Framing (construction)

many roof systems, and in-wall wind braces are required

by building codes in many municipalities or by individ-
ual state laws in the United States. Special framed shear
walls are becoming more common to help buildings meet
the requirements of earthquake engineering and wind en-
gineering.
The alternative to framed construction is generally called
mass wall construction which is made from horizontal
layers of stacked materials such as log building, masonry,
A wooden-frame house under construction – in this example of rammed earth, adobe, etc.
platform framing the location of the upper floor is readily dis-
cerned by the wide joists between the floors, and the upper struc-
ture rests on this platform. 1 Walls

Framing, in construction is the fitting together of pieces Wall framing in house construction includes the verti-
to give a structure support and shape[1] and sometimes is cal and horizontal members of exterior walls and interior
used as a noun such as “the framing” or “framing mem- partitions, both of bearing walls and non-bearing walls.
bers”. Framing materials are usually wood, engineered These stick members, referred to as studs, wall plates and
wood, or structural steel. Building framing is divided lintels (headers), serve as a nailing base for all cover-
into two broad categories,[2] heavy-frame construction ing material and support the upper floor platforms, which
(heavy framing) if the vertical supports are few and heavy provide the lateral strength along a wall. The platforms
such as in timber framing, pole building framing, or steel may be the boxed structure of a ceiling and roof, or the
framing or many and smaller called light-frame con- ceiling and floor joists of the story above.[3] The tech-
struction (light framing) including balloon, platform and nique is variously referred to colloquially in the build-
light-steel framing. Light-frame construction using stan- ing trades as stick and frame, stick and platform, or stick
dardized dimensional lumber has become the dominant and box as the sticks (studs) give the structure its verti-
construction method in North America and Australia be- cal support, and the box-shaped floor sections with joists
cause of its economy. Use of minimal structural ma- contained within length-long post and lintels (more com-
terial allows builders to enclose a large area with min- monly called headers), support the weight of whatever is
imal cost, while achieving a wide variety of architec- above, including the next wall up and the roof above the
tural styles. Historically mankind fitted naturally shaped top story. The platform also provides the lateral support
wooden poles together as framework and then began us- against wind and holds the stick walls true and square.
ing joints to connect the timbers, a method today called Any lower platform supports the weight of the platforms
traditional timber framing. Timber framing was super- and walls above the level of its component headers and
seded by balloon framing beginning in the 1830s in joists.
America which is made up of many light-weight wall Framing lumber should be grade-stamped, and have a
members called studs rather than using fewer, heavier moisture content not exceeding 19%.[4]
supports called posts, and was nailed together rather than
There are three historically common methods of framing
using joinery. The studs in a balloon frame extend two
a house.
stories from sill to plate. Platform framing super-
seded balloon framing and is the standard wooden fram- • Post and beam, which is now used predominantly in
ing method today. The name comes from each floor level barn construction.
being framed as a separate unit or platform.
• Balloon framing using a technique suspending floors
Modern light-frame structures usually gain strength from
from the walls was common until the late 1940s, but
rigid panels (plywood and other plywood-like compos-
since that time, platform framing has become the
ites such as oriented strand board (OSB) used to form
predominant form of house construction.[5]
all or part of wall sections) but until recently carpenters
employed various forms of diagonal bracing to stabilize • Platform framing often forms wall sections horizon-
walls. Diagonal bracing remains a vital interior part of tally on the sub-floor prior to erection, easing posi-

1
2 1 WALLS

tioning of studs and increasing accuracy while cut- and the limitations imposed by the type and thickness of
ting the necessary manpower. The top and bottom the wall covering used. Wider 1.5 in × 5.5 in (38 mm ×
plates are end-nailed to each stud with two nails at 140 mm) studs may be used to provide space for more
least 3.25 in (83 mm) in length (16d or 16 penny insulation. Insulation beyond that which can be accom-
nails). Studs are at least doubled (creating posts) at modated within a 3.5 in (89 mm) stud space can also be
openings, the jack stud being cut to receive the lin- provided by other means, such as rigid or semi-rigid insu-
tels(headers) that are placed and end-nailed through lation or batts between 1.5 in × 1.5 in (38 mm × 38 mm)
the outer studs.[5] horizontal furring strips, or rigid or semi-rigid insulation
sheathing to the outside of the studs. The studs are at-
Wall sheathing, usually a plywood or other laminate, tached to horizontal top and bottom wall plates of 1.5 in
[4]
is usually applied to the framing prior to erection, (38 mm) lumber that are the same width as the studs.
thus eliminating the need to scaffold, and again in-
creasing speed and cutting manpower needs and ex-
penses. Some types of exterior sheathing, such as asphalt- 1.3 Interior partitions
impregnated fibreboard, plywood, oriented strand board
and waferboard, will provide adequate bracing to resist Interior partitions supporting floor, ceiling or roof loads
lateral loads and keep the wall square. (Construction are called loadbearing walls; others are called non-
codes in most jurisdictions require a stiff plywood sheath- loadbearing or simply partitions. Interior loadbearing
ing.) Others, such as rigid glass-fibre, asphalt-coated fi- walls are framed in the same way as exterior walls. Studs
breboard, polystyrene or polyurethane board, will not.[3] are usually 1.5 in × 3.5 in (38 mm × 89 mm) lumber
In this latter case, the wall should be reinforced with a spaced at 16 in (410 mm) on centre. This spacing may
diagonal wood or metal bracing inset into the studs.[6] be changed to 12 or 24 in (300 or 610 mm) depending
In jurisdictions subject to strong wind storms (hurricane on the loads supported and the type and thickness of the
[7]
countries, tornado alleys) local codes or state law will gen- wall finish used.
erally require both the diagonal wind braces and the stiff Partitions can be built with 1.5 in × 2.5 in (38 mm × 64
exterior sheathing regardless of the type and kind of outer mm) or 1.5 in × 3.5 in (38 mm × 89 mm) studs spaced
weather resistant coverings. at 16 or 24 in (410 or 610 mm) on center depending on
the type and thickness of the wall finish used. Where a
partition does not contain a swinging door, 1.5 in × 3.5 in
1.1 Corners (38 mm × 89 mm) studs at 16 in (410 mm) on centre are
sometimes used with the wide face of the stud parallel
A multiple-stud post made up of at least three studs, or
to the wall. This is usually done only for partitions en-
the equivalent, is generally used at exterior corners and
closing clothes closets or cupboards to save space. Since
intersections to secure a good tie between adjoining walls
there is no vertical load to be supported by partitions, sin-
and to provide nailing support for the interior finish and
gle studs may be used at door openings. The top of the
exterior sheathing. Corners and intersections, however,
opening may be bridged with a single piece of 1.5 in (38
must be framed with at least two studs.[7]
mm) lumber the same width as the studs. These members
Nailing support for the edges of the ceiling is required at provide a nailing support for wall finish, door frames and
the junction of the wall and ceiling where partitions run trim.[7]
parallel to the ceiling joists. This material is commonly
referred to as 'dead wood'[8] or backing.
1.4 Lintels (headers)
1.2 Exterior wall studs Lintels (or, headers) are the horizontal members placed
over window, door and other openings to carry loads to
Wall framing in house construction includes the vertical the adjoining studs.[3] Lintels are usually constructed of
and horizontal members of exterior walls and interior par- two pieces of 2 in (nominal) (38 mm) lumber separated
titions. These members, referred to as studs, wall plates with spacers to the width of the studs and nailed together
and lintels, serve as a nailing base for all covering material to form a single unit. The preferable spacer material is
and support the upper floors, ceiling and roof.[3] rigid insulation.[9] The depth of a lintel is determined by
Exterior wall studs are the vertical members to which the the width of the opening and vertical loads supported.
wall sheathing and cladding are attached.[9] They are sup-
ported on a bottom plate or foundation sill and in turn
support the top plate. Studs usually consist of 1.5 in × 1.5 Wall sections
3.5 in (38 mm × 89 mm) or 1.5 in × 5.5 in (38 mm ×
140 mm) lumber and are commonly spaced at 16 in (410 The complete wall sections are then raised and put in
mm) on centre. This spacing may be changed to 12 or place, temporary braces added and the bottom plates
24 in (300 or 610 mm) on centre depending on the load nailed through the subfloor to the floor framing members.
 3

The braces should have their larger dimension on the ver- on the studs with a storey pole. Once popular when long
tical and should permit adjustment of the vertical position lumber was plentiful, balloon framing has been largely
of the wall.[6] replaced by platform framing.
Once the assembled sections are plumbed, they are nailed It is not certain who introduced balloon framing in the
together at the corners and intersections. A strip of United States. However, the first building using balloon
polyethylene is often placed between the interior walls framing was possibly a warehouse constructed in 1832 in
and the exterior wall, and above the first top plate of inte-Chicago, Illinois, by George Washington Snow.[13] Ar-
rior walls before the second top plate is applied to attain chitectural critic Sigfried Giedion cited Chicago archi-
continuity of the air barrier when polyethylene is serving tect J. M. Van Osdel’s 1880s attribution, as well as A. T.
this function.[6] Andreas’ 1885 History of Chicago, to credit Snow as 'in-
A second top plate, with joints offset at least one stud ventor of the balloon frame method'.[14] In 1833, Augus-
space away from the joints in the plate beneath, is then tine Taylor (1796–1891) constructed St. Mary’s Catholic
added. This second top plate usually laps the first plate at Church in Chicago using the balloon framing method.
the corners and partition intersections and, when nailed
in place, provides an additional tie to the framed walls. In the 1830s, Hoosier Solon Robinson pub-
Where the second top plate does not lap the plate imme- lished articles about a revolutionary new fram-
diately underneath at corner and partition intersections, ing system, called “balloon framing” by later
these may be tied with 0.036 in (0.91 mm) galvanized builders. Robinson’s system called for standard
steel plates at least 3 in (76 mm) wide and 6 in (150 mm) 2x4 lumber, nailed together to form a sturdy,
long, nailed with at least three 2.5 in (64 mm) nails to light skeleton. Builders were reluctant to adopt
each wall.[6] the new technology, however, by the 1880s,
some form of 2x4 framing was standard.[15]

2 Balloon framing Alternatively, the balloon frame has been shown to have
been introduced in Missouri as much as fifty years
earlier.[16]
The name comes from a French Missouri type of con-
struction, maison en boulin,[16] boulin being a French
term for a horizontal scaffolding support. Historians have
also fabricated the following story:[17] As Taylor was con-
structing his first such building, St. Mary’s Church, in
1833, skilled carpenters looked on at the comparatively
thin framing members, all held together with nails, and
declared this method of construction to be no more sub-
stantial than a balloon. It would surely blow over in the
next wind! Though the criticism proved baseless, the
name stuck.[18]
Although lumber was plentiful in 19th-century America,
skilled labor was not. The advent of cheap machine-made
nails, along with water-powered sawmills in the early 19th
century made balloon framing highly attractive, because
it did not require highly skilled carpenters, as did the
dovetail joints, mortises and tenons required by post-and-
beam construction. For the first time, any farmer could
build his own buildings without a time-consuming learn-
ing curve.[19]
It has been said that balloon framing populated the west-
ern United States and the western provinces of Canada.
Balloon framing is a method of wood construction – also Without it, western boomtowns certainly could not have
known as “Chicago construction” in the 19th century[10] blossomed overnight.[20] It is also a fair certainty that,
– used primarily in Scandinavia, Canada and the United by radically reducing construction costs, balloon framing
States (up until the mid-1950s). It utilizes long continu- improved the shelter options of poorer North Americans.
ous framing members (studs) that run from the sill plate For example, many 19th-century New England working
to the top plate, with intermediate floor structures let into neighborhoods consist of balloon-constructed three-story
and nailed to them.[11][12] Here the heights of window apartment buildings referred to as triple deckers.
sills, headers and next floor height would be marked out The main difference between platform and balloon fram-
4 3 PLATFORM FRAMING

lengths, balloon framing is growing in popularity again

in light gauge steel stud construction. Balloon framing
provides a more direct load path down to the foundation.
Additionally, balloon framing allows more flexibility for
tradesmen in that it is significantly easier to pull wire, pip-
ing and ducting without having to bore through or work
around framing members.

3 Platform framing

A very unusual example of balloon framing: The Jim Kaney In Canada and the United States, the most common
Round Barn, Adeline, Illinois, U.S.A. method of light-frame construction for houses and small
apartment buildings as well as other small commercial
buildings is platform framing. In builder parlance, plat-
ing is at the floor lines. The balloon wall studs extend form framing might also nowadays be called (only partly
from the sill of the first story all the way to the top plate correctly) 'stick framing' or 'stick construction' as each
or end rafter of the second story. The platform-framed element is built up stick by stick, which was also true
wall, on the other hand, is independent for each floor.[21] in the other stick framing method, in the obsolete and
Balloon framing has several disadvantages as a construc- labor-intensive, but previously fashionable, balloon fram-
tion method: ing method, wherein the outside walls were erected, head-
ers hung, then floor joists were inserted into a box made
1. The creation of a path for fire to readily travel from of walls.
floor to floor. This is mitigated with the use of In contrast, in platform framing a floor box and joists
firestops, now called fireblocks, at each floor level. making up the platform is built and placed on a support-
2. The lack of a working platform for work on upper ing under structure (sill plates, headers, or beams) where
floors. Whereas workers can readily reach the top of it sits flat and gets fastened down against wind lifting with
the walls being erected with platform framing, bal- galvanized metal tie straps. Once the boxed floor plat-
loon construction requires scaffolding to reach the form is squared, leveled and fastened then subfloor, walls,
tops of the walls (which are often two or three sto- ceilings, and roof are built onto and above that initial plat-
ries above the working platform). form, which can be repeated floor by floor, 'without the
slow downs and dangers of fastening and leveling rough-
3. The requirement for long framing members. sawn joists of a new floor together to the walls from lad-
4. In certain larger buildings, a noticeable down-slope ders extending one or even two stories up.
of floors towards central walls, caused by the differ- Generally, the flooring ('platform') is constructed then the
ential shrinkage of the wood-framing members at walls built on top of that layer, then another atop that,
the perimeter versus central walls. Larger balloon- and so forth making for quick efficient labor saving con-
framed buildings will have central bearing walls struction methodologies and those have quickened fur-
which are actually platform framed and thus will ther as technologies such as joist hangers have been de-
have horizontal sill and top plates at each floor level, veloped to speed and enhance the technology. The meth-
plus the intervening floor joists, at these central ods and techniques have become so common and perva-
walls. Wood will shrink much more across its grain sive that even Skyscrapers use a modified form of plat-
than along the grain. Therefore, the cumulative form framing techniques and indeed the same tools and
shrinkage in the center of such a building is con- technologies once construction builds the initial struc-
siderably more than the shrinkage at the perimeter tural skeleton. Once the platform floor is laid down, the
where there are many fewer horizontal members. builder’s crew can with chalk line, rule and pencil directly
This problem, unlike the first three, takes time to transfer an outline of the exterior and interior walls, their
develop and become noticeable. openings and relative locations with ease and precision
from the plans or builders blue prints.
5. Present-day balloon framing buildings often have
As the survey group lays down the notations and chalk
higher heating costs, due to the lack of insulation
lines, a carpenter crew can follow behind and lay down
separating a room from its exterior walls. However,
2x4 'bottom plates’ and tack them to the floor box. The
this can be remedied through the addition of insula-
tion, as with any other framed building. topmost wall plates are cut only to the outside dimensions
of the walls. Butting two other two by fours against these
Since steel is generally more fire-resistant than wood, cut to size and fastened bottom plate allows the crew to
and steel framing members can be made to arbitrary rule across all three with square and lay out studs, cripple
 5

studs, and openings for that particular wall. The two loose or tripled up wider types of 2x boards) are attached to
studs are then quickly flipped on edge after openings are the piers using galvanized metal brackets and serve the
cut in, and studs added on the marks with quick reliable same function as sills in foundation supported framing.
end nailing through the respective top and bottom plates. The floors, walls and roof of a framed structure are cre-
A few minutes later the whole wall section can be levered ated by assembling (using nails) consistently sized fram-
up and aligned in place and braced for later application of ing elements of dimensional lumber (e.g. 2×4s) at regu-
the top plates and adjoining walls. lar spacings (typically divisions of 4 and 8 feet, or such
The method provides builders options and flexibility such as 12, 16, 19.2, or 24 inches on center). The empty space
as when and where there is a floor-level opening (door- formed between elements is called a stud bay in the wall
way) the next wall section can be aligned and fastened in and a joist bay in the floor or ceiling. The floors, walls and
place separately with the top plate added then used then a roof are typically made torsionally stable with the instal-
lintel and cripple studding added, or the entire wall could lation of a plywood or composite wood skin referred to
have been cut and joined at the top all along and lifted up as sheathing . Sheathing has very specific requirements
as one entity. In the end, the outside walls are plumbed (such as thickness and spacing of nailing). These mea-
and fastened together with 'ell-configured reinforced cor- sures allow a known amount of shear force to be resisted
ners’ that provide nailing wood in the interior angles and by the elements. Spacing the framing members properly
strength to the building forming in effect wide posts at usually allows them to align with the edges of standard
each corner and fastened lastly by overlapped top plates sheathing. In the past, tongue and groove planks installed
which stagger their joints from the ones capping each diagonally were used as sheathing. Occasionally, wooden
plate by which the studs are end nailed together. Each or galvanized steel braces are used instead of sheathing.
wall from top to bottom ends up with a doubled plate, There are also engineered wood panels made for shear
studs, and a doubled plate, where structurally the doubled and bracing.
plates spread the weight of the roof and loading across the The floor, or the platform in this framing type’s name,
studs of the wall, ultimately to the foundation. is made up of joists (usually 2x6, 2×8, 2×10 or 2×12 de-
Overall, the framed structure sits (most commonly) atop pending on the span, on edge thus the wider joist support-
a concrete foundation on pressure treated wood 'sill', or ing weight for a greater distance) that sit on supporting
'beam'. When on concrete, the sill plate is anchored, foundation walls, beams, columns or girders within and
usually with (embedded) 'J' bolts into the concrete sub- at right angle to doubled outside members also on edge
strate of the foundation wall. Generally these plates must (the band), forming a box. The outer perimeter is nearly
be pressure treated to keep from rotting from condens- the same (3 inch vs. 3.5 inches) width as the support sill.
ing moisture. By various standards the bottom of the The joists will generally be installed across the shortest
sill plate is located a minimum 6 inches (150 mm) above distance of any floor span rectangle. The outer layer of
the finished grade (the surrounding ground) per standard the band will overlap the inner layer with staggered end
builders practices, and frequently more dependent upon joints creating a stronger box. If joist hangers are not
building codes of the relevant jurisdiction’s local building used, the installation of the outer board in the band is de-
codes. In North America, building codes may differ not layed to allow through-nailing directly into the ends of the
only state to state, but town to town, the tighter specifi- joists.
cation applying at all times. This distance, together with The floor joists are spaced at 12 in, 16 in, and 24 in on
roofing overhangs, and other system factors, is most often center, depending upon the live load needs of the design
selected both to prevent the sill-plate from rotting (due to – the closer the spacing and the wider the floor joist di-
the invasion of splashed water) as well as providing a ter- mension, the less the floor will flex. It is then usually
mite barrier. The latter is particularly (more or less) im- covered with a 3/4-inch tongue-and-groove plywood sub-
portant than anti-rotting considerations depending upon floor. In the century past, 1x planks set at 45-degrees
the geographical location. to the joists were used for the first subfloor layer, and a
Alternatively, the room, room extension, deck or even a second layer of 1x planks set at 90-degrees to the floor
house can be built above concrete columns U.S. builders cladding topped that as the second subfloor layer. In that
call piers some others call pilasters, another of many term same era, all flooring choices were a very short menu of
misuses common to building trade parlance. In such choices between finished wood types or ceramic tiles ver-
cases, the pier (column) is usually required to rest on bed sus today’s extensive multipage menu of manufactured
rock or extend well below the zone of average freezing flooring types.
soil depth (the same as a foundation) locally, and fre- Where the design calls for a framed floor, the resulting
quently is required to also have flared out or mushroomed platform is where the framer will construct and stand that
bottom of greater surface than that the pier top (these are floor’s walls (interior and exterior load bearing walls and
called 'big foots’ in the building trade, and building sup- space-dividing, non-load bearing partitions). Additional
pliers carry PVC molds to conserve concrete which allow framed floors and their walls may then be erected to a
a builder to satisfy area requirements and the building general maximum of four in wood framed construction.
codes). Rigid pressure treated 'beams’ (usually doubled
6 4 MATERIALS

There will be no framed floor in the case of a single-level ings are typically spanned by a header or lintel that bears
structure with a concrete floor known as a slab on grade. the weight of structure above the opening. Headers are
Stairs between floors are framed by installing three 90°- usually built to rest on trimmers, also called jacks. Areas
stepped stringers attached to wall structures and then plac- around windows are defined by a sill beneath the window,
ing the horizontal treads and vertical risers (usually about and cripples, which are shorter studs that span the area
14 of each for an 8-ft. ceiling) upon the planes formed from the bottom plate to the sill and sometimes from the
by the stringers. top of the window to a header, or from a header to a top
plate. Diagonal bracings made of wood or steel provide
A framed roof is an assembly of rafters and wall-ties sup- shear (horizontal strength) as do panels of sheeting nailed
ported by the top story’s walls. Prefabricated and site- to studs, sills and headers.
built trussed rafters are also used along with the more
common stick framing method. Trusses are engineered
to redistribute tension away from wall-tie members and
the ceiling members. The roof members are covered with
sheathing or strapping to form the roof deck for the finish
roofing material.
Floor joists can be engineered lumber (trussed, I-joist,
etc.), conserving resources with increased rigidity and
value. They are semi-custom manufactured to allow
access for runs of plumbing, HVAC, etc. and some
'common-needs’ forms are pre-manufactured as semi-
mass-produced standard products made on a per order
basis, like roofing trusses. Such products have a post-
order lead time from several weeks to several months.
Double framing is a style of framing used in some areas
to reduce heat loss and air infiltration. Two walls are built
around the perimeter of the building with a small gap in Light-gauge metal stud framing
between. The inner wall carries the structural load of the
building and is constructed as described above. The ex-
terior wall is not load bearing and can be constructed us- Wall sections usually include a bottom plate which is se-
ing lighter materials. Insulation is installed in the entire cured to the structure of a floor, and one, or more often
space between the outside edge of the exterior wall and two top plates that tie walls together and provide a bearing
the inside edge of the interior wall. The size of the gap for structures above the wall. Wood or steel floor frames
depends upon how much insulation is desired. The va- usually include a rim joist around the perimeter of a sys-
por barrier is installed on the outside of the inner wall, tem of floor joists, and often include bridging material
rather than between the studs and drywall of a standard near the center of a span to prevent lateral buckling of
framed structure. This increases its effectiveness as it is the spanning members. In two-story construction, open-
not perforated by electrical and plumbing connections. ings are left in the floor system for a stairwell, in which
stair risers and treads are most often attached to squared
faces cut into sloping stair stringers.
4 Materials Interior wall coverings in light-frame construction typ-
ically include wallboard, lath and plaster or decorative
Light-frame materials are most often wood or rectangu- wood paneling.
lar steel, tubes or C-channels. Wood pieces are typically
connected with nail fastener nails or screws; steel pieces Exterior finishes for walls and ceilings often include ply-
are connected with nuts and bolts. Preferred species for wood or composite sheathing, brick or stone veneers,
linear structural members are softwoods such as spruce, and various stucco finishes. Cavities between studs,
pine and fir. Light frame material dimensions range from usually placed 40–60 cm (16–24 in) apart, are usually
38 by 89 mm (1.5 by 3.5 in); i.e., a Dimensional number filled with insulation materials, such as fiberglass bat-
two-by-four to 5 cm by 30 cm (two-by-twelve inches) at ting, or cellulose filling sometimes made of recycled
the cross-section, and lengths ranging from convert 2.5 newsprint treated with boron additives for fire prevention
mm ft for walls to convert 7 m ft or more for joists and and vermin control.
rafters. Recently, architects have begun experimenting In natural building, straw bales, cob and adobe may be
with pre-cut modular aluminum framing to reduce on- used for both exterior and interior walls.
site construction costs. The part of a structural building that goes diagonally
Wall panels built of studs are interrupted by sections that across a wall is called a T-bar. It stops the walls from
provide rough openings for doors and windows. Open- collapsing in gusty winds.
 7

5 Roofs 6 Structure
Light-frame buildings are often erected on monolithic
Main article: Roof concrete-slab foundations that serve both as a floor and
Roofs are usually built to provide a sloping surface in- as a support for the structure. Other light-frame buildings
are built over a crawlspace or a basement, with wood or
steel joists used to span between foundation walls, usually
constructed of poured concrete or concrete blocks.
Engineered components are commonly used to form
floor, ceiling and roof structures in place of solid wood.
I-joists (closed-web trusses) are often made from lami-
nated woods, most often chipped poplar wood, in panels
as thin as 1 cm (0.39 in), glued between horizontally lam-
inated members of less than 4 cm by 4 cm (two-by-twos),
to span distances of as much as 9 m (30 ft). Open web
trussed joists and rafters are often formed of 4 cm by 9
cm (two-by-four) wood members to provide support for
floors, roofing systems and ceiling finishes.

A construction worker roofing a home in Phoenix, Arizona.

7 See also
• Framer
• Light timber construction schools
tended to shed rain or snow, with slopes ranging from 1
• Log building
cm of rise per 15 cm (less than an inch per linear foot) of
rafter run (horizontal span), to steep slopes of more than 2 • Steel frame
cm per cm (two feet per foot) of rafter run. A light-frame
structure built mostly inside sloping walls comprising a • Tessellated roof
roof is called an A-frame. • Timber framing
Roofs are most often covered with shingles made of as- • Termite shield
phalt, fiberglass and small gravel coating, but a wide range
of materials are used. Molten tar is often used to water-
proof flatter roofs, but newer materials include rubber and
synthetic materials. Steel panels are popular roof cover- 8 References
ings in some areas, preferred for their durability. Slate
or tile roofs offer more historic coverings for light-frame [1] Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM
(v. 4.0) © Oxford University Press 2009. Frame, Fram-
roofs.
ing, Framer, Framework, Frame-house.
Light-frame methods allow easy construction of unique
[2] Townsend, Gilbert. Carpentry and joinery: a practical
roof designs; hip roofs, for example, slope toward walls
treatise on simple building construction, including fram-
on all sides and are joined at hip rafters that span from
ing, roof construction, general carpentry work, and exte-
corners to a ridge. Valleys are formed when two slop- rior and interior finish of buildings. Chicago: American
ing roof sections drain toward each other. Dormers are Technical Society, 1913. Print. 17.
small areas in which vertical walls interrupt a roof line,
and which are topped off by slopes at usually right an- [3] McKeever, D.B.; Phelps, R.B. (1994). “Wood products
gles to a main roof section. Gables are formed when a used in new single-family house construction: 1950 to
1992” (PDF). Forest Products Journal. Retrieved March
length-wise section of sloping roof ends to form a trian-
3, 2007.
gular wall section. Clerestories are formed by an inter-
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 9

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text
• Framing (construction) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framing%20(construction)?oldid=646899728 Contributors: Heron, Paul
A, Julesd, Moncrief, Alan Liefting, NeoJustin, Jackol, Onco p53, Jpgordon, Circeus, Stesmo, Giraffedata, Pauli133, Versageek, TVBZ28,
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• File:Balloon_frame.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Balloon_frame.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
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• File:Jim_Kaney_Round_Barn,_Adeline,_IL_01.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Jim_Kaney_
Round_Barn%2C_Adeline%2C_IL_01.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Jacobson (Kranar Drogin)
• File:LeBlanc_Roofing.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/LeBlanc_Roofing.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/niosh/9253633549/ Original artist: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
• File:Light_gage_metal_framing.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Light_gage_metal_framing.JPG
License: Public domain Contributors: own work (english version) Original artist: P199
• File:P_parthenon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
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• File:Wood-framed_house.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Wood-framed_house.jpg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jaksmata

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