11
Midterms

Specific Learning Objectives:

1. Analyze the materials, design technologies for low-cost housing.
Topics and Activities
1. Cement Wood
2. New Technologies in Construction Materials

CEMENT WOOD
 Type:
Composite: Laminated
 Description:
Facing Panel: Rigid Boards or heavier gauge metal sheets laminated to an insulating core of various thicknesses. May be made
sufficiently rigid to function as wall panels; or sufficiently thin to be used as glazing panels. Edges may be formed or open.
 Exter ior Face:
Base Material: Cement-Bound Mineral Fiber
 Us e :
Exterior and Interior Facing Panels
 Wa l l Ty p e :
Masonry, metal framed.
 Size:
1.20 meters x 2.40 meters x 1/2 inch thickness
 Exterior Face:
Finish Options: Integral Finish in porcelain enamel, siliconized polymers in anodized color.
 Backing:
Integral with face of Rigid Boards: plywood, hardboard, cement-bound mineral fiber. Insulation commonly used: urethane,
isocyanurate, polystyrene; perlite.
 Joints:
Framed or moldings.
 Method of Attachment:
Face:Screws or nails. Back: Clips or screws
 Remarks:
Edges of cement-bound mineral fiber board faced panels commonly open. Edges of metal faced panels generally closed and formed
to: interlock; to receive gaskets; or to fit a curtain wall grid system.

NEWTECHNOLOGIESINCONSTRUCTIONMATERIALS
 Roofing System
 TensileStructure
A tensile structure is a construction of elements carrying only tension and no compression or bending. The term tensile should not
be confused with tensegrity, which is a structural form with both tension and compression elements.
Most tensile structures are supported by some form of compression or bending elements, such as masts (as in The 02, formerly
the Millenium Dome), compression rings or beams.
Tensile membrane structures are most often used as roofs as they can economically and attractively span large distances.
 History
This form of construction has only become wet understood and widespread in large structures in the latter part of the 20th century.
Tensile structures have long been used in tents, where the guy ropes provide pre-tension to the fabric & allow it to withstand loads.
Russian Engineer Vladimir Shukhov was one of the first to develop practical calculations of stresses and deformations of tensile
structures, shells and membranes. Shukhov designed 8 tensile structures and thin-shell structures exhibition pavilions for the
Nizhny Novgorod Fair of 1986 covering an area of 27,000 square miles. A very early large-scale use of a membrane-covered
tensile structure is the Sidney Myer Music Bowl, constructed in 1958.

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AR563:HOUSING
LESSONandACTIVITYPLAN:WeekNo.11
Midterms

Antonio Gaudi used the concept in reverse to create a compression-only

structure for the Colonia Guell Church. He created a hanging tensile model of
the church to calculate the compression forces and to experimentally
determine the column and vault geometries.
The concept was later pioneered by German Architect and Engineer Frei Otto,
who first used the idea in the construction of the German Pavilion at Expo 67
in Montreal. Otto next used the idea for the roof of the Olympic Stadium for the
1972SummerOlympicsinMunich.
 Membrane Materials
Common materials for doubly-curved fabric structures are PTFE coated
fiberglass and PVC coated polyester. These are woven materials with
different strengths in different directions. The warp fibers (those fibers which
are originally straight-equivalent to the starting fibers on a loom) can carry
greater load than the weft or fill fibers, which are woven between the warp
fibers.
 Cables
Cables can be of mild steel, high strength (drawn carbon steel), stainless steel
polyester or aramid fibers. Structural cables are made of a series of small
strands twisted or bound together to form a much lamer cable. Steel cables are
either spiral strand, where circular rods are twisted together and "glued"
using polymer, or locked coil stand, where individual interlocking steel
strands form the cable (often with a spiral strand core).
 Pretension
Pretension is tension artificially induced in the structural elements in addition to any self-weight or imposed loads they carry. It is
used to ensure that the normally very flexible structural elements remain stiff under all possible loads.

 BIRDAIR
PTFE or polytetrafluoroethylene, is a Teflon®-coated woven fiberglass
membrane that is extremely durable and weather resistant. The
woven fiberglass gives the PTFE membrane its mechanical strength.
The principal element that differentiates PTFE membrane from
conventional glazing is its advantageous shading coefficient.
Since the company's inception more than 50 years ago, Birdair has
been committed to technological development of structural fabric
projects.
Birdair's fabric membranes are reaping the benefit of its inherent
flexibility, the membranes acts like an exterior skin, it provides building
envelopes with weather-proof protection not normally associated with
such lightweight engineering.
Birdair has been creating spectacular tensile architecture systems and
steel cable structures for more than 50 years.

MILLENIUMDOME(zakgollop)
Building Type Exhibition Space Architectural Style Structural
System Steel & Tension Fabric
Location: Drawdock Road, Millenium Way
Greenwich Peninsula, London England
Construction Completed 1999
Design Team: Architect Rogers Structural
Engineer: Buro Happold Services
Prices: Royal Academy of Engineering
MacRobert Award

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10:34:29 AM
AR 563: HOUSING
LESSON and ACTIVITY PLAN: Week No. 11
Midterms

 Plumbing Fixture: Waterless Toilet

Ecosan (Pit Toilet or Outdoor Toilet) Ecological sanitation, also known as Ecosan or Eco-San, is a modern alternative to
conventional sanitation techniques. The objectives are to offer economically and ecologically sustainable and culturally acceptable
systems that aim to close the natural nutrient and water cycle. Unlike most traditional sanitation methods, ecological sanitation
processes human waste to recover nutrients that would otherwise be discharged.
The Ecosan Waterless Toilet Solution
- Affordable water free toilet system - Completely closed system
- No sewage pipe network and sewage treatment plants required - No obnoxious odors
- No effluent seepage into underground water resources - Indoor or outdoor installation
- Minimum monthly operating costs - Plumbing free solution
How does it work?
The following is a brief description of the ECOSAN toilet concept as well as its
main features.
The human excrement falls down a vertical chute (2) and into one end of a
specially designed helical screw conveyor (3). Every time the toilet lid (1) is
lifted, a mechanism rotates the conveyor. With each rotation the human
excrement slowly moves along, taking approximately 25 days before falling
into a reusable collection bag (4). It takes six months for the bag to fill with dry
odorless waste.
Through the uniquely designed ventilation (5), adequate airflow is provided for
the dehydration/evaporation, deodorizing process. Human excrement
consists of roughly 95% moisture. As the solids dry in the conveyor the urine
and moisture is vented into the atmosphere. The solid waste then dries into a
compost-like material, roughly 5 -10% of its original mass
The dry waste is manageable and can be processed in the following ways.
- Use it in the making of compost
- Dispose of it by using municipal waste services
- Use it as a source of fuel
DIAGRAM OF OW ECOSAN
WORKS
INSTALLATION DIAGRAM OF ECOSAN
Large objects like beverage cans, disposable nappies or other objects
accidentally dropped down the chute will not block the system. It is however
not advisable to do this.
Features install
 Noplumbingrequired
 No drains, No Pipes Extractor Fans
 Water free  Wind Turbine
 Low odor levels
 Chemical free  Solar Turbine
 Relatively light and easy to  Wind Turbine
ECOSAN Waterless Toilet
Specifications
Length: 2450 mm
Width: 630 mm
Heightt 750 mm above floor level - Toilet bowl
1120 mm - Height of catchment drum at back
Material: LDPE - Low Density Poly-Ethylene
Weight: 90 kilograms
The toilet's main features are:
o Relatively lightweight and easy to move into position during installation.
o Does not require any type of flushing mechanism, no mechanical risk failure
o No water, no plumbing, no sewer connections, no use of chemical

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AR 563: HOUSING
LESSON and ACTIVITY PLAN: Week No.
11 Midterms

 Introduction to Ecological Sanitation

Ecological sanitation (Ecosan) offers a new philosophy of dealing with what is presently regarded as waste and wastewater. Ecosan
is based on the systematic implementation of reuse and recycling of nutrients and water as a hygienically safe, closed-loop and holistic
alternative to conventional sanitation solutions.
Ecosan systems enable the recovery of nutrients from human faeces and urine for the benefit of agriculture, thus helping to preserve
soil fertility, assure food security for future generations, minimize water pollution and recover bio-energy. They ensure that water
is used economically and is recycled in a safe way greatest possible extent for purposes such as irrigation or groundwater recharge.
 History of Reuse Oriented Sanitation Approaches

The recovery and use of urine and faeces has been practiced over millennia by almost all cultures. The uses were not limited to
agricultural production, like the Romans who were well aware of the disinfecting attributes of urine and also used it for washing clothes.
The most widely known example of diligent collection and use of human excreta in agriculture is China.
Elaborate systems were developed in urban centers in Yemen enabling the separation of urine and excreta even in multi-storey
buildings. Faeces were collected from toilets via a vertical drop shafts while urine did not enter the shaft but passed instead along a
channel leading through the wall to the outside where it evaporated. Faeces were not used in agriculture but were dried & burnt as fuel.
In Mexico & Peru, the great Aztec & Inca cultures collected human excreta for agricultural use. In the middle ages the use of excreta &
grey water was the norm. The practice of using the nutrients in excreta & wastewater for agriculture continued in Europe till the middle
of the 19th century. Increasing number of researches carried out in Sweden as well as in Zimbabwe, Netherlands, Norway & Germany.
 Where to Find Ecosan in the Philippines
In the Philippines, Ecosan is becoming a by-word among sanitation practitioners and advocates. Ecosan was first introduced by the
Center for Advanced Philippine Studies (CAPS) in a pilot scale in Tingloy, Batangas at the beginning of the new millennium. Since then
several programs and initiatives were pursued.
Successful projects under the Integrated Support for Sustainable Urban Environment (ISSUE) supported by WASTE of the Netherlands
through CAPS and the Philippine-German Cooperation; Water Program towards an Integrated Water Resources Management
implemented Ecosan Technology in various places in the Philippines.
Province of La Union
SanFernandoCity
The Ecosan Project in San
Fernando City is implemented
by the ISSUE Program of
the WASTE, The
Netherlands. It is
implemented in two pilot
barangays, San Agustin
and Nagyubuyuban.
Panglao Island
BoholProvince
Bgy.SanAgustin Bgy. Nagyubuyuban Panglao Island Balit Infirmary
The Ecosan Project in
Pangiao Island, Bohol
Province is implemented by
the Water, Sanitation and ProvinceofNegrosOriental
Solid Waste Program of the Ecosan toilets are also installed in Bayawan City and Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental. The
German Technical Assistance Ecosan Projects in these cities are implemented with assistance from the GTZ-Water Program and the
(GTZ). Its urine diverting Ceneter for Advanced Philippine Studies (CAPS).
toilet and wash bowl are made of Cagayan de Oro
cement. The Peri-Urban Vegetable Project (PUVeP) in Cagayan de Oro uses the collected by-products from the
Balit Infirmary Hospital ecosan toilets for its demo-farm.
Agusan del Sur
ProjectExamplesGlobally
The Balit Infirmary Hospital, a Gunaxi Province, China. Large scale project of urine diverting dehydration toilets with the support of
15-bed hospital in Agusan del UNICEF, SIDA and the RED CROSS and has been expanded to 17 provinces until the year 2003.
Sur, where Ecosan toilets KfW, Frankfurt, Germany. Vacuum toilets + greywater treatment. Sanitation concept of the modern
are also installed. office building "Ostakarde" KfW Bankengruppe in Frankfurt is based on a separate excreta &
greywater collection.

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AR 563: HOUSING
LESSON and ACTIVITY PLAN: Week No.
11 Midterms

• Green Roof
A green roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and soil, or a growing medium, planted over a
waterproofing membrane. This does not refer to roofs which are merely colored green, as with green roof shingles. It may also include
additional layers such as a root barrier, drainage and irrigation systems.
Container garden on roofs where plants are maintained in pots are not generally considered to be true green roofs, although this is an
area of debate. Rooftop ponds are another form of green roofs which are used to treat greywater. Finally the term "green roof" may
also be used to indicate roofs that utilize some form of "green" technology, such as solar panels or a photovoltaic module.
Green roofs are also referred to as eco-roofs, vegetated roofs, living roofs and greenroofs.

Costs
A properly designed and installed Green Roof system can cost
5 to 35 dollars per square meter. The cost depends on what kind
of roof it is, the structure of the building and what plans to grow on
the material that is on top of the roof. In the Spring 2007 of the
Green Roof Infrastructure Monitor, Jorge Breuning reflects the
wind and fire loads of green roofs and how German insurance
companies handle extensive Green Roofs.

In Egypt, soil-less agriculture is used to grow plants on the roofs of

buildings. No soil is placed directly on the roof itself, thus
eliminating the need for an insulating layer. Instead plants are
grown on wooden tables. Vegetables & fruit are the common
candidates, providing a healthy source of pesticide-free food.
In the UK, Green Roofs are often used in built up city areas where
residents and workers often don't have access to gardens or local
parks. They have also been used by companies such as Rolls
Royce, who have one of the biggest green roofs in Europe to help
their factory blend into its countryside surroundings.

Green Roofs has becoming common in Chicago, as well as

Atlanta, Portland and other United States Cities, where their use is
encouraged by regulations to combat the urban heat island effect.
In the case of Chicago, the city has passed codes offering
incentives to builders who put green roofs on their buildings.

Source:Time Saver Standards for Building Materials & Systems

Donald Watson
Group Report. AR
563 Section
AR52FC1

Arch. Dennis C. de
Villa September 21,
2008
 The Chicago City Hall green roof is one of the earliest and most
well-known examples of Green Roofs in the United States: it was
planted as an experiment to determine the effects a green roof would
have on the microclimate of the roof.
Following this and other studies, it has now been estimated that if all the
roofs in a major city were "greened", urban temperatures could be
reduced by as much as 7 degrees Celsius.
Finally, green roofs provide habitat for plants, insects and animals that
otherwise have limited natural spaces in cities. Even in high-rise urban
settings as tall as 19 storeys, it has been found that green roofs can
attract beneficial insects, birds, bees and butterflies.

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AR 563: HOUSING
LESSON and ACTIVITY PLAN: Week No. 12
Midterms

Specific Learning Objectives:

1. Design low cost housing based on climatic conditions.
Topics and Activities
1. Design solutions for houses in countries of warm humid tropics.
2. Traditional Solutions
3. Modern Solutions

Design solutions for houses in countries of warm humid tropics

Earth has been a sustainable building material since prehistoric times. In hot, arid regions, the insulating value of mud was suitably efficient.
The tools and supplies necessary for the simplest of buildings were minimal — hands, intelligence, sunshine, and an abundance of mud
produced a strong structure. The Dogon people of Mali still live in villages of mud housing in a desert climate.
In the American Southwest, the Anasazi people built high-mass, adobe dwellings in south-facing cliff caves that took advantage of passive
solar heat gain in the winter but that blocked heat and sun in the summer. Kivas, or family units built into existing pueblo structures or
partially underground, were fairly comfortable year-round, were well ventilated and relied on the thermal mass of the enclosing earth.
Traditional Solutions
Subterranean homes were used in traditional towns and villages in the Chinese loess belt in the provinces of Honnan, Shansi, and Kansu.
Loess is silt that has been transported and deposited by wind. Soft and porous, it is suitable for carving. The pits of these structures were
about one-eighth of an acre (one-twentieth of a hectare), carved 25 to 30 feet (7.6 to 9 meters) deep.
Subterranean buildings in the loess belt of China conceal structures that, due to the insulative properties of the ground, remained warm in
the winter and cool in the summer. Apartments of about 30 feet (9 meters) in depth and 15 feet (4.5 meters) in width were accessed through
an L-shaped staircase from a central courtyard.
The Caribou Inuit, created conical tents of animal hide during the summer, and other northern indigenous cultures, such as the Tareumuit,
lived in semi-subterranean houses of sod or stone. All structures were transportable or easily re-created and constructed from local and
often abundant materials that could return to the earth once the inhabitants discontinued maintenance.
Traditional solutions in the Philippines setting provide large sliding windows with wall openings in the form of sliding partitions below. The
use of wooden exterior and interior single partitions is common. High ceiling are provided for a sense of space and minimal furniture's are
often adapted. Ground floor is in stone exterior and second floor in wooden walls.
Modern Solutions
The desire of a sustainable dwelling is affected by aspects that extend from site planning to construction. A sustainable dwelling must not
only have little environmental impact but must also increase the inhabitant's quality of life as such homes are healthy, comfortable and
adaptable. Four major components are incorporated to achieve green buildings.
First, the design must minimize environmental impacts by using building materials with low embodied energy and high durability that do not
compromise the occupant's health or standard of living.
Second, the building envelope (the building shell through which thermal energy can be transferred to or from the exterior, unconditioned
spaces or the ground) must be efficient, requiring minimal energy for heating, cooling and lighting.
Third, the use of natural resources, such as water and fuel, must be minimal within the home; this is a priority that can be accomplished by
incorporating technologies and designs such as low-flow toilets and high-efficiency coolers that rely on alternative sources of power.
Lastly, generated waste during construction should be reduced by building with materials that are recyclable or recycled during production,
reducing the environmental impacts and costs associated with waste management.
Solar Energy
Incorporating passive design strategies had active solar features for solar gains in residential design yields a reduction in utility expenses
and an increase in the occupant's level of comfort. Buildings oriented for maximum sun exposure will benefit from greater amounts of
daylight, passive gain in walls and floors, and additional benefits from active solar systems such as photovoltaic's and collectors.
The most well-known component of active solar system is the photovoltaic (Pt) panel, which can be installed on any surface with maximum
exposure to the sun. Photovoltaic is a renewable form of energy obtained by the conversion of light into voltage between two layers of
semiconducting materials, an effect first discovered in the 19th century.
Solar collectors are popular, less expensive, and even simpler alternatives to capturing the power of the sun. Unlike photovoltaic panels, solar
collectors do not generate electricity. Instead, they collect the heat of solar radiation in air and water for space heating, hot water, pool

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AR 563: HOUSING
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12 Midterms

heating, desalination, solar cooking and crop drying. They require no pumps or motors to distribute hot air or water, relying instead on the
building's orientation and the hardware.
Home Perimeter and Form
At present, construction, renovation and demolition of housing account for a large amount of material consumption and direct or embodied
energy required to produce, or dispose of them. In addition, heating, cooling, and house operating requirements are growing, especially in
very hot and very cold climates.
By changing unit dimensions, configurations and size and by grouping homes, the buyer and builder's material needs, energy requirements,
costs and time can all be decreased. This is accomplished by increasing the ratio of floor area to perimeter, which not only reduces inherent
heating costs but leads to a simpler design that requires less corners, skin and framing.
Conserving resources and improving the thermal performance of the envelope through simple, efficient, modular design helps reduce energy
consumption and waste in any home. By designing for modular configuration of building material, such as studs, joists, plywood, and
sheetrock, waste from off-cuts is reduced.
Vertical stacking, grouping and joining units, and size reduction all increase energy efficiency in the home by limiting the perimeter area,
building footprint, and cost per square meter. Vertical stacking also reduces the excavation, foundation requirements, and basement and
roof sizes. It also improves energy efficiency as lower levels heat the upper ones.
Estimated heat loss (KWh) One Floor (Bungalow) One-and-a-half Floor (split-level) Two Floors (Cottage)
Roof 3011 2259 1506
Walls 3505 4740 5209
Doors/Windows 6907 6907 6907
Basement 10601 8812 6852
Infiltration 13257 12529 10085

Total 37282 35246 30599

Internal & Solar Heat Gain (KWh) 12824 12355 11754

Grouping and joining units also promotes savings in both construction and energy, as repetition of design reduces construction time and
sheathing requirements. Heat loss is reduced by 21% when two dwellings are attached and a further 26% for a middle unit when three or
more units are joined. In addition, utilizing an open plan that minimizes hallways & little used circulation path will more use the interior
efficiently.
Estimated heat loss (KWh) Single Family Detached Semi-detached Rowhouse
Roof 1506 1506 1506
Walls 5209 3261 1313
Doors/Windows 6907 6907 6907
Basement 6852 5002 3156
Infiltration 10085 10085 10085

Total 30559 26760 22967

Internal & Solar Heat Gain (KWh) 11754 11291 10761

Building Materials
In examining a building's environmental impacts, designers need to consider the energy and resources required to produce, use and
dispose of building materials. A lifecycle analysis, also referred to as cradle to grave, of each product examines energy efficiency, waste
generation, natural resource pollution, recycled content, sustainability and costs during acquisition.

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Midterms

Minimizing waste of non-recyclable, non-renewable or toxic building materials and replacing them with natural, healthier materials is an
effective way of reducing the environmental impacts of construction. Many healthier building materials consume less energy within their
lifecycles. Replacing plywood walls with strand board reduces embodied energy or sum of all energy requirements by 59%.
Such improvements illustrate the potential savings and reduction of environmental impact that a carefully designed and efficient home can
achieve using alternative building products such as linoleum, stone, low-voltaic organic compound (VOC) paints, and recycled wallboard
(sheetrock). "Greening" the home is becoming more accessible and profitable for the average builder.
Construction Details
A basic consideration of an energy-efficient home is the effectiveness of its building envelope. In addition to protection from the elements, a
building envelope must also provide structural support. In a typical home, about 1/2 of the total indoor space is replaced every hour through
leaks in the house membrane, accounting for about 25% of the dwellings heat loss.
Although most leakage occurs at areas where building materials are joined - such as around windows or doors or at intersections of walls,
floors and roofs — energy savings can be assured by using proper insulation on either side of the structural framing members. Insulating
walls will reduce heat flow through leakage, infiltration/exfiltration, and thermal bridging, a process by which as much as 10% of the total heat
lost through the envelope is lost via conduction.
Prefabricated Wall Systems
Prefabrication methods can offer many advantages over conventional construction methods. The assembly of units, panels, or components
under factory-controlled conditions yields a higher quality product that generally results in more energy efficient homes. Clean up time and
material costs are also reduced with less waste.
Panel Systems
Numerous types of prefabricated systems, subsystems, ands components can be combined at various levels to provide a complete
system package. Nine types of panel systems are applicable to wood frame residential construction, which can be divided into 3
categories: Open-Sheathed panels; Structural Sandwich Panels, and; Unsheathed Structural Panels.
Open-Sheathed Panels (OSP) OSP's are available in many variations. The most common systems are built either with a 1.5 x 5.5 inch studs
with plywood or wafer board sheathing, or with 1.5 x 3.5 inch studs and extruded polystyrene sheathing.
Structural Sandwich Panels (SSP) Also know and foam core panels, SSPs consists of a core rigid foam insulation that is laminated between two
facing materials. In its most basic form, the sheathing materials may be plywood or wafer board.
Unsheathed Stnictural Panels (USP) USPs or composite panels. are built using a combination of wood or metal structural elements combined
with rigid foam insulation infill, usually expanded polystyrene. Horizontal chases for electrical wiring are often cut into the insulation.
Quality and Energy Efficiency
One of the biggest advantages of prefabricated panel systems is the superior level of quality that can be achieved through the
manufacturing process. The quality of prefabricated wall systems can be evaluated in terms of three interrelated characteristics:
craftsmanship, technicalperformance and durability.
The system's craftsmanship governs its potential to achieve consistent levels of performance from one application to another. The wall's
technical performance, particularly with respect to its air tightness, will affect the rate of deterioration due to condensation. Fire and sound
resistance, critical for partition walls, will contribute to the quality of the unit's interior environment. The panel's durability depends on the
various materials' resistance to elements and on the probability of exposure to these given the panels' designs.
Windows
Heat loss through the building envelope can occur via conduction. conrection and radiation. In all three cases, windows are the weakest links,
and as such, they represent the most important investment in the construction or renovation of any dwelling. Three factors should be
considered in selecting window units: the frame type and material, the glazing unit, and the spacer bar.
Coupled with edge losses from the glazing unit, conductive heat loss through the window can account for up to 20% of the total heat losses
from the window unit. The selection of an appropriate framing material is, therefore not simply a question of appearance. Wood, for instance
is a good insulator, but easily damaged and requires higher maintenance.
Metal (aluminum) requires much less maintenance but is a good conductor. Plastic (vinyl) frames are maintenance free but, like metal
frames, are susceptible to temperature changes. Combining these materials take advantage of the thermal qualities of wood while protecting
it with either vinyl or aluminum and reducing maintenance requirements.

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