Unit 7
Unit 7
7
UNIT
Scheme
UNIT 7 – Scheme
Modal Verbs
2
verbs probability obligation modal verbs
In this unit we are looking at modal verbs and the ways they are used to express
probability, obligation, permission, and ability, among others.
» Firstly, we will explain the categories and characteristics of the modal verbs.
» Secondly, we will focus on the two most common uses of modal verbs:
probability and obligation.
» And finally we will discuss a selection of less frequent modal meanings, such
as request, willingness, and promise, among others.
Modality is a semantic category. Modal verbs express a wide range of meanings, such as
permission, ability, obligation, etc. The speaker/writer can use modal verbs to evaluate
a particular action or event in terms of possibility, probability, obligation, etc. Thus, we
can say that modal verbs reflect the subjective attitude of the speaker/writer towards a
given situation. Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum group them in three main
families according to their meaning (see figure 1).
Modal verbs
Figure 1. Modal verbs main families (Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. K., 2005)
Table 1 shows the contrast between epistemic and deontic modality according to
Huddleston & Pullum.
The example reflects the limitations of the The example refers to obligation. It has to do
speaker’s knowledge. with authority rather than knowledge.
Table 1. The epistemic vs deontic contrast. Adapted from Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. K., 2005, p. 54.
Epistemic
Necessity, possibility Deontic modality
modality
The third family, according to Huddleston & Pullum, is the dynamic modality, which is
interpreted as the use “concerned with properties or dispositions of persons or
other entities involved in the situation”, like in She can speak five languages
(Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. K., 2005, p. 55, bold and italics in original).
In their work English Grammar: A University Course (2006), Downing & Locke
establish a similar grouping. They define modality as “the semantic category by which
speakers express two different kinds of attitude towards the event” (p. 379) and divide
modal verbs into three groups (see figure 3).
Modal verbs
Table 2 shows the attitude of the speaker expressed by epistemic (extrinsic) modality
and deontic (intrinsic) modality, according to Downing & Locke (2006).
For Downing and Locke, “closely related to these meanings are those of ability and
intrinsic possibility as in We can take an early train. This is known as dynamic
modality” (2006, p. 379, italics in original).
Downing and Locke distinguish between the syntactic class of modal auxiliaries
(shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, ought to), semi-modals
(need, dare, and used to), and other realizations of modal meanings.
Lexical verbs such as allow, beg, command, Modal adjectives such as possible, probable,
forbid, guarantee, guess, promise, suggest, likely, used in impersonal constructions such
warn. as He is likely to win.
Table 3. Other realisations of modal meanings. Adapted from Downing, A. & Locke, P., 2006, p. 380-381.
In the present chapter, we focus on the syntactic class of modal auxiliaries: shall,
should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, ought to. Modal verbs are organized
in three groups, according to their meaning. We should bear in mind that some modal
verbs have more than one meaning, depending on the context, hence they can belong to
more than one semantic area. The choice of this broad division of the meanings of the
modal verbs into three groups (see figure 3) is closely related to the decision to opt for
an approach that favors practical use over theoretical interpretation of their meanings.
Modal verbs
Present and
Past
future
» Modal verbs do not have gerund or infinitive forms. Other verbs are used instead.
(1) I can sing.
(1a) I’d love to be able to sing at La Scala.
(1b) I look forward to being able to sing at La Scala.
They have different forms to express an action in the past, depending on the context.
(1) You must work hard.
(1a) You had to work hard.
(1b) You must have worked hard.
When used to express probability modal verbs display different degrees of likelihood
and show to what extent the speaker is confident about the proposition.
When we are a hundred per cent sure about the proposition, we do not use a modal
verb, e.g. It is raining at the moment. This is an example of a statement, where the
speaker perceives the situation as a fact. The sentence It might be raining in Paris
right now means the speaker is not sure about the truthfulness of the proposition.
All modal auxiliary verbs can be used to show degrees of probability. In what follows,
we will examine the most common structures to express probability in the present,
future, and past.
The examples bellow show the way in which the speaker can choose to use a certain
modal auxiliary verb to indicate a degree of probability. We use the following structure
to express probability in the present and future: modal auxiliary verb + infinitive
without to.
will
must
could
He may be at home now.
might
can
can’t
shouldn’t
Astronaut, (Bouvier, P., Comeau, C., Emery, J. & Irvin, J., 2011)
In these two sentences, we can see that the negative form of the modal auxiliary verb
must when used to express probability is not mustn’t, but can’t.
must
Mary may be having lunch at the moment.
can’t
» Must and can’t (can + not) express what the speaker sees as logical interpretation
of a situation. They imply strong conviction.
» Should and ought to suggest a medium degree of certainty or what the speaker
expects to happen. Ought to is less frequent than should.
» May, might, and could suggest weaker conviction. Might and could have similar
meanings and the speaker is slightly less certain when they use could and might
than when they use may.
Some people in the audience may find it difficult to understand his message.
He got up at the crack of dawn, so he could start the journey early in the
morning.
In some cases there is little or no difference between these three modal verbs. In the
example below they are interchangeable:
We do not use couldn’t to express future possibility. The negative of could in this
case is might not.
Notice that the change is not in the modal verb but in the type of infinitive we place
after the modal verb. The same modal verbs are used to express probability in the
present and future and probability in the past and they still indicate degrees of
certainly/confidence of the speaker.
will
must
could
He may have decided to buy this car.
might
can
can’t
shouldn’t
» Could + perfect infinitive of the main verb is often used to speak about an
action in the past that didn’t occur.
» Might + perfect infinitive of the main verb is used in a similar way as the
above mentioned structure with could.
» Should + perfect infinitive of the main verb. In the following example from
Somerset Maugham’s short story The Force of Circumstance, should + the perfect
infinitive of the main verb, should have gone, has a similar meaning to could have
gone or might have gone, i.e. unrealised action in the past. Should in this sentence
can also be substituted by would: I think I would have gone mad, if I hadn’t, or else
taken to drink. The structure of this sentence is that of the third conditional (see unit
5). In this sense, the speaker expresses a hypothesis about the past based on
deduction.
“Wait a minute, I haven’t finished yet, I wasn’t in love with her, not even at the
beginning. I only took her so as to have somebody about the bungalow. I think I
should have gone mad if I hadn’t, or else taken to drink.” (Maugham, S., 1967, p.
144).
» Should + perfect infinitive of the main verb can be used to criticize someone
for not doing something.
In the structure modal verb + perfect infinitive, which we use to express probability
about the past, the perfect infinitive can be substituted by perfect progressive
infinitive if we want to put an emphasis on the duration of the action.
You look tired. You must have been working in the garden all day.
» Must + perfect infinitive of the main verb. We will use a song by Roxette as an
example of this structure.
Modal verbs are used to express different degrees of obligation that vary from strong
obligation to advice or non-binding obligation. To this end, we use not only the modal
auxiliary verbs: must/mustn’t, should/shouldn’t, and ought to, but also have to/don’t
have to. Have to is not a modal auxiliary verb, but its use to express obligation and
necessity will be explained and illustrated together with the modal verbs that express
this meaning. Angela Downing and Philip Locke consider have (got) to a lexical-modal
(2006, p. 387), however, we will focus on the use of have (got) to in context, rather
than on the terms adopted to refer to it.
Both must and have to express obligation. The main difference between them is the
source of obligation.
» Must is used when the obligation comes from the speaker and the speaker has
authority over the addressee. For Downing and Locke, “The force derives from the
fact that (a) in certain cultural contexts such as school, family, the Armed Forces, the
speaker has authority over the addressee, who is the subject ‘you’; (b) the speaker
takes the responsibility for the action carried out; and (c) the verb is agentive and in
active voice” (2006, p. 387). Compare the following sentences:
You must hand in your paper by the end of the week: Said by the teacher to
his students.
You have to hand in your paper by the end of the week: Said by one of the
students to his classmate. The speaker does not have authority over the addressee.
The passive form must be done is used is often used to give instructions and does
not have the force of a command.
Must is also used when the obligation comes from the speaker. This use is
sometimes called “internal obligation”.
The Scientist, (Berryman, G., Buckland, J., Champion, W. & Martin, C., 2002)
As seen before, the past form of must depends on its meaning: obligation (intrinsic) or
probability (extrinsic). In a similar way, must has different negative counterparts,
depending on its meaning.
You must go now. You needn’t go now. You are not obliged to go.
You must go now. You don’t have to go. You are not obliged to go.
You must go now. You mustn’t go. You are obliged not to go.
Table 4. Must used to express obligation. Adapted from Downing, A. & Locke, P., 2006, p. 389.
Table 5. ‘Must’ used to express probability. Adapted from Downing, A. & Locke, P., 2006, p. 389.
We can examine the negative counterparts from a different perspective, focusing on the
form.
The negative form of must is must not (mustn’t). It is used to express obligation not to
do something.
The negative form of have to is don’t have to. It means lack of obligation.
Permission
Can I leave the office earlier today? I don’t feel very well.
Could I leave the office earlier today? I don’t feel very well.
May I leave these books on your table? Mine is too small.
Other form to express permission is by using to be allowed to. This structure is often
used for permission in the past.
In this case the opposite of couldn’t + infinitive is was/were not allowed to + infinitive.
Could is also used for permission in the past, often in indirect speech.
Ability
For the Present perfect tense, for instance, we use be able to, like in:
To express ability in the past we can use could (used for a general ability in the past) or
was/were able to (commonly used for particular occasion in the past). For a
particular occasion in the past, we can also use the structure managed to +
infinitive.
This rule is not so strict in the negative and with verbs of senses. In these two cases
could is preferred to was/were able to.
If you will wait for a moment, I will take to the headmaster’s office.
I told the hotel maid that my room was dirty, but she wouldn’t clean it.
Requests
Note: We can also use the structure do you mind + gerund to express requests.
Characteristic behavior
To talk about a characteristic behavior, either in the present or in the past, we use will
and would.
He will come to class late, sit in the last row and stare through the window while
the teacher is explaining the grammar rules.
My brother would always take me to school and wait outside until the classes
started.
Each Monday my grandma would take me to the nearest bakery and buy me a
carrot cake.
Berryman, G., Buckland, J., Champion, W. & Martin, C. (2002). The Scientist. In A
Rush of Blood to the Head. UK/USA: Parlophone/Capitol.
Bouvier, P., Comeau, C., Emery, J. & Irvin, J. (2011). Astronaut. In Get your Heart On!
US: Lava.
Downing, A. & Locke, P. (2006). English Grammar: A University Course. London &
New York: Routledge.
Gallagher, N. (1995). Some might say. In (What’s the Story) Morning Glory? UK:
Creation.
Gessler, P. (1987). It must have been love. In Christmas for the Broken Hearted. UK:
EMI.
Specially recommended
Master class
Modal Verbs
The master class offers a brief overview of the classification of modal verbs and their
most important characteristics. It focuses on their practical use rather than on the
different theories behind the categories of modal verbs. The master class offers a brief
description of a variety of meanings and uses, which are organized around three broad
groups: probability, obligation, and other uses.
Watch out!
Modal verbs: must, can, would, should, might, will, could, shall, may
This short video provides an overview of the meaning of nine modal verbs. The author
proposes an easy way to remember these modal verbs as 3 Ms (must, might, and may),
2 Ws (will and would), 2Cs (can and could), and 2 Ss (shall and should) and then
explains how and when to use them.
Access to the video through the virtual campus or the following website address:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BT3JbwlpQxU
Durán, R., Alonso, P. & Sánchez, M. J. (2007). The Study of Modal Verbs from a
Pedagogical Perspective: An Analysis of Textbooks and Grammars. Revista de
Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas, 2, 29-37.
In this article, Ramiro Durán, Pilar Alonso and María Jesús Sanchéz examine some
examples of traditional presentation of modal verbs in textbooks and grammars and
argue that combinations of form-function criterion can bring confusion and does not
reflect their semantic complexity. They conclude that at an early stage we should opt for
an approach which “favours performance over competence”.
Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual Property
Law.
María Jesús Sánchez and Pilar Alonso deal with the effect that an expert and contextual
instruction have on the learning process related to the meaning and use of modal verbs.
The authors focus on grouping and discuss the difference between the way in which
native speakers group modals and students of English as a foreign language group the
same modals. The authors also support the idea of teaching dare and used to apart
from modal verbs, considering them semi-modals.
Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual Property
Law.
+ Information
In depth
In this paper, Ignacio Vázquez Orta analyses the use of modal verbs as epistemic stance
markers. His corpus-based study shows that there are there are differences between the
use of modal verbs by native speakers and non-native Spanish writers. The most
interesting result is the difficulty non-native Spanish writers find in dealing with
hedges and boosters.
Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual Property
Law.
Webgraphy
In this session the meanings and uses of modal verbs are explained and illustrated with
a great number of examples. In a story called “Life on Mars”, we can identify and reflect
on the use of modal verbs in context. If you think you know how to use the modals, try
to do the activity “Modal Murder” where you will need to use modal verbs to solve a
riddle.
Access to the website through the virtual campus or the following link:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/course/towards-advanced/unit-
9/session-1
Exercises
4. I don’t remember…
A. to see my friend standing on the platform alone.
B. seeing my friend standing on the platform alone.
C. to seeing my friend standing on the platform alone.
7. The train was moving slowly and she was waving goodbye to a man.
A. He must be her boyfriend.
B. He has to be her boyfriend.
C. Both A and B are correct, but A expresses greater certainty.
8. Mum to Peter: “It’s time for you to take your glass of milk.”
A. Peter to his sister: “I have to take my glass of milk.”
B. Peter to his sister: “I should take my glass of milk.”
C. Peter to his sister: “I must take my glass of milk.”
Objective: learn the usage of conditional sentences, infinitives and participles, and
modal verbs.
Test
1. Choose the correct answer. Finish the sentence: Driving under the influence of
alcohol…
A. can be dangerous.
B. could been dangerous.
C. Both A and B are correct.
5. Choose the correct answer. Look at these beautiful snow covered trees!
A. It must snow for hours.
B. It must have been snowing for hours.
C. It must be snowing for hours.
6. Which sentence means the same as It is not necessary for you to do the washing up.
I will do it for you:
A. You shouldn’t do the washing up. I will do it for you.
B. You mustn’t do the washing up. I will do it for you.
C. You don’t have to do the washing up. I will do it for you.
8. Which sentence means the same as I strongly recommend the National Gallery.
A. The National Gallery is a should.
B. The National Gallery is a must.
C. Both A and B are correct.
9. You are giving advice to your sister. Choose the correct answer:
A. I think you ought to buy the blue dress.
B. I think you should buy the blue dress.
C. Both A and B are correct.