[METEOROLOGY (PPL)

Meteorology – science that studies atmospheric phenomena, especially those that

relate to weather.

I. NATURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere
- A remarkable mixture of life-giving gases that surround our planet.

Composition of the atmosphere:

78% - nitrogen
21% - oxygen
1% - other gases (neon, carbon monoxide, helium, argon)

Layers of the atmosphere:

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere

For flight purposes, the atmosphere is divided into two layers:

(1) The upper layer (Stratosphere) – where temperature remains

practically constant; and

(2) The lower layer (Troposphere) – where temperature changes; the

region where all weather occurs (the top lies 5 to 10 miles above the Earth’s
surface).

∙Standard temperature: 15 °C (59 °F)

∙Standard pressure: 29.92 in.Hg (1013.2 mb)
∙Normal temperature lapse rate: 2 °C (3.5 °F) for every 1,000 ft, until air
temperature reaches about -55 °C (-67 °F) at 7 miles above the Earth

Barometer – used to measure atmospheric pressure

II. ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION

Weather is caused by the uneven heating of the Earth’s atmosphere.

At the equator, the earth receives more heat that in areas to the north and south.
The heat is transferred to the atmosphere, warming the air and causing it to expand

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and become less dense. Colder air to the north and south, being more dense, moves
toward the equator forcing the less dense air upward, thus establishing a constant
circulation.

3 cells:
1. Tropical
2. Mid-latitude
3. Polar

This theoretical pattern, however, is greatly modified by many forces, a very

important one being the rotation of the Earth.

Coriolis force – deflective force created by the difference in rotational velocity

between the equator and the poles.

Air density
- Differences in air density caused by changes in temperature result in changes
in pressure. This, in turn, creates motion in the atmosphere, both vertically
and horizontally (current and winds). This action, when mixed with
moisture, produces clouds and precipitation – in fact, these are the
phenomenon called “weather”.

Wind
- Pressure and temperature changes produce two kinds of motion in the
atmosphere: Vertical movement of ascending and descending currents, and
horizontal flow known as “wind”.

Wind patterns
- Air flows from an area of high pressure to low pressure. In the Northern
Hemisphere, the air is deflected to the right (clockwise) during this flow;
as it enters a low pressure area, it is deflected in a counterclockwise
manner.

Pressure systems
1. High pressure area – good weather.
2. Low pressure area – bad weather.
3. Ridge – an elongated area of high
4. Trough – an elongated area of low
5. Col – a neutral area of two highs and two lows or an intersection of a ridge
and a trough

*Isobars – line on weather maps that shows equal or constant barometric pressure
*Pressure gradient – rate of decrease of pressure per amount distance at a fixed line;
change of pressure over distance

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Convection/Process of convection
- Circulating motion that results when warm air rises and replaced by
cooler air; causes small local circulations called “convection current”.

Local wind patterns:

a. Sea breeze – wind that blows from the cool water to the warmer land
b. Land breeze – blows from the cooler land to the warmer water
c. Valley wind – cooler air over the valley sinks and air close to the mountain
flows upward
d. Mountain wind – cooler air flows down the slope and displaces the air in
the valley

*Katabatic (night) – downwards (mountain)

*Anabatic (day) - upwards

Effects of obstruction on wind

- When the wind flows around an obstruction, it breaks into eddies – gusts
with sudden changes in speed and direction. This is more noticeable
where larger obstructions such as mountains are involved (windward
side and leeward side).

Wind shear
- A change in wind direction and/or speed within a very short distance in the
atmosphere.
- The most prominent meteorological phenomena that cause significant low-
level wind shear problems are thunderstorms and certain frontal systems at or near
an airport.

III. MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE

The atmosphere always contains a certain amount of foreign matter – smoke, dust,
salt particles, and particularly moisture in the form of water vapor.

Humidity –apparent “dampness” in the air.

Relative humidity – the ratio of the amount of moisture present in any given
volume of air to the amount of moisture the air could hold in that volume of air at
prevailing temperature and pressure.

Temperature/Dewpoint relationship
- Dewpoint is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become
saturated (100% relative humidity).
- Dewpoint is significant to the pilot because it represents a critical condition
of the air. At dewpoint, water vapor is condensed, becoming visible on the ground as

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dew or frost, appearing in the air as fog or clouds, or falling to the Earth as rain,
snow, or hail.

*When temperature and dewpoint are close together, there is a good possibility for
low clouds and fog to form.

Precipitation – any form of water particle that fall from the atmosphere and reach
the surface (rain, drizzle, snow, hail, etc.)

*Virga – rain that does not reach the ground)

Fogs
- When the air near the ground is four of five degrees above the dewpoint,
the water vapor condenses and becomes visible as fog (limits visibility).

Types of fogs:
∙ Radiation – formed by the cooling of land after sunset by thermal radiation in calm
conditions with clear sky
∙ Advection – warm moist air from the sea hits cool air in the ground
∙ Frontal – clouds pushed down when warm air when two air masses meet
∙ Steam – cold air blows over a warm, moist surface (a warm sea or wet land)
∙ Upslope- forms when winds blow air up a slope

Clouds
- A visible body of very fine water droplets or ice particles suspended in
the atmosphere at altitudes ranging up to several miles above sea level.

∙ High clouds – cirrus: cirrocumulus, cirrostratus, etc. (cloud base ~20,000 ft)
∙ Middle level clouds – alto: altocumulus, altostratus, etc. (cloud base ~6,500 ft)
∙ Low level – stratus: stratocumulus, etc. (below 6,500 ft)
∙ Clouds with extensive vertical development – cumulonimbus (CB)

Thunderstorms
- A form of weather characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic
effect on the earth’s atmosphere known as thunder.

3 stages of a thunderstorm
1. Cumulus stage
2. Mature stage
3. Dissipating stage
*Squall line thunderstorm – most hazardous type of thunderstorm

Ceiling
-The lowest broken, overcast layer, or vertical stability into an obscuration.
*Cloud base = Air temp. – dewpoint / 4.4 °F(2.5 °C)

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Stability
-Atmosphere’s resistance to vertical motion.

Stable air Unstable air

Clouds Wide areas of layered or stratiform Cumuliform with extensive
clouds or fogs; gray at low altitude, vertical development; bright
thin white at high altitude white to black
Precipitation Small droplets in fog and low-level Large drops in heavy rain
clouds; large droplets in thick stratified showers; showers usually
clouds; widespread and lengthy periods brief; hail possible
or rain or snow
Visibility Restricted visibility Poor in showers and
thunderstorms; good
otherwise
Turbulence Usually light or non-existent Moderate to severe
Icing Moderate in mid-altitudes; freezing Moderate to severe clear
rain, rime, or clear ice ice
Other Frost, dew, temperature inversion High or gusty surface winds,
lightning, tornadoes

IV. AIR MASSES AND FRONTS

Air mass - a large body of air with fairly uniform temperature and moisture content.

Source regions – areas where an air mass acquires the properties of temperature
and moisture that determine its stability; an ideal source region is a large area with
fairly uniform geography and temperature

Classifications:
1. Temperature – polar or tropical
2. Moisture – continental or maritime

*Continental polar – from polar land mass; contains cold, dry, and stable air
*Maritime tropical – from water; contains warm, moist, and unstable air

Front
- a discontinuity between two air masses

1. Cold front - occurs when cold air displaces warm air.

2. Warm front - occurs when warm air overruns colder air.
3. Occluded front - a condition in which a warm air mass is trapped between
two colder air masses and forced aloft to higher and higher levels until it
finally spreads out and loses its identity.

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 V. WEATHER FORECASTING

Aviation weather reports provide information on existing conditions at the time the
report was generated.

1. Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)

- contains various weather elements in a coded form (updated hourly)

2. Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)

- reported by pilots in flight; timely and helpful observation to fill in the gap
between reporting station

3. Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)

- prepared to give a description of expected conditions at an airport and
within a 5 nautical mile radius; a concise statement of the expected
meteorological conditions over a specified time period (usually 24 hours)

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