the particular type Or 9.2.2. Synchronous machines. In synchron e exports a.¢. power (synchronous generator) or ‘importa aennes, the armature wind “* Power (synchron, nding eiths ous motor et , whereas a eee mess SRE Dame ofBasic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 239 at always energised from a source. In other words oo fd We oubly exited enen-eonversion higctas ia otek es or cee satinet the relative motion between field flux and armature winding. In view of this, an fator, alternator or synchronous generator may have either rotating field poles aa oc ary armature, OF rotating armature and stationary field poles. Nevertheless, sationery er achines are invariably constructed with high-power armature winding on the ior and 1ow-Power field winding on the rotor ; though small synchronous machines with the stator arrangement May also be built. ‘The advantages of providing the field winding on rotor and armature winding on the stator sregiven below: ei ' (a) More Economical. It is economical to have armature winding on the stator and field inding on the rotor. In order to ‘llustrate this, consider a 3-phase, star-connected, 200 MVA, 200 x 10° 11, synchronous machine. Its line current ig UAT = 10,500 A. Ifthe armature winding igplaced on the rotor, three slip rings each capable of handling 10,500 A would be required is Piper each slip ring must be properly insulated from the shaft for a voltage of 11/3, ie. ESSEV. The star-point of the 3 phase winding must also be brought out through fourth slip- ring in order to connect it to a grounded metal plate through a resistance. ' seume now that the low-power required for the field winding is 1 MW at 500 volts. Then the exiting or field current is 709° =2000 A. Only two slip rings, each capable of handling 2000 A, are required. Also each slip ring should be insulated from the shaft for a voltage of 500 wt ouly. This shows that it is cheaper to have field winding on the rotor rather than the vols tare winding, ‘Thus the construction of synchronous machine with armature winding on aaa wit} field winding on the rotor is much more economical. (0)More Efficient. With armature winding on the stator and field winding on the rotor, only two slip rings are required in a synchronous machine. There are, therefore, reduced slip ring losses and a more efficient synchronous machine. _ (©) Better Insulation. Stationary armature Windings can be insulated satisfactorily for higher veltages, allowing the construction of high-voltage, say 33 KV, synchronous machines. (d) Efficient Cooling. Stationary armature winding can be cooled more efficiently, thus per- nitting the construction of large synchronous machines, say 1000 MW or above ot ‘More Output. Low-power field winding on the rotor gives a lighter rotor and, therefore, : centrifugal forces. In view of this, higher rotor speeds are permissible, thus increasing the ynchronous machine output for given dimensions. ina Lser Rotor Weight and Inertia Field winding on the rotor requires less amount of copper and insulation, This reduces overall weight of rotor and its in ortia, Reduced rotor weight allows the use ‘Priced bearings and also their longer life because of minimal wear and tear. nif Biel and Convenient Construction Three-phase armature winding, capable tan eugene high current, can be more easily braced against electromagnetic Hr an be jus Placed in stator slots. In addition, flexible water tube connection for water coo installed more conveniently on stator than on the rotor. ‘This all results in a Ti6" construction of a synchronous machine. ' a matt) More Armature Tooth Strength. High-current synchronous machines reauite Tr the stute copper for each slot. Greater amount of copper ean be rMeommodated PY Ture on — wider and stronger tecth are prepared for the armattrs jead to nar. der and stronger teeth whereas the armature on FOU *4y and are less rower and weaker teeth. Strong teeth also results in less ncise due ¢° *” . =(art. 3.2 240 Electrical Machinery likely to be damaged during fabrication and use. Therefore, armature winding must be Provided on the stator and field winding on the rotor. : a Synchronous machines are of two types depending upon the geometrical eran eee rotor, viz., (a) salient-pole type and (b) cylindrical-rotor, round-rotor or Ronzeatiant Poe type. Salient means standing out, sticking out or projecting and in Fig. 3.6 (a), four s lient poles ore Shown on the rotor. The field winding on the salient poles is a concentrated winding. In case of cylindrical rotor, the field winding is a distributed winding housed in the rotor slots. Fig. 3.7 (0). A further distinction between the two types is that the salient pole synchronous machines have non-uniform air-gap—under the pole centres itis minimum and in between the poles, the airgap is maximum, Fig. 3.6 (a). In cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, the air-gap is uniform throughout, neglecting the slot-openings. ‘he stators of both the types of synchronous machines are similar to the induction motor {yator. That is the synchronous-machine stator consists ofa cast iron stator frame, a cylindrical laminated and uniformly slotted stator core, a polyphase distributed winding placed in the Stator slots, bearings, base ete. Fig. 3.6 (a). As in a polyphase induction motor, the stator frame and end-covers serve merely as a mechanical support to the stator core and are not designed to carry the magnetic flux. Synchronous generators are usually of 3-phase type because of the several advantages as- sociated with 3-phase generation, transmission and high-power utilization. Nevertheless, single-phase alternators are also constructed for specific requirements. For the generation of three-phase voltage, at least three coils (one coil per phase), phase displaced by 120 electrical degrees in space, are required. In the elementary synchronous machine of Fig. 3.6 (a), the ZZ AR elstconcentrated XX field winding Stotor frame 0Pelect Stator Distributed armature winding © hase salient pole construction. (b) Schematic diagram of star series.) Schematic diagram of star connectice a and delta connections h coils in parallel, r Fig. 8.6. (0) ils ins> 2) a 3) Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 241 ature Ta Cie slot, ie, 4 slots per phaso; though the stator of an actual machine arch larger number of armature slots, depending on the 3-phase windin design. In Fig. Bt each ase is shown to possess wo ol For example phase cl ae designated 28 pyar and.aa, 22 .e two coils of each phase are connected in ‘ries so that their voltages add. ‘Then the 3-phases may be connected in star or delta as shown in Fig. 3.6 (b). In this figure, the ce terminals are designated by letters a, by, cy The two coils of phase a may be connected in parallel with ay, a2 as one terminal and ay’, a7’ as the second terminal. Similarly, the coils of ‘and c can be connected. The parallel connection of two coils will increas the current phases b pe parallel path we ony the value. These parallel-connected coils with six terminals may be Prconnected in star or delta. Star connection of parallel connected coils is shown in Fig 3.6 (c). ‘The frequency of the generated e.m.f, from Eq. (3.5), is = PN. = F90 He In India and many other countries, alternators feeding the power systems, generate a fre- quency of 50 Hz. :, Number of poles, 6,000 (3.1) _— 6,000 __ P= Speed in rpm.,N Oil engines and hydraulic turbines operate best at relatively low speeds, therefore, the alternators driven by these prime-movers, poust have relatively large number of poles, Eq. (3-1). deere mmodating large number of poles, the ‘rotor diameter must be comparatively increased and from mechanical considerations, ‘salient pole construction has been found to suit best for low-speed prime-movers. Salient pole rotor structure is also employed for ‘comparatively small synchronous machines, as depicted jn Fig. 3.6 (a). For larger machines, the laminated salient poles are dove-tailed to the spider Keyed to the shaft, Fig. 3.7 (a). Dampet bars are usually Pes at in the pole shoe, to damp out the +0 or oscillations. The pole shoe of a salient pole, is btain a sine wave for the ‘radial flux density along the air-gaP 3 are called hydro-alternators suitably shaped so as to ol periphery. Commercially, the salient pole synchronous generator or hydrogenerators. stator frame Sater camper. core bar slots Rotor spider Fig. 3.7. 8) 2 ous machine. (a) Rotor spider and one salient-pole lamination (b) 2-pole Qhindricabotor Sea ching (etion and c) poe eylaircalrotor construction ‘Steam and gas ave best operating characteristics at relatively: high speeds, there- fore, alternators driven by thesty must have a fewer number of poles, say 2 or 4, Eq. (3.1). If cat pole construction is used fOr net ch high speeds, the rotor structure may not be able to salient pele cy enormous centrifugal forces developed by the salient poles. Therefore; cylindrical withstand fruction is best suited from ‘rethanical considerations, for high speed Primemovers: ‘turbines hsfart 3.2 Re me ) illstrates a 2-pole cylindrical rotor, made of one piece, solid stee! forging. For large hx Lenaths, rotor is fabricated from several pieces of solid steel forgings placed side by side. Fe ial slots are cut only in a part ofthe rotor periphery. The main poles are created, by the Feld carrent, in the unslotted rotor surface, as shown in Fig. 9.7. Tm this gare ¢ ofa of concentric coils are shown. A 4-pole eylindrical-rotor structure with 2 concentric coils per pole 's shown in Fig. 3.7 (c). The radial airgap flux density wave in cylindrical rotor synchronous ae 1e is more nearer to a sine wave than in salient pole machines. Commercially, cylindrical r synchronous generators are called turbo-alternators or turbogenerators. Synchronous motors, usually of the salient pole type, are of the same general construction as salient pole generators. Under steady state, the synchronous motors operate at constant speed as determined by Eq. (3.5). In salient-pole synchronous motors, the functions of damper bars (embedded in the pole faces) are to damp out the rotor oscillations and to start the synchronous motors. For synchronous machines of large sizes, adequate cooling arrangements must be incor- porated to dissipate the heat produced by the various losses. For relatively large sizes, closed circuit cooling, using air, water, hydrogen or helium, is often employed. lly connected to an energy system, fed by other alternators In a synchronous generator, the frequoncy of the generated emf, depends on the rotational speed and poles. Thus a synchronous machine can be connected to an energy system, only when the frequency or rotational speed of the synchronous machine is equal to the frequency of the supply system. In other words, for successful operation, the rotational speed of the synchronous a yet ent synchronize with the frequency of the energy system and this is the reason for naming it a synchronous machine. "A single synchronous generator may operate at any frequency or speed, since it is not to be cynchtonized with any energy system, However single synchronous motor fed from an energy Seer om ust synchronize its rotational speed with the system frequency. Asynchronous machine is usual3.3 SPEED AND FREQUENCY The frequency of the generated voltage depends upon the numb poles and on the speed at which the field poles are rotated. One Sears voltage is generated in an armature coil when a pair of field poles (one north and one south pole) passes over the coil. Let P= total number of field poles p= pair of field poles N= speed of the field poles in r-p.m. n= speed of the field poles in rps. = frequency of the generated voltage in Hz Obviously, (3.3.1) and (83.2) In one revolution of the rotor, an armature coil is cut by P nosth poles and 7 Rorth poles an P . Since one cycle is generated i F south poles. Sine yele is generated in an armature coil when a pair of fieldSYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS (ALTERNATORS) ue “oles passes over the coil Toor willbe equal ote umber apa occa he ee number of cycles per revolution =p " Also, number of revolutions per second= 1 Now frequency = number of cycles per second _ Humber of cycles , revolutions revolutions. seconds | f=pxn (33.3) Since n=N/60 and p=P/2 = PN 120 34) Equations (3.3.3) and (3.3.4) give the relationship between the number of poles, speed and frequency. 3.4 SYNCHRONOUS SPEED From Eq. (33.4) Ng= _ (4.1) Equation (3.4.1) shows that the rotor speed N bears a constant relationship with the field poles and the frequency of the generated voltage in the armature Winding. The speed given by Ey, (341) is called eynchroneus speed Ns. A machine Which runs at synchronous speed is called synchronous machine. Thus, a synchro vous machine is an a.c. machine in which the rotor moves at a speed which bears ro anatant relationship to the frequency of the generated voltage in the armature ‘Minding and the number of poles of the machine, Table 3.1 gives the number of poles and synchronous speeds for a power frequency of 50 He. Table 3.1 Number of poles ‘Synchronous speed Ng in rp. 2 3000 4 1500 6 1000 8 750 10 600 2 500 EXAMPLE 3.1. Calculate the highest speed at which (a) 50 Hz (b) 60 He alternator can be operated. SOLUTION. Since it is not possible to have fewer than 2 poles, the minimum value of P=2. PNs 20 Ns= wr= ELECTRIC MACHINES For a minimum value of P the speed N will be a maximum. (@) f=50 Hz, P=2 N, 32050 = 3000 rpm. ) f=60 Hz, P=2 = 120 60 2 Ns = 3600 rpm. ac eeeere Mo: 3.9 | VOLTAGE GENERATION The rotor of the alternator is run at its proper speed by its prime mover. The prime mover is a machine which supplies the mechanical energy input to the alternator. The prime movers used for slow and medium speed alternators are water wheels or hydraulic turbines. Steam and gas turbines are used as prime movers in large alternators and run at high speeds. The steam-turbine driven alternators are called turboalternators or turbogenerators. As the poles of the rotor move under the armature conductors on the stator, the field flux cuts the armature conductors. Therefore voltage is generated in these conductors. This voltage is of alternating nature, since poles of alternate polarity successively pass by a given stator conductor. A 3-phase alternator has a stator with three sets of windings arranged so that there is a mutual phase displacement of 120°. These windings are connected in star to provide a 3-phase output. ye E.M.F. EQUATION OF AN ALTERNATOR Let = useful flux per pole in webers (Wb) = total number of poles Z,= total number of conduct T,= _ total number of coils or turns per phase ‘on of rotor in revolutions per second (r.p.s.) ors or coil sides in series per phase speed of rotati frequency of generated voltage (Hz) Since the flux per pole is ®, each stator conductor cuts a flux P®. The average value of generated voltage per conductor flux cut per revolt in Wb. time taken for one revolution in secondsVn sence MFevolutions are made in one second, one revolution will be made in pA second. Therefore the time for one revolution of the armature is 1/m second. e average voltage generated per conductor E,)/conductor ==> =P ® volts (3.10.1) We know that = (3.10.2 Pn=2F Substituting the value of Pn in Eq. (3.10.1), we get E,,/conductor = 2f (3.10.3) Since there are Z, conductors in series per phase, the average voltage gen- erated per phase is given by E,,/ phase = 2fZ, (3.10.4) Since one turn or coil has two sides, Z,= 27, and the expression for the average generated voltage per phase can be written as E,q/phase = 4f0T, (3.10.5) For the voltage wave, the form factor is given by k ms. value t~ average value For a sinusoidal voltage, ky .11. Therefore, the r.m.s. value of the gener- ated voltage per phase can be written as /phase =k, x E,,/phase = 1.11 x4 fOT, = 4.44 fOT, ‘The suffix rms. is usually deleted. The r.m.s. value of the generated voltage per phase is given by Exms. E, = 4.44 fOT, (3.10.6) Equation (3.10.6) has been derived with the following assumptions (a) Coils have got full pitch. (6) All the conductors are concentrated in‘one stator slot.3.12 COIL-SPAN FACTOR OR PITCH FACTOR _ __ The distance between the two sides of a coil is called the coil span or coil Pitch, The angular distance between the entra line of one pole to the central line of the next pole is called pole pitch. A pole pitch is always 180 electrical degrees Tegatdless of the number of poles on the machine. A coil having a span equal to 180° electrical is called a full-pitch coil as shown in Fig. 3.5 (a).SS ELECTRIC MACHINES wi wu coil ae side 1 . 180° (elec) 180° - a coil side 2 176 coil side 1 (a Coil side Ect Coil side Ece all site Be Coil Ec () (8 Fig. 3.5. Full-pitch col. Fig. 3.6. Short-pitch col A coil having a span less than 180° electrical is called a short- fractional-pitch coil. It is also calle fractional-pitch coils is called a chord by an angle « electrical degrees, as shown jin Fig. 3.6 (a). In case of a fullpitch coil, the two coil sides span a distance exactly equal to the pole pitch of 180 electrical degrees. As a result, the voltage generated iy a full pitch coilis such thatthe coi-side voltages are in phase as shown in Fig. 35 (9), Let Ec, and Ec, be the voltages generated in the coil sides and E, the resulant ceql voltage. Then pitch coil, or d a chorded coil. A stator winding using led winding. If the span of the coil is reduced the coil span will be (180 ~ 0) electrical degrees Ec=Eo, +E, VEc,1=18c,1=E, (ay) Since Ec, and Ec, are in phase, the resultant coil voltage E is equal to their arithmetic sum. Ec= Ec, + Ec, =2E If the coll span ofa single col is less than the pole pitch of 180° (elec), the ; voltages generated in each coil side are not in phase. The resultant coll voltage Eg is equal to the phasor sum of Ec, and Ec,. If the coil span is reduced by an angle a electrical degrees, the coil span is (480 - a) electrical degrees. The voltages generated Ec, and Ee. in the two col sides tof phase with respect to each other by an angle o electrical degrees as ad pihig: 36 (8). The phasor sum of Eg, and Eg, is Ec (= AQ), 01SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS (ALTERNATORS) a The coil span-factor or pitch-factor kc is defined as the ratio of the voltage generated in the short-pitch coil to the voltage generated in the full-pitch coil. The coil span-factor is also called the chording factor. ee actual voltage generated in the coil voltage generated in the coil of span 180° electrical __phasor sum of the voltages of two coil sides arithmetic sum of the voltages of two coil sides AC _2AD__ = 2AB~ 2AB °° 2 = cos Ke= 00s 3.121) For full-pitch coil, a =0°, cos 5}=1 and ke=1. For a short pitch coil Ke <1. Advantages of short pitching or chording (1) Shortens the ends of the winding and therefore there is a saving in the conductor material. (2) Reduces effects of distorting harmonics, and thus the waveform of the generated voltage is improved and making it approach a sine wave. 3.13 DISTRIBUTION FACTOR OR BREADTH FACTOR ky Ina concentrated winding, the coil sides of a given phase are concentrated in a single slot under a given pole. The individual coil voltages induced are in phase with each other. ‘These voltages may be added arithmetically. In order to determine the induced voltage per phase, a given ccil voltage is multiplied by the number of series-connected coils per phase. In actual practice, in each phase, coils are not concentrated in a single slot, but are distributed in a number of slots in space to form a polar group under each pole. The voltages induced in coil sides constituting a polar group are not in phase but differ by an angle equal tothe angular displace- tment B of the slots. The total voltage induced in any phase will be the phasor sum. of the individual coil voltages. The distribution factor or breadth factor is defined as the ratio of the actual voltage obtained to the possible voltage if all the coils ofa polar group were concentrated ina single slot. 1,2 _phasor sum of col voltages per phase a1 14 Srithmetic sum of coil voltages per phase G13.) “Let. m= slots per pole per phase, that i slots per phase belt slots (3.13.2) m= Doles x phases B= angular displacement between adjacent slots in electrical degrees 180° ___ 180°x poles. B= Zots/pole~ slots (3.133)178 ELECTRIC MACHINES Thus, one phase of the winding consists of coils arranged in m consecutive slots. Voltages E¢,, Ec, Ec, ... are the individual coil voltages. Each coil voltage Ec will be out of phase with the next coil voltage by the slot pitch B. Fig. 3.7 shows the voltage polygon of the induced voltages in the four coils of a group (m=4). The voltages Ec,, Ec, Ee, and Ec, are represented by phasors AB, BC, CD, and DF respectively in Fig. 3.7. Each of these phasors is a chord of a circle with centre O and subtends an angle B at . The phasor sum AF, representing the resultant winding voltage, subtends an angle mB at the centre. Fig. 3.7. Arithmetic sum of individual coil voltages = mEc=mAB = m(2AM) = 2m OA sin AOM = 2m OA sin B/2 Phasor sum of individual coil voltages = AF =2AG=20A sin AOG = 204 sin ™B =—Phasor sum of coil voltages per phase_ __20A sin m/2 ~ arithmetic sum of coil voltages per Phase ~ 20A m sin B/2 sin mB/2 we (3.13.4) or It is to be noted that the distribution factor ky for a given number of phases is dependent only on the number of distributed slots under a given pole. It is independent of the type of the winding, lap or wave, or the number of tums per coil, etc. As the number of slots per pole increases, the distribution factor decrearespr ARMATURE REACTION IN SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES When current flows through the armature winding of an alternator, the resulting mmf produces flux. The armature flux reacts with the main pole flux, causing the resultant flux to become either less than or more than the original main field flux. The effect of armature (stator) flux on the flux produced by the rotor field poles is called armature reaction. For simplicity, we consider a 3-phase, 2-pole alternator (Fig. 3.82) having a single-layer winding. But this treatment is valid for any number of poles. Also, the winding of each phase is assumed to be concentrated, but the effects of armature reaction will be the same as if a distributed winding were used. Fig. 3.8(a). Two-pole alternator The armature reaction in synchronous machines affects the main-field flux very differently for different power factors. For the sake of simplicity, we shall consider the following three extreme conditions namely, unity power factor, zero- power factor lagging, and zero-power factor leading. The results can be general- ized for different power factors met in practice. For the purpose of this discussion, power factor will be defined as the cosine of the angle between the armature phase current and the induced emf in the armature conductor in that phase.@eine Tro uta on ne % ‘ase IT: Unity pf load. In order to study the effect of armature mmf wave on the field mmf rong, CBSider a two-pole cylindrical-rotor alternator of Fig. 5.5 (a). The field winding on the ture 8 fed de through brushes and slip rings and the stator carries 3-phase distributed arma- ten Winding. As in Art. 3.7, the concentrated full-pitch coils a a’, bb’, cc’ on the stator, repre- * three-phase windings a, 6, ¢ in all respects.544 Electrical Machinery (art $3 5 , ding on rotor, create, ‘The field current indicated by crosses and dots in the field win a A 1s mmf Fyand field flux ¢/which oy ycoidally distributed along the air-gap periphery. Assy, i rf 'F-and 4; as shown in Fig. 5.5 (a), (6) and both F, and gy are represented by space phasors Fyand @/as shown MT ot MO aad Note that gris in phase with Fas saturation is neglected. The field fs 0/ STAC AT” A S Poles on the rotor. Recall that the emf induced (= Blv) in a coil is maximure WhEH 1% col sides lying in the maximum flux density position. As the instant shown x 7 eran in Phase ‘a’ have its coil-side a, a’ in the maximum flux density position, facing oe cckwriee ees emf. induced in coil-sides a, a’ will, therefore, be maximum. For anti 'e Stak ration f rotor, emf generated in coil-side a is indicated by dot and in a” by cross. 2X UO © Tides Bg are under the influence of field pole N, emf generated in these two coli 0" TN indicated by dot, The magnitude of this em. would, however, be less than the maximum value. The e.m_f. generated by ¢,alone is called the excitation voltage and this is indicat ig. 5.5(a) by Gots and crosses in the armature winding on the stator as discussed above. The magnitude of this emf is given by Eq. (5.2). L Axis of i stotor phase a ais of phase a ot ticle Max. arm va rc) je Anis of we) Fig, 5.5. (e) and 6) Spaceposition of field, armsture and resultant mmf phasors ina cyindecal-rotor atest for unity pf load, (@) space-phasor diagram, (dtime-phator diagram and tc) combined space and sme Past When alternator is connected to 3-phase load, 3-phase generated emf in armature will Sv” rise to 3-phase balanced currents. Let us assume that this armature current J, is 2 with the excitation emf E, In other words, alternator load is at unity pf with respect Unity pf means that armature current J, and excitation voltage are maximum at the instant of time. In Fig. 5.5 (@), Zyis maximum in phase ‘a’ as indicated. At the same inst™*ese NMenescte Noarrte, ’ 5 548 armature current Ta is also maximum in phase vpature current in coil-sides b, synchronous Mas coil-sides a, a’ ; this is shown in Fig, 5.5 (). remot up by the armature curen is ale te armars sec eat tt balanced Pe dicne teste dowing eh oolyphase winding, the peak value of the resultant ate ot etre acm mad Pane sm a issol uP along the axis of phase ‘a’ because this Phase carries the maximum current. It is seen from Fig. 6.6 (O) that synchronously rotating armature mmf F, acts vertically upward (righthand grip rule) at the instant considered. Since the rotor is also being driven at gmchronous speed, the relative velocity between F, and F, is zero. Note that for the reference direction of rotation chosen, the field mmf Fis ahead of F, by 90° in space and this is depicted sccordingly in the space-phasor diagram of Fig. 5.5 (c). In order to draw the space phasor diagram, the reader should imagine oneself seated on the stator tooth or standing in the ai gep-now one would first see rotating mmf F; passing by oneself and after rotor travel of 90 inspace, the reader would see rotating mmf F,. Accordingly, F, is shown lagging F by a space ingle of 90° in Fig. 6.5 (c). The phasor sum of F and F, ', gives the resultant air-gap mmf F,. ‘The two poles N, S created on the stator by F, tend to produce an electromagnetic torque by attracting rotor NV, S poles. For generator operation, the prime-mover torque must be opposite tv this electrbmagnetic torque and this is indicated in Fig. 5.5 (b) by prime-mover torque rotating the rotor anticlockwise. band ¢, ¢ as i Armature rotating mmf F,, given by Eq. (3.71), is proportional to armature current /, and is therefore in phase with J,. In Fig. 5.5 (c), F, is shown vertical and along the axis of phase ‘a. Therefore, in Fig. 5.5 (d), [, must be drawn parallel to F,,, i.e., along the axis of phase ‘a’. But [,isin phase with E;, therefore E, must also be drawn along the axis of phase ‘a’ in the time- phasor diagram of Fig. 5.5 (d). Space-phasor diagram 5.5 (c) and time-phasor diagram can be superimposed to give the combined space and time phasor diagram of Fig. 5.5 (e). Note from Fig. 5.5 (c) that armature mmf F, is perpendicular to field flux 4, therefore armature reaction mf at unity pf is cross-magnetizing in nature. Case III: Zero pf lagging load. The armature is generating 3-phase balanced emfs. Here Weconsider phase-a-as before. ‘The emf generated in phase-a is maximum at the instant field poles N, S are in the position shown in Fig. 5.5 (a). For zero pf lagging load, the armature current in phase-a coil sides a, a’ Would be maximum after the field poles have travelled to a new position 90° electrical (= 90° Mechanical in a 2-pole machine) ahead of the maximum emf position of Fig. 5.5 (a). In other Words, by the time current in phase-a coil-sides a, a’ reaches its maximum value with the same arity (indicated by dot in a), the rotor poles N, S would have travelled forward in the direc- tion of rotation by 90° electrical, or half a pole-pitch, as shown in Fig. 6.6 (a). The currents in es b and c are, however, less than the maximum and are indicated by dots in b’, c’ and Steses in b,c. As stated before, peak value of resultant mmf produced by 3-phase balanced ‘ts in a 3-phase winding is along the axis of that phase which carries the maximum cur- "Since phase-a carries the maximum armature current at the instant considered, the resul- ‘entmmg F. is secn to be vertically up along the axis of phase-c in Fig. 5.6 (a). A careful study "TR. 5.6 (6) reveals that flux ereated by armature mmf F, directly opposes the field mmf F, ¥e.5.6 (6) ilustrance the phasor ai for zero pf lagging load where F,, is shown to oppose ‘6 (b) illustrates the phasor diagram for 7 Fela thi ; is taken horizontal. E; lags 6, by 90°, I, lags Eby 90°. Therefore fs age aoe ss Se poses field mmf F. It can therefore be stated that for zero pf lagging Von Af by 180°, ¢.e., Fa OP! is entirely demagnetiziy agg ead on the 3-phase alternator, the nature of armature mmf wonetizingfr ss > Electrical Machinery LAr sa 1 Nox orm a caren! | Won stor ty % a ® Fig. 5.6. For zero pf lagging load (a) Space-phasors f, 7s and F, with asmature current Te lagging Ey by 90° and (6) ‘space and time-phasor diagram. Case IV : Zero pf leading load. The three-phase alternator is developing balanced 3. Phase emfs and is connected toa load whose power factor is 2er0 leading with, respect to By As before phase is considered here as well. electrical before the maximum emf ia Fig. 5.7 (a) where rotor poles N, $ are shown 90: prat sides a, a’ carry maximum current, Max arm. ‘current (a) | Fig. 5.7. F f lead | ig. 5.7. For zero pf leading load (a) space, shasors Fy Iq leading Ey by 99° and (6) aed and ts Oy and F; with armature current ‘phasor diagram.Aa SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE The actual generated voltage consists of the summation of two component voltages. One of these component voltages is the voltage that would be generated if there were no armature reaction. It is the voltage that would be generated because of only the field excitation. This component of the generated voltage is called the excitation voltage, E,. ‘The other component of the generated voltage is called the armature reaction voltage, Eqg: This is the voltage that must be added to the excitation voltage to take care of the effect of armature reaction upon the generated voltage. E, = Eexe + Egg (3.22.1) Since armature reaction results, in a voltage effect in a circuit caused by change in flux by current in the same circuit, its effect is of the nature of an inductive reactance. Therefore Eg is equivalent to a voltage of inductive reactance and Egr=—jXarl, (3.22.2) The inductive reactance X,, is a fictitious reactance which will result in a voltage in the armature circuit to account for the effect of armature reaction upon the voltage relations of the armature circuit. Therefore, armature reaction voltage can be modelled as an inductor in series with the internal generated voltage. In addition to the effects of armature reaction, the stator winding also has a self-inductance and a resistance.190 ELECTRIC MACHINES: Let L,=_ self-inductance of stator winding, X,= self-inductive reactance of stator winding R, armature (stator) resistance The terminal voltage V is given by V=E,—jX aah, —iXqly— Rely (3.22.3) where _R, I, = armature resistance drop X,I,= armature leakage reactance drop Xan [,= armature reaction voltage The armature reaction effects and the leakage flux effects in the machine are both represented by inductive reactances. Therefore, it is customary to combine them into a single reactance, called the synchronous reactance of the machine, X;. X,=X,+Xjg (3.22.4) or (3.22.5) (3.22.6) where Z,=R,+jX. (3.22.7) The impedance Z, is called the synchronous impedance. The synchronous reactance X, is the fictitious reactance employed to account for the voltage effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature leakage reactance and by the change in air gap flux caused by the armature reaction. © Similarly, the synchronous impedance Z, is a fictitious impedance em- ployed to account for the voltage effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature resistance, the actual armature leakage reactance, and the change in air gap flux produced by armature reaction.OE 5.10. Power Factor Control of Synchronous Machines ; Power factor of synchronous machines can be controlled by the adjustment of their fold excitation. In this article, the effect of variation of field current on the operating power factor o! synchronous machines is examined first for motors and then for alternators connected to an infinite bus. 5.10.1. Power-factor Control of Synchronous Motors. In Art. 5.9, the synchronous motor V-curves were obtained from the superposition of excitation and power circles. The object of this article is to present a physical picture of what happens in a synchronous motor, when its field current is varied. The conclusions arrived from this physical understanding, are fur- ther supported by synchronous motor phasor diagrams for different field currents. It should be remembered at the outset that a.c. electromagnetic devices must draw a mag- netizing current from the a.c. source, in order to establish the working flux. This magnetizing current lags the applied voltage by almost 90°. In other words, the function of the magnetizing current or lagging reactive VA, drawn by a.c. electromagnetic device (or an a.c. inotor), is to set up the flux in the magnetic circuit of the device. Asynchronous motor is a doubly-excited machine, its armature winding is energised from an a.c. source and its field winding from a d.c. source. When synchronous motor is working at constant applied voltage, the resultant air gap flux as demanded by constant V,, remains sub- stantially constant as per Eq. (5.24). This resultant air-gap flux is established by the co-opera- tion of both a.c. in the armature winding and d.c. in the field winding. If the field current is sufficient enough to set up the air-gap flux, as demanded by constant V, then magnetizing current or lagging reactive VA required from the a.c. source is zero and, therefore, the motor operates at unity power factor. This field current, which causes unity power factor operation of the synchronous motor, is called normal excitation or normal field current. If the field current is made less than the normal excitation, i.e. the motor is under-excited, then the deficiency in flux (= Constant air gap flux—Flux set up by d.c.in the field winding) must be made up by the armature winding m.m.f. In order to do the needfal, the armature winding draws a magnetizing current or lagging reactive VA from the a.c. source and as a result of it, the motor operates at a lagging power factor. . In case the field current is made more than its normal excitation, i.e. the motor is over- excited, then the excess flux (= Flux set up by dc. in the field winding—resultant air-gap flux) must be neutralized by the armature winding. The armature can do so only if it draws a deinag- hetizing component of current from the a.c. source. Since in a motor, the magnetizing curent lags the applied voltage by about 90°, the demagnetizing component of current must lead the applied voltage by about 90°. In view of this, the excess flux can be counterbalanced only if the armature takes a demagnetizing current or leading reactive VA from the a.c, source—conse. quently the synchronous motor operates at a leading Power factor. It can, therefore, be inferred from above that a synchronous motor operates at a lagging power factor when underexcited and at leading power factor when overexcited. The extent of power factor lead or power factor lag, depend .gree of over excitation or under-excitation. ends upon the degree of over excitatio defart. 5. 614 Electrical Machinery 7 Overexcited syne, motor € ® pt 38 +00 Full toad § Sul load 8 No load lg Fig. 6.64. Synchronous motor (a) V-curves and () power factor versus field current curves. For constant power output, therefore, B, sin 8 and J, cos @ must remain constant, because V, and X, are constant. This means that as the field current is varied, excitation voltage Ey varies, but component of E, normal to V,, i.e. E-sin § must remain constant. As Eryvaries, I, X, and therefore armature current J, also varies, but in such a manner as to keep [, cos @ constant. ‘When the excitation voltage is Ej, the motor is underexcited and the armature current [,1 must lag V; by p.f. angle ,, so that the relation Z, + jT, X, = V,, is satisfied. When the excitation voltage is increased to Ep by increasing the field current, the angle must decrease from 6; t0 5, so that Ep sin 6; = Ep sin 8,, In order to satisfy the relation Ey+jT, X,=V, the phasor of armature current must change to I,2, see Fig. 5.63 and the motor, therefore, operates at unity power factor. When the excitation is increased to Ea, the load angle must decrease from !0 85, so that Ejg sin 83 = Ep sin 8) = Ep sin 8, In order to satisfy the voltage relation E;+jT, X.=¥1 again, the phase of armature current J, is pushed ahead of V; as shown in Fig. 5.63 and, there” fore, the motor now operates at a leading power fagtor. Note that the active power components of armature currents are equal, i.e. I, C08 0 = Iq cos 0, = I, e are equ 0 [a3 COS Qs. Fig. 5.63 also reveals that the armature current is minimum at unity pf. and more at leadi i Fig. 5.63. Effect of field current on synchronous ‘motor power factor.; —— + enmanis MAS Art, §.10) 615 Polyphase Synchronous Machines curve. Similarly compoundis (a), The comereecurve# fr 0.8 pf. lagand0.8 pf ead, are shown by dotted eurves compounding curves show the sy ig curves for other p.fs. can also be drawn if required. These fiaintain constant pi under eqeene in Which the field current shouldbe varied in order to curves are similar to the synchron: eae) loads. Note that the synchronous motor compounding For constant loads if mate noes Beneratr eompcunding curves of Fig. 5.39, curves of Fig. 5.64 (6) are obtar af wer factor is plotted as a faction of the field eurrent, the the eld current for up at acted te thatthe eld current for up a full oad is more than mmotor at full load is operating oot ay also be seen from Fig. .64 that if the synchronous porate at a leading mf Theeset oP then removal of the shaft load causes the motor to saerable inverted Fr thee con®, btained by plosting power factor versus field current eaalicamens tier es are, therefore, scmetimes called inverted V-curves of a The ability of a synel utilised for i eee uae motor to operate at leading power factors when overexcited, is organisation having a large number of ind many supply systems. For example, an industrial eee an arte numberof induction motos, may employ asynchronous moto to factor penalty clause. and thus save the organisation from the low-power Itshould be remem! system, in order to set rae a ist mele mu take lagging kVAr from the supply system, in order to setup ite working ar-gp flux. single line diagram ofa S-phase induction ce is given in Fig. 5.65 (a). When a synchronous motor is con- nected in parallel with it ; then this motor, when overexcited, lies I induction motor locally. As a result, distribution line are relieved completely orp sally trom supplying the lagging kVAr needed by the induction motor. Now the suj ff ly ‘in esi nae bs rae reduced kVA and reduced current ; this leads to better operation ofthe overall system, see Art. 5.19. Note that the induction motor is still operating at th Sere ete See a B:loiNote tant the inden | operating at the same lagging pf, absorbing same is the combined load, consisting of over-excited synchronous motor and induc- kw LAGGING kvar INDUCTION MOTOR @ pt IMPROVED REDUCED KVAr SAME KW & kVA REDUCED WA — “o-spt TAGGING KWAT ovEREXCED INDUCTION HRONONS INDU SYNGGOTOR . o a motor (6) An overexcited synchronous motor in parallel with induction motor. ction Fig. 5.65, (a) 3-Phase Ind616 Electrical Machinery tart sao tion motor, that is working now at an improved pf. In case the demand ofagging| ee reir by induction motor is completely met by the overexcited synchronous m¢ . a combined load operates at unity pf. ‘When the primary function of a synchronous motor is to improve the power thei | the system or to control the flow of kVAr, then the synchronous motor carries no mechanical load on its shaft. Such an unloaded synchronous motor with no shaft extension, is called synchronous condenser or synchronous compensator and is used in large power systems, where static capacitors are uneconomical. | ge anf leading and anf-27.2 Open-circuit Test The alternator is run kept open (Fig. 3.14). That set to zero. at rated synchronous speed and the load terminals are is, all the loads are disconnected. The field current is Fig. 3.14. Open-circuit test on an alternator. Then the field current is gradually increased in steps, and the terminal voltage E, is measured at each step. The excitation current may be increased to get 25% more than rated voltage of the alternator. A graph is plotted between the open-circuit phase voltage E, (- %] and field current I;. The characteristic curve ined is called open-cirtuit characteristic (O.C.C.). It takes the shape of a fa oon mmagnetisation curve. The extension of the linear portion of an O.C.C. is Reiled the air-gap line of the characteristic. The O.C.C. and the air-gap line are shown in Fig. 3.15. | Airgapline occ Fig. 3.15. The O.C.C. ofan alternator. Open-circuit voltage E —> Field current Ij) —=SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS (ALTERNATORS) 195 327.3 Short-circuit Test The armature terminals are shorted through three ammeters (Fig. 3.16). Care should be taken in performing this test, and the field current should first be decreased to zero before starting the alternator. Each ammeter should have a range greater than the rated full-load value. The alternator is then run at synchronous Short Field circuit Winding, Supply Roles) Stator Neots Fig, 3.16. Shorl-circuit test on an alternator. speed. Then the field current is gradually increased in steps, and the armature current is measured at each step. The field current may be increased to get armature currents upto 150% of the rated value. The field current I; and the average of three ammeter readings at each step is taken. A graph is plotted between the armature current I, and the field current I. The characteristic so obtained is called short-circuit characteristic (SCC). This characteristic is a straight line as shown in Fig. 3.16(a). Sc, Fig. 3.16 (a). The S.C.C. of an alternator. Armature current Ip > Field current Jy —= _P274 Calculation of Z. The open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) and short-circuit characteristic (SCC) are drawn on the same curve sheet. Determine the value of Igc at the field current that gives the rated alternator voltage per Phase. The synchronous imped- ance Z, will then be équal to.the open-circuit voltage divided by the short-circuit. current at that field current which gives the rated em: per phase. = Qpen-circuit voltage per phase “= Short-circuit armature current, {°F the same value of field current. RR KCTS IN RR RyELECTRIC MACHINES The synchronous reactance is found as follows : In Fig. 3.17, voltage per phase. AB. X= V2 - Re 1 wy 2 % i i & s & 6 ol 4 Field current Ij —e Fig 3.17. consider the field current I;= OA that produces rated alternator Corresponding to this field current the open-circuit voltage is AB (in volts) *~ AC (in amperes)