Chapter 2: Interactions of Radiation

with Matter
Slide set of 52 slides based on the chapter authored by
J. R. Cunningham and D. R. Dance
of the IAEA publication (ISBN 978-92-0-131010-1):

Diagnostic Radiology Physics:

A Handbook for Teachers and Students
Objective:
To familiarize students with the physics of events that occur when
photons and electrons interact with matter
Slide set prepared
by E.Okuno (S. Paulo, Brazil,
Institute of Physics of S. Paulo University)

IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
Chapter 2. TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Interactions of photons with matter
2.3. Photon attenuation coefficients
2.4. Interactions of electrons with matter
2.5. Data sources

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 2
2.1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the physics of events that occur

when photons and electrons interact with matter. These
are the radiations that are important for diagnostic
radiology, and only those interactions which result in
their attenuation, absorption and scattering are dealt with
The energy range used for diagnostic radiology is
generally on the boundary between classical and
quantum physics and following the “Complementarity
Principle”, the numerical details of the interactions will
be treated by classical reasoning where that is
appropriate and by quantum mechanical considerations
where that gives superior results

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 3
2.1. INTRODUCTION

The interaction of photons and electrons, as they

traverse matter, are stochastic and obey the laws of
chance, although, with very different behaviour:
• Photons in general have none, one or a few
interactions and are exponentially attenuated
Photon interactions are expressed in terms of
cross-sections for individual interactions and
attenuation coefficients for passage through bulk media

• Electrons experience large numbers of interactions

and in general gradually lose energy until they are
stopped. This is expressed in terms of electron range
and material stopping powers

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 4
2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

The probability of a single photon incident on a

slab of material of area A, that contains one
target of cross-sectional area σ, interacting with
the target will be the ratio of the two areas: σ/A

If there are Φ photons randomly directed at area A, that

contains n targets, each with area σ, the expected
number of interactions ∆Φ between photons and
targets will be ∆Φ = Φ n (σ A)

Another way of saying this is that the probability of a

projectile making a hit is n (σ/A), which is just the
fraction of the area that is blocked off by the targets

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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

Changing now the targets to: atoms, their

cross-section would be an atomic cross-section

This wouldn’t be an actual area of the atom, but

would be an effective area – effective for an
interaction between the photon and the atom that is
being considered

Cross-sections are frequently represented by

the symbol σ and conventionally expressed in
a unit of area called the barn (b)
1 barn = 10-28 m2
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

There are four fundamental X-ray interactions that we need to

consider; each can be associated with a specific cross-section

Interaction Cross-section
photoelectric effect τ
coherent scattering σcoh
incoherent scattering σincoh
pair and triplet production κ
The first three of these interactions are important in the
diagnostic energy range up to 150 keV
Pair and triplet production are only important at much higher
energies and are only treated here for completeness

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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.1. Photoelectric Effect

In the photoelectric effect the incident photon interacts

with an atom and disappears. A photoelectron is ejected
The photoelectric effect can only take place if the photon energy
hν > Es (binding energy)
The most probable electron shell to lose an electron is the one that
satisfies this constraint and has the highest binding energy
before collision after collision

K K
L L
hν
photoelectron
M M T = hν - Es
N
N
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.1. Photoelectric Effect

Calculation of the probability of the interaction is very complicated

and quantum mechanics is required
In the diagnostic energy range up to 150 keV, the photoelectric
effect cross-section per atom, τ, is approximately given by:
k is a constant
n Z is the atomic number
Z
τ (hν , Z )= k n is an exponent in the range 3.6-5.3, being largest
(hv )m for low atomic numbers
m is an exponent in the range 2.5-3.5, again being
largest for low atomic numbers

A typical dependence of τ in the diagnostic photon energy range is:

Z4
τ∝
(hv )3
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 2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.1. Photoelectric Effect

The sharp discontinuities correspond to the positions of the

absorption edges for the different materials, which increase in
energy with increasing atomic number and shell binding energy
10 8
For tungsten, the discontinuity seen at
W
69.5 keV represents the effect of the K
τ (b/atom)

10 6 Mo
shell. At an energy just less than this,
Cu
the cross section is 6.4 x 102 b/atom,
10 4 W K-edge while just above this energy, the
coefficient is 3.3 x 103 b/atom. This
10 2
represents a sudden increase in
cross-section of about a factor of five
10 0
1 10 100 when the photon energy increases
Photon Energy (keV) above that of the K shell (K-edge)
Atomic photoelectric cross sections for
Thus the major contribution to the
copper, molybdenum and tungsten
cross-section above the K-edge
comes from interactions with the two
K-shell electrons
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.2. Thomson Scattering

J.J. Thomson gave the first treatment of the scattering

of photons by electrons in the very early years of the
20th century
The probability that the photon
Scattered photon dΩ will interact and be scattered
into solid angle dΩ is
dσ
proportional to: dΩ
dΩ
Incident photon θ dσ
is the differential cross section
dV
dΩ

A photon incident on a small volume

The total cross section is
element dV is scattered through angle
obtained by integrating over all
θ into the solid angle element dΩ solid angles: dσ σ=∫ dΩ
dΩ
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.2. Thomson Scattering

Thomson’s derivation of the scattering of a photon by a

single free electron at rest is based on classical physics
and results in a description that is only meaningful at the
low energy limit of this interaction
Thomson showed that the differential
cross section, at scattering angle θ, is
given by : dσ Th r0
2 2
ke =
dΩ
=
2
(1+ cos θ )
2
r0 =
m0 c 2 2.81794 ×10
−15
m

r0 is “classical radius of the electron”

k is a proportionality constant from Coulomb’s law
e is the charge on the electron
m0 is the rest mass of the electron
c is the speed of light

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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.2. Thomson Scattering

This equation predicts that the same

Differential cross-section amount of energy will be scattered
forward as backward, and also that the
dσ Th r 2
= (1 + cos 2 θ )
0 energy scattered at right angles will be
dΩ 2 half this amount. Except at low energies,
this result does not agree with
observation or with the predictions made
by quantum mechanics
Total cross-section
2
8πr 2
r π
0
2
( 2
)
σ Th = ∫0 2π 1 + cos θ sinθ dθ =
3
= 66.52x10 −30 m 2
0

σTh is constant, predicting that the classical scattering

probability is independent of electromagnetic radiation energy
This, of course, is not correct
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.3. Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering

In deriving the expression for Thomson scattering it was

assumed that the electron was free, alone and at rest

In reality the photon is scattered collectively by the

atomic electrons which are not free, and their proximity
to one another is not very different from the wavelength
of the radiation

In coherent scattering essentially no energy is lost by the

photon as it transfers momentum to the atom and is
scattered through angle θ
The scattering by the different electrons is in phase and
the resultant angular distribution is determined by an
interference pattern which is characteristic of the atom

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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.3. Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering

dσ coh dσ Th 2
The differential cross section is then given by: = F (x, Z )
dΩ dΩ
dσ Th is the Thomson differential scattering coefficient and
dΩ F is known as the coherent form factor
It may be calculated using quantum mechanical
models

sin(θ 2) λ is the wavelength of the incident photon. The

x=
λ parameter x is proportional to the transfer of
momentum between the initial and scattered photon
directions

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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.3. Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering
Normalized form factor (F/Z)

1.00 For scattering in the forward

C direction all the atomic electrons
0.75 Fe
act together, and F is equal to the
Pt
atomic number and the differential
0.50
cross section depends upon Z2
0.25
As the scattering angle increases,
0.00 F decreases because it becomes
0.01 0.1 1 10 increasingly difficult for all the
-1
x (Å )
electrons to scatter in phase
Variation of the normalized form factor without any energy transfer
F/Z for coherent scattering with the
momentum transfer parameter x However, for a given value of the
Data from Hubbell and Øverbø, J Phys Chem Ref Data
8, 69-106 (1979)
scattering angle, the normalized
coherent form factor F/Z, increases
with increasing atomic number
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.4. Compton scattering by free electrons

Compton Scattering, like Thomson scattering,

is the interaction between electromagnetic
radiation and a free electron, but in this case
there is an energy transfer to the electron

The energy range is such that relativity and

quantum mechanics must be used to derive
expressions for the cross section

Both the photon and the electron must be

considered as particles

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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.4. Compton scattering by free electrons

Using conservation of energy and momentum

Compton relations can be derived:
hν ′ 1
scattered photon =
incident photon
hν’ hν 1+ α (1− cosθ )
p’ = hν’/c
hν
hν
p = hν /c
θ α=
m0 c 2
ϕ

ϕ = ( + α ) θ  
recoil electron cot 1 tan 
Te 2
pe

α (1 − cos θ )
Te = hν − hν ′ = hv
1 + α (1 − cos θ )
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.4. Compton scattering by free electrons
Scattered photon energy (keV)

In the diagnostic energy range

hν
α=
m 0 c 2 is small, and as a
100 consequence the energy transfer
to the recoil electron is also
50 small, being zero in the forward
direction and taking its largest
20 value when the photon is
backscattered
10
10 20 50 100
Incident photon energy (keV)
For 20 keV, 50 keV and 100 keV
incident photons, the maximum
hν ′ 1
= energy transfers to the recoil
hν 1 + α (1 − cos θ ) electron are:
α (1 − cosθ ) 1.5 keV, 8.2 keV and 28.1 keV
Te = hν − hν ′ = hv
1 + α (1 − cosθ ) respectively
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.4. Compton scattering by free electrons

The cross-section for the 0.3 0.3

scattering of a photon, with dσ/dΩ

(b/rad)
energy hν through a given 0.2
dσ/dθ
0.2

(b/sr)
angle θ, was first derived in
1928 by Klein and Nishina 0.1 0.1
using the Dirac theory of the
electron
0.0 0.0
0 50 100 150
The expression for the differential Photon scattering
Scattering angleangle (degree)
(degrees)

cross-section for scattering of Compton differential cross-sections

for scattering of 70 keV photons
photons by a single free electron
dσ KN r02
( )
is:
= 1 + cos 2 θ f KN This cross-section reduces to the Thomson
dΩ 2 cross-section when α → 0 (that is hν’/ hν → 1)

α 2 (1 − cos θ )2
2
 1   
f KN =  1 + 
1 + α (1 − cos θ )   [1 + α (1 − cos θ )][1 + cos 2
θ ] 
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.4. Compton scattering by free electrons

The total Compton cross-section (probability of

interaction per electron) for a photon of energy hν, is
obtained by integrating the differential cross section
dσ KN r02
= (1 + cos 2 θ ) f KN
dΩ 2
over solid angle. The result is:

 1+ α   2(1+ α ) ln(1+ 2α ) ln(1+ 2α ) 1+ 3α 

σ KN (hν )= 2 π r  2  
2
−  + − 2
0
 α   1+ 2α α  2α (1+ 2α ) 

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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.4. Compton scattering by free electrons

σs : Scattering coefficient
σtr : Energy transfer coefficient
σKN : Total cross section for Compton scattering

In the incoherent free electron scattering process the initial

photon energy is divided between the scattered photon and the
recoiling electron. The differential energy transfer coefficient is
dσ tr r02  α (1 − cos θ ) 
given by: = (1+ cos θ ) f KN 
2

dΩ 2  1 + α (1 − cos θ )
σtr can be obtained integrating over all angles with dΩ = 2π sin θ dθ
The scattering coefficient is, then, by definition:
σ s = σ KN − σ tr
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.5. Incoherent scattering

For incoherent scattering by bound atomic electrons, the

contributions from individual electrons are added and the
differential cross section takes the form:
dσ incoh r02
= (1+ cos2 θ ) f KN S (x, Z )
1.00 dΩ 2
scattering function (S/Z)
Normalized incoherent

C
0.75 Fe S is known as the incoherent
Pt
scattering function, and is a universal
0.50
function of the momentum transfer
0.25
quantity x and the atomic number. S is
zero in the forward direction and
0.00 increases with increasing momentum
0.01 0.1 1 10
-1
x (Å ) transfer reaching the value of Z, the
Data from Hubbell, Veigele et al., J Phys Chem number of electrons per atom. This
Ref Data 4(3) (1975)
increase becomes slower as the
atomic number increases
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.5. Incoherent scattering

The total cross section for incoherent scattering

is obtained by numerical integration of equation:

dσ incoh r02
= (1 + cos2 θ )f KN S (x, Z )
dΩ 2

In many situations it is very nearly equal to

the single electron cross section multiplied
by the number of electrons in the atom

σ incoh ≈ Z σ KN

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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.6. Pair and Triplet production

Pair When a high energy photon passes near to an atomic

nucleus, the photon may interact with the nuclear
production
Coulomb field by a process called pair production
The photon is converted into an electron-positron
pair, each with its own kinetic energy. The energy
balance is:
hν = T+ + T− + 2m0 c 2

incident photon
Pair production cannot take place for photons
hν
e- with energies less than the energy threshold
p = hν /c
T- 2 m0c2 = 1022 keV

Tatom e+
T+ As pair production occurs in the field of
the nucleus, the cross-section for this
interaction varies approximately as Z²
where Z is the nuclear charge
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2.2. INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
2.2.6. Pair and Triplet production

Triplet When a high energy photon passes near to an orbital

production electron, the photon may interact with the Coulomb
field of this electron by a process called triplet
production

The target electron is itself ejected with considerable

energy. Two electrons and one positron are thus set
into motion

The energy threshold for Triplet production is 4 m0c2

Thresholds for pair and triplet production are

much higher than the photon energies
relevant to diagnostic radiology
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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS

Photons may undergo more than one interaction as they

pass through bulk material:
An initial scatter interaction might be followed by a
second scattering process which in turn might be followed by a
third scatter, photoelectric absorption or no further interactions
with the photon leaving the bulk material, for example

To consider this macroscopic behaviour of primary photons

traversing matter
• linear attenuation coefficients and
• mass attenuation coefficients
are used, which are simply related to the total cross section
The exit beam from the bulk material will also comprise both
primary and scattered photons. Such effects are best estimated
using Monte Carlo techniques

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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.1. Linear attenuation coefficient

Consider a thin uniform slab of material of thickness

dx, which is irradiated with a beam of photons incident
normally on the slab

Individual photons may pass through the slab without

interacting, or they may be absorbed or scattered dx
The probability that an individual photon will interact
in this thin section is given by: N a σ dx

Linear attenuation coefficient: Na σ = µ ( m−1 ) = 1000 N A σ

ρ (S.I.)
Ar
Na is the number of interaction centres (atoms) per unit volume
σ is the total interaction cross section per atom
For scattering by atoms, Na may be calculated from the Avogadro
constant NA, the atomic weight Ar and the density ρ
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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.2. Exponential attenuation

Definition of fluence Φ

A radiation field at a point P can be

quantified by the physical non-
stochastic quantity fluence, which
is usually expressed in units of m-2
or cm-2, and is given by:

dN
Φ=
da
where dN is the differential of the expectation value of the number of
particles (photons, or massive particles) striking an infinitesimal
sphere with a great-circle area da surrounding point P

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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.2. Exponential attenuation

Now consider a thick slab of material. Φ(x) represents the

fluence of photons which have not interacted in the slab
after passage through thickness x. The expected change dΦ
in this fluence after passage through a further thickness dx
is given by:

dΦ = − Φ µ dx
− µx
Integrating: Φ = Φ0 e
Φ 0 is the initial fluence
This equation, known as Beer’s law,
describes the exponential attenuation of a
photon beam
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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.2. Exponential attenuation

− µx Beer’s law, describes the

Φ =Φ0 e exponential attenuation of a photon
beam

It should be noted that it describes the

number of photons which have not
interacted, also known as primary photons

At diagnostic energies other photons may

be present at depth resulting from photon
scattering interactions or the emission of
fluorescent photons following a
photoelectric interaction
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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.3. Mass attenuation coefficient

The linear attenuation coefficient µ (m-1) is

dependent on density which in turn is
dependent on the physical state of the material

As a consequence µ is not a suitable quantity

for data compilations

The quantity mass attenuation coefficient µ  m 2 

is independent of density ρ  kg 

Physical state Energy of photon (keV) µ (m-1) µ /ρ (m2/kg)

water 50 21.4 0.0226
ice 50 19.6 0.0226

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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.4. Mass energy transfer coefficients and
mass energy absorption coefficients

For dosimetric purposes it is necessary to know the energy

transferred to secondary electrons as a result of the initial interaction

d (hν )tr = Φ hν µ tr dx energy d(hν)tr transferred by interactions to

kinetic energy of electrons when photons of
energy hν traverse a distance dx in a material

T <T> is the expectation value of the energy converted to

µ tr = µ secondary electrons
hν hν is the energy of photon

µ linear attenuation coeficcient

µ tr linear transfer coefficient
µtr /ρ mass energy transfer coefficient
µen /ρ mass energy absorption coefficient
K = d (hν)tr/dm Kerma

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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.4. Mass energy transfer coefficients and
mass energy absorption coefficients

d(hν )tr Φ hν µtr dx  µtr  K (Kerma): energy

K= = = Φ hν   transferred from uncharged
dm dm  ρ  particles to matter
dm = ρ dx

Some of the energy transferred to the secondary charged particles is

lost to radiative processes in the material, mainly Bremsstrahlung

This is taken account by  µen   µtr 

the mass energy   =   (1− g )
absorption coefficient:  ρ   ρ 
g gives the energy fraction lost to radiative processes. For the
energies used in diagnostic radiology, g may be taken as zero

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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.5. Contribution of individual interactions to the
total mass attenuation coefficient

The four distinctly different mechanisms by which

photons may interact with matter compete, according
to their individual probabilities. The total mass
attenuation coefficient is therefore the sum of all the
individual mass attenuation coefficients:

µ  τ   µ coh   µ inc  κ  N
  =   +   +   +   = (τ + σ coh + σ inc + κ ) A 1000
ρ ρ  ρ   ρ  ρ Ar

The size of each attenuation coefficient will depend

on the photon energy and the atomic number of the
material

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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.5. Contribution of individual interactions to the
(cm2/g) total mass attenuation coefficient

104
The photoelectric interaction
coherent makes the dominant contribution
103
incoherent to the total interaction cross
coefficient

102 photoelectric section at the lowest energies. The

/g

101 total
steep decrease at the lower photon
Mass attenuation cm

100 energies is characteristic for the

10- 1 photoelectric effect and ends when
10- 2 incoherent (Compton) scattering
becomes dominant and remains so
10- 3
1 10 100 for the rest of the diagnostic
Photon energy (keV)
energy range. The cross-over
position for these two interactions
Mass attenuation coefficients for water for
photon energies from 1 keV to 300 keV depends on the atomic number
For water is about 30 keV

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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.5. Contribution of individual interactions to the
total mass attenuation coefficient
Mass attenuation coefficient (cm2/g)

10 4
adipose In the energy range up to
iodine 100 keV and for the high Z
10 2
gadox materials, the discontinuities
lead arising from the differences in
photoelectric absorption at K,
10 0 L and M edges are evident

10 - 2
1 10 100
The differences in absorption
Photon Energy (keV) that this creates are important
Total mass interaction coefficients for for the design of filters used to
materials relevant to diagnostic shape X-ray spectra
radiology (adipose tissue, iodine, (particularly in mammography
gadolinium oxysulphide (gadox) and and for imaging using iodinated
contrast agents)
lead
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2.3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS
2.3.6. Coefficients for compounds and mixtures

Mass attenuation coefficients and mass energy-transfer

coefficients for compounds and intimate mixtures can be
obtained by a weighted summation of the coefficients of the
constituents:

µ µ wi are the normalized weight fractions of

  = ∑   wi
 ρ  i  ρ i
the elements i (or mixture components i)
present in the absorber
 µtr   µtr 
  = ∑   wi
 ρ  i  ρ i
The mass energy-absorption coefficient for
 µen   µen 
  = ∑   wi an element accounts for the radiative
 ρ  i  ρ i losses of the secondary electrons

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2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER

Energy loss by electrons

Ionizational or collisional losses Radiative losses or Bremsstrahlung

Principal process: Interaction with the electric field

collisions with other electrons of nuclei and be decelerated so
rapidly that some of its energy
Energy losses and the changes
in direction can be quite large may be radiated away

The electron which leaves the

collision with the most energy is
assumed to be the original
incident electron. This means the
maximum energy exchange is
half of the original energy

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 39
2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER

Energy lost by charged Stopping power

particles in passing
through matter is dT
generally described using S=
a quantity called stopping dx
power S
Mass stopping power
dT is the loss in kinetic energy
of the particle as it travels a S 1 dT
distance dx. ρ is the density of =
the material
ρ ρ dx

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 40
2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
2.4.1. Ionizational (Collisional) Interactions and
Ionizational Stopping Power

This process involves collisions

between electrons travelling through
matter and electrons from atoms that
are part of the material, leaving the
atoms ionized

It is rather difficult to measure the rate of energy

lost by these interactions but is relatively easy to
calculate it. Relativity and Quantum Mechanics
must be used

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 41
2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
2.4.1. Ionizational (Collisional) Interactions and
Ionizational Stopping Power

The problem was first solved by Bethe in the early part of the 20th
century. The Ionizational Mass Stopping Power (Sion/ρ) (MeV⋅cm2 ⋅g-1)
was derived by Bethe-Bloch and extended by Sternheimer:

Sion µ  T 2 (T + 2 µ0 ) T 2 / 8 − (2T + µ0 )µ0 ln 2 

= 2π r02 N e 02 ln + +1− β − δ 
2
ρ β  2µ0 I 2
(T + µ0 )2

r0 is the “classical radius of the electron”
Ne = NA(Z/Ar), NA is the Avogadro constant
µ0 = m0c2 is the rest mass of the electron multiplied by the speed of light squared
T is the kinetic energy
β is the ratio of the speed of the electron to that of light
The density correction term δ, was added later by Sternheimer. Its effect is to reduce energy
losses, but only at high energies. At 100 MeV it can be as great as 20%
I is a semi-empirical quantity called the “Mean Excitation Energy” which is a property of the
material and increases as the atomic number of the material increases. Values of I for a large
number of materials are given by NIST

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 42
2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
2.4.1. Ionizational (Collisional) Interactions and
Ionizational Stopping Power

Sion µ0  T 2 (T + 2 µ0 ) T 2 / 8 − (2T + µ0 )µ0 ln 2 

= 2π r0 N e 2
2
ln + +1− β − δ 
2
ρ β  2µ0 I 2
(T + µ0 )2


Below 100 keV or so, the term 2π r02Ne µ0/β 2 is the most important
The factor 1/β 2 = c2/v2 makes the stopping power nearly inversely
proportional to the kinetic energy
For energies above 100 keV β is essentially 1 and the term in front
becomes nearly constant
The terms inside the square bracket increase slowly with energy
and the stopping power passes through a minimum in the
neighborhood of 1 MeV

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 43
2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
2.4.1. Ionizational (Collisional) Interactions and
Ionizational Stopping Power

Sion µ0  T 2 (T + 2 µ0 ) T 2 / 8 − (2T + µ0 )µ0 ln 2 

= 2π r0 N e 2
2
ln + +1− β − δ 
2
ρ β  2µ0 I 2
(T + µ0 )2


Dependence on atomic number is not strong

The factor in front of the square brackets contains the number of
electrons per unit mass, given by NA(Z/Ar), and remembering Z/Ar is
0.5 or slightly less, for all materials except hydrogen, the mass
stopping power decreases only slightly as atomic number increases
The mean excitation energy, I, increases as atomic number
increases, which also serves to make Sion smaller for high atomic
number materials

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 44
2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
2.4.2. Radiative Interactions and Radiative Stopping Power

When an electron passes close to a nucleus it will experience a

substantial Coulomb force and will be decelerated, radiating
energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation (Bremsstrahlung)
The quantum mechanical solution is complicated and
approximations must be made, and the most appropriate form for
the result depends on the energy range
The approximate Radiative Mass The function B = B(hν/T) is a slowly
Stopping Power (Srad/ρ )(MeV·cm2 ·g-1) varying function of T and Z with an
for diagnostic energies is: average for non-relativistic energies,
T << m0c2, of B = 16 / 3
S rad NA 2
=σ 0 Z (T + µ 0 ) B
ρ Ar The energy loss due to this process is
2 quite strongly dependent on the
1  e 2 
σ0 = = 0.580 barn/nucleus atomic number, as can be seen by the
137  µ 0 
Z2 term
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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 45
2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
2.4.3. Total Stopping Power

The total stopping power is the sum of the

ionizational and radiative stopping powers:
Stot = Sion + Srad
Stopping power (MeV ⋅ cm2 ⋅g-1)

Stopping power (MeV ⋅ cm2 ⋅g-1)

10 2 10 1
water tungsten

10 1
10 0
10 0 Radiative
Radiative
Ionizational Ionizational
10 - 1 Total
Total 10 - 1
10 - 2

10 - 3 10 - 2
10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
Energy (keV) Energy (keV)

Ionizational, radiative and total stopping powers for water

and tungsten for electron energies from 10 keV to 10 MeV
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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 46
2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
2.4.4. Stopping power in Compounds and Mixtures

The mass stopping power can be approximated for

compounds or intimate mixtures by a weighed
addition of the mass stopping power of the elemental
constituents assuming independent contribution to
stopping power:
S S
  = ∑   wi
 ρ  i  ρ i
wi are the normalized weight fractions of the elements i
present in the material. The influence of chemical
binding is neglected here

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 47
2.4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
2.4.5. Linear Energy Transfer

The mass collision stopping power characterizes the energy loss of

the electron due to all collisions. The secondary electrons resulting
from hard collisions (δ-rays) carry part of the energy some distance
away from the track and may escape the volume of interest
In radiobiology, the use of the collision stopping power can result in an
overestimation of dose. In such situations, the restricted stopping power
may be used which relates to the energy lost in the absorber by secondary
particles not exceeding an energy limit ∆ (typically 10 keV), thus limiting
the volume of interest to the range of electrons with energy ∆

The restricted stopping power may be expressed as mass restricted

stopping power (S/ρ)Res or, for a description of the energy passed to the
medium per unit track length, it is common to use the linear energy
transfer L∆ :
ρ  1 dT 
Linear energy transfer L∆ (keV/µm): L∆ =  
10  ρ dx  ∆
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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 48
2.5. DATA SOURCES

Data for photon attenuation coefficients and

stopping powers can be found in many
textbooks but are conveniently obtained from
web based data sources provided by:
• NIST (Berger, Hubbell et al., 2005;
Berger, Coursey, et al, 2005)
or from the tabulations in:
• ICRU (1992)
The composition of body tissues and
phantom materials are given in:
• ICRU (1989) and
• ICRP (2003)
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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 49
BIBLIOGRAPHY

• BERGER, M.J., ESTAR, PSTAR AND ASTAR: Computer

Programs for Calculating Stopping-Power and Ranges for
Electrons, Protons and Helium Ions. NIST Report NISTIR-4999
(1992)

• BERGER, M.J., COURSEY, J.S., ZUCKER, M.A. AND CHANG, J.,

ESTAR, PSTAR, and ASTAR: Computer Programs for Calculating
Stopping-Power and Range Tables for Electrons, Protons and
Helium Ions (version 1.2.3), NIST, Gaithersburg, MD (2005)
Available: http://physics.nist.gov/Star [2008, February 7]

• BERGER, M.J., HUBBELL, J.H., SELTZER, S.M., CHANG, J.,

COURSEY, J.S., SUKUMAR, R., and ZUCKER, D.S. (2005), XCOM:
Photon Cross Section Database (version 1.3). Available:
http://physics.nist.gov/xcom [2008, March 20]. NIST,
Gaithersburg, MD
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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 50
BIBLIOGRAPHY

• HUBBELL, J.H., Review of Photon Interaction Cross Section

Data in the Medical and Biological Context, Phys. Med. Biol. 44
R1-22 (1999)

• INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIATION UNITS AND

MEASUREMENTS, Stopping Powers for Electrons and
Positrons, Rep. 37, ICRU, Bethesda, MD (1984)

• INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIATION UNITS AND

MEASUREMENTS, Tissue Substitutes in Radiation Dosimetry
and Measurement, Rep. 44, ICRU, Bethesda, MD (1989)

• INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIATION UNITS AND

MEASUREMENTS, Photon, Electron, Proton and Neutron
Interaction Data for Body Tissues, Rep. 46, ICRU, Bethesda,
MD (1992)
IAEA
Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY

• INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL

PROTECTION, Basic Anatomical and Physiological Data for use
in Radiological Protection: Reference Values ICRP Rep. 85,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, (2003)

• JOHNS, H.E. and CUNNINGHAM J.R. The Physics of Radiology

(Fourth Edition), Charles C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois (1983)

• NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

(NIST), 100 Bureau Drive, Stop 1070, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-
1070. Available: http://www.nist.gov/index.html

• SELTZER, S.M., BERGER, M.J., Evaluation of the Collision

Stopping Power of Elements and Compounds for Electrons and
Positrons, Int J Appl Radiat Isot 33, 1189-1218 (1982)

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Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 52