Communicative language teaching

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Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and

foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of
learning a language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of
foreign languages” or simply the “communicative approach”.

Contents
[hide]
 1 Relationship with other methods and approaches
o 1.1 The audio-lingual method
o 1.2 The notional-functional syllabus
o 1.3 Learning by teaching (LdL)
 2 Classroom activities used in CLT
 3 Critiques of CLT
 4 See also

 5 References

[edit] Relationship with other methods and

approaches
Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the audio-lingual method (ALM), and as
an extension or development of the notional-functional syllabus. Task-based language
learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.

[edit] The audio-lingual method

The audio-lingual method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language
proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely
tied to behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central
elements of instruction. Proponents of ALM felt that this emphasis on repetition needed a
corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition of errors would lead to
the fixed acquisition of incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.

In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and presented
through short dialogues. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of
conversations (for example, in the language lab) and focused on accurately mimicking
the pronunciation and grammatical structures in these dialogs.
Critics of ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately did
not help students achieve communicative competence in the target language. Noam
Chomsky argued "Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviour
characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in
accordance with rules of great abstractness and intricacy". They looked for new ways to
present and organize language instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus,
and eventually CLT as the most effective way to teach second and foreign languages.
However, audio-lingual methodology is still prevalent in many text books and teaching
materials. Moreover, advocates of audio-lingual methods point to their success in
improving aspects of language that are habit driven, most notably pronunciation.

[edit] The notional-functional syllabus

Main article: Notional-functional syllabus

A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning

curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus,
instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with
the ALM, but in terms of “notions” and “functions.” In this model, a “notion” is a
particular context in which people communicate, and a “function” is a specific purpose
for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the “notion” or context shopping
requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features of a
product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions
like introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the
notional-functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the
ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of
real-life contexts.

[edit] Learning by teaching (LdL)

Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany (Jean-Pol Martin). The

students take the teacher's role and teach their peers.

CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching

method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most often defined
as a list of general principles or features. One of the most recognized of these lists is
David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT:

1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target

language.
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also
on the Learning Management process.
4. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important
contributing elements to classroom learning.
 5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside
the classroom.

These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are very
interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between the
language as it is taught in their class and as it used outside the classroom. Under this
broad umbrella definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their
communicative competence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and
beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair
and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based
activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which
students practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar
and pronunciation focused activities.

In the mid 1990s the Dogma 95 manifesto influenced language teaching through the
Dogme language teaching movement, who proposed that published materials can stifle
the communicative approach. As such the aim of the Dogme approach to language
teaching is to focus on real conversations about real subjects so that communication is the
engine of learning. This communication may lead to explanation, but that this in turn will
lead to further communication.[1]

[edit] Classroom activities used in CLT

Example Activities

Role Play

Interviews

Information Gap

Games

Language Exchanges

Surveys

Pair Work

Learning by teaching

However, not all courses that utilize the Communicative Language approach will restrict
their activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional
grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance.
[edit] Critiques of CLT
One of the most famous attacks on communicative language teaching was offered by
Michael Swan in the English Language Teaching Journal on 1985[2]. Henry Widdowson
responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELT Journal (1985 39(3):158-161). More
recently other writers (e.g. Bax[3]) have critiqued CLT for paying insufficient attention to
the context in which teaching and learning take place, though CLT has also been
defended against this charge (e.g. Harmer 2003[4]).

Often, the communicative approach is deemed a success if the teacher understands the
student. But, if the teacher is from the same region as the student, the teacher will
understand errors resulting from an influence from their first language. Native speakers
of the target language may still have difficulty understanding them. This observation may
call for new thinking on and adaptation of the communicative approach. The adapted
communicative approach should be a simulation where the teacher pretends to understand
only what any regular speaker of the target language would and reacts accordingly
(Hattum 2006[5]).

[edit] See also

 Task-based language learning
 Notional-functional syllabus
 Learning by teaching (LdL)
 Language education
 Language exchange
 Teaching English as a foreign language
 English as an additional language

[edit] References
1. ^ Luke, Meddings (2004-03-26). "Throw away your textbooks". The Guardian.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2004/mar/26/tefl.lukemeddings. Retrieved
2009-03-10.
2. ^ Swan, Michael (1985) in the English Language Teaching Journal 39(1):2-12,
and 1985 39(2):76-87
3. ^ Bax, S (2003) The end of CLT: a context approach to language teaching ELT J
2003 57: 278-287
4. ^ Harmer, J. (2003) Popular culture, methods, and context ELT J 2003 57: 288-
294
5. ^ Hattum, Ton van (2006), The Communicative Approach Rethought,
http://www.tonvanhattum.com.br/comreth.html, retrieved 2010-10-03

Teaching Goals and Methods

 Goal: Communicative Competence
Language teaching in the United States is based on the idea that the goal of language
acquisition is communicative competence: the ability to use the language correctly and
appropriately to accomplish communication goals. The desired outcome of the language
learning process is the ability to communicate competently, not the ability to use the
language exactly as a native speaker does.

Communicative competence is made up of four competence areas: linguistic,

sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic.

 Linguistic competence is knowing how to use the grammar, syntax, and

vocabulary of a language. Linguistic competence asks: What words do I use?
How do I put them into phrases and sentences?
 Sociolinguistic competence is knowing how to use and respond to language
appropriately, given the setting, the topic, and the relationships among the people
communicating. Sociolinguistic competence asks: Which words and phrases fit
this setting and this topic? How can I express a specific attitude (courtesy,
authority, friendliness, respect) when I need to? How do I know what attitude
another person is expressing?
 Discourse competence is knowing how to interpret the larger context and how to
construct longer stretches of language so that the parts make up a coherent whole.
Discourse competence asks: How are words, phrases and sentences put together to
create conversations, speeches, email messages, newspaper articles?
 Strategic competence is knowing how to recognize and repair communication
breakdowns, how to work around gaps in one’s knowledge of the language, and
how to learn more about the language and in the context. Strategic competence
asks: How do I know when I’ve misunderstood or when someone has
misunderstood me? What do I say then? How can I express my ideas if I don’t
know the name of something or the right verb form to use?

In the early stages of language learning, instructors and students may want to keep in
mind the goal of communicative efficiency: That learners should be able to make
themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to
avoid confusion in the message (due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary); to
avoid offending communication partners (due to socially inappropriate style); and to use
strategies for recognizing and managing communication breakdowns.

Language is used for self-expression, verbal thinking, problem-solving, and creative writing, but it is used
essentially for communication. What makes it difficult to grasp the language user’s systems of
representation for communication with others is the fact that the capability of individuals to interact with
others through language is a unique quality and at the same time a universal human quality.

With the globalization of human activities and societies world at large, English has spread to become one
of the most widely used languages because of the political, military, scientific and technological, and
cultural power that the Anglo-American nations have had. In its globalizing process, it has transformed
itself into varieties of Englishes and in fact communication between non-native speakers of English is far
greater in frequency, amount, and significance as well as the number of speakers today (Crystal 1997,
Graddol 1997). This