I. Introduction PERSONALITY is the set of psychological traits and mecha- nisms within the individual that are organized and relatively enduring and influences his or her interactions with and adapta- tion to the intrapsychic, physical and social environment. (Larsen, R. and Buss D. 2010) : Personality plays a key role in affecting how people shape their lives. Itinvolves the complex relationship of people with their environment, how they cope and adjust through life, and how they respond to demands of physical and social challenges. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND - The Earliest Theory. The Greek Philosopher Hippocrates believed that four basic elements (air, water, fire, and earth) and four bodily fluids or humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) affect human behavior. This was further elaborated by the Roman physician Galen who said that someone with a high ratio of blood is sanguine or cheerful; one with a lot of phlegm is slow or unemotional; while one with an oversupply of yellow bile is melancholic or sad and lonely. In the 19th century, Franz Gall, a phrenologist, connected personality to the bumps and shape of the skull. Later in the same century, Cesare Lombroso, influenced by Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution, argued that physical features of criminals marked them as evolutionary “throwbacks,” Such features as prominent jaws and eyebrows and asymmetric skulls make them insensitive to pain and prone to impulsive behavior. 3 German psychiatrist Ernst Kretschmer (1888-1964) also clas- sified personality based on body build: e 1. Asthenic- thin, tall, fragile, narrowly built, and looks weak ‘ 2. Athletic - muscular and energetic, Pyknic - round and robust or plump2 PERSONALITY Tria & Limpingco 4. Dysplastic- malproportioned body, a combination of the above. Kretschmer was convinced that body build was related to two major forms of mental disorder. Those with the pyknic body were more likely to be manic-depressive, while those with an asthenic body were likely to be schizophrenic. However, Kretschmer gaye no direct evidence to support his observations. In the 1940s, William Sheldon examined the relationship between body type and personality (Constitutional Theory of Personality). He classified the human physique into the hypotheti- cal biological structure called morphogenotype; and the external observable physique called phrenotype. He attempted to measure the morphogenotype directly through the phenotype, using what he called-the Somatotype Performance Test. This is described in Sheldon’s Atlas of Men.(1954). : Sheldon’s Primary Component of Body Type I. Endomorphy - (plump with fatty tissues) round, soft bodies with large abdomens IL Mesomorphs - (lots of muscles) hard, sturdy with strong bones and muscles If. Ectomorphs - (bony) thin, small boned, fragile, with flat chest Sheldon developed a system of somatotyping by scoring the five different areas of the body +- head, chest, arms, stomach, and legs. : The rating scale used is from 1 to 7, with one representing the absolute lowest component and seven the highest possible _ rate. Thus, an individual with a score of 1,6 is interpreted as very low in I-endomorphy, II-mesomorphy, and extremely high in III- ectomorphy. Sheldon further identified three components of temperament, as follows:Introduction i L_ Endomorphy with viscerotonia * Sociable , * Fond of food and people © Even tempered ¢ Affectionate Tl. Mesomorphy with somatotonia * Love of physical adventure ; * - Enjoyment of exercise and vigorous activity * Competitive aggressiveness ¢ Assertiveness of behavior IIL. Ectomorphy with cerebrotonia - © Inhibited in movement * Love of privacy SecretiveTria & 4 PERSONALITY “Umpingco Psychometric Influences One of the first personality tests is the RS Woodworth’s Per- sonal Data Sheet, which was used as early as World War L This inventory test was a partial substitute for the psychiatric interview to screen out maladjusted or mentally ill recruits. Other tests were later introduced, like the Mooney Problem Checklists, Bernreuter Personality Test, and the California Test of Personal Inventory. Projective tests provide a different approach to personality assessment. The main hypothesis of this technique is that people per- ceives ambiguous stimuli according to their own aspirations, goals, conflicts, and dispositions, including or especially unconscious ones. Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, introduced the Inkblot Tests in 1921. Other psychologists devised systems based on the Rorschach test, like Bruno Klopfer, Samuel Beck, David Ra- paport, and John E. Exner. The Holtzman Inkblot test was devised to answer some of the problems of the Rorschach Test, wherein the subject is instructed to respond to 45 different inkblots. Another kind of projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) developed by Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray in 1935. To arrive at a systematic evaluation of personality, psycholo- gists developed the factor analysis test, such as Raymond Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire and Guilford Zimmerman’s Temperament Survey. Later, the Edward’s Personal Preference ae (EPPS) and the Myers Briggs Type Indicator were de- veloped. * Psychologists and researchers continue to imi rove personalit assessment. According to Anne Anastasi, aun testing should be used as an aid in describing and understanding the individual, identifying his problems, and reaching appropriate action deci- sions. Hence, personality test findings could be used as astepping stone or springboard for clinical interview and counseling,Introduction 5 Limitation of Psychological Personality Tests 1, Failing and malingering is common and has a halo effect. 2. Personality is dynamic; responses are unstable and may change over time. 3. The presence of response bias, or the automatic tendency to answer in a certain way, regardless of the content of the item. 4. Greater situational specificity of response in the non- cognitive sphere of personality. For example, a student who cheats in an examination might be honest in other situations. “Personality” according to different Psychologists 1. Personality is the totality of individual psychic qualities which include temperament, one’s mode of reaction and character to objects of one’s reaction (Fromm, 1947), Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation (Cattell, 1950). Personality maybe biologically defined as the governing or- gan or superordinate institution of the body, in as much as itis located in the brain. “No brain, no personality” (Mur- tay, 1951). Personality is the relatively enduring pattern of recurrent interpersonal situations which characterize a human life (Sullivan, 1953). Personality is a person’s unique pattern of traits (Guilford, 1959). : : Personality is a dynamic organization of the psychological systems that determine the individual’s unique adjustment to his or her environment (Allport, 1937). ; Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organi- zation of a person's character, temperament, intellect, and - physique which determines his or her unique adjustment to the environment (Eysenck, 1970).Tria & Limpingco 6 PERSONALITY structural and dy- ; individual’s ka 8. Personality refers to the individ! selves in characteristic namic properties as they reflect oe resporse to a situation (Pervin, 1975). 9. Personality is the record of an individual 1 behavior, together with the psychophysical sy: s ee contribute causal determination to the Paes aa es tioning record. Some causal determination is found wi the record itself (Cartwright, 1979). 10. Personality is the impression an individual makes on oth- ers. It refers to his/her social skills, charismatic qualities, and the like (Hall, Calvin, and Gardner 1985). 11. Personality is the individual's unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotion (Burger, 1990). 12. Personality is the stability in people’s behavior that leads them to act uniformly both in different situations and over extended periods of time (Felman, 1994). 13. Personality is a stable set of intrapsychic (internal) charac- teristics and tendencies that determines the psychological behavior of people. The behavior détermined by personal- ity is relatively consistent over time (Maddi, 2006). The definitions above all equate personality with the essence and the uniqueness of behavior. 2 Origin of Consistent Behavior Patterns 4Introduction a 3. Learning. For learning theorists, the difference between a successful and an unsuccessful person can be found in the pat- terns of reward. Certain behaviors are rewarded while others are ignored. Those that are rewarded tend to persist. The implication is that one can control personality development by controlling the circumstances under which rewards are dispensed or withheld. 4. Existential Humanistic Consideration. Proponents of existential humanistic consideration minimize the importance of knowing the origins of personality, who acquires what personality completely, and how you find meaning in your existence. These theorists emphasize, “What does it mean to you?” rather than “Why are you the way you are?” 5. Unconscious Mechanism or “depth” theory. The primary concem is to discover the underlying causes of behavior. The ulti- mate cause of behavior is unconscious and originates in childhood. To understand personality, one must get to the unconscious mind, utilizing complex tools such as dream and symbols analysis, free . association, and hypnosis. Using only one theoretical orientation to understand personal- ity would leave huge gaps in its understanding. We will therefore study personality by utilizing paradigm, an overall concept accepted by a large number of scientists as it is the most effective in explain- ing complexity of personality. Scientific Methods of Assessing Personality Personality assessment is a set of processes used for devel- oping impressions and images, making decisions, and checking hypotheses about a person's pattern of behavior in relation to the environment. personality is more difficult than aptitude and - Assessing achievement tests, due to the following reasons: 1. Disagreement regarding the components of personality. 2. The tendency to fake responses so as to present oneself in light. amore8 PERSONALITY Tria & Limpingco In view of these difficulties, p improve techniques in personality (1962) summarized the issue as chologists are still trying to ssment. Sundberg and Tyler “.. . itis not the question of whether one should use assess- ment, but how best to doit... ..no matter which direction evaluation takes in the future, there is bound to be plenty of room for research and creative development.” c Common Methods Used in Assessing Personality 1. Objective Test. Written self-rating tests or the Inventory Test variety; usually questionnaires answered with yes or nd, and true or false. 2. Behavioral Method (conscious manifestation) 2.1 Interview - face-to-face interaction for a specific _ Purpose. This method is highly dependent on the in- terviewer’s skills. Untrained interviewers tend to be influenced by first impressions and irrelevant issues. 2.2 Life history method —uses the biographical and autobio- graphical techniques, diary, and anecdotal reports. 3. Projective Techniques (unconscious manifestation). Uses ambiguous test stimuli to which the subject responds. The responses - are assumed to manifest the innermost feelings, motives, and con- flicts of the subject. The most widely used projective techniques are: association, completion, picture interpretation, and repressive techniques. i 3.1 Word Association - the oldest method in which the subjectis asked to respond to some stimuli by stating the first word that comes to mind. This method was used by Galton in 1879 and later employed by Wundt as a laboratory de- vice for studying human sensory processes, In 1910 Jung reportedly used Word Association to gain insight into a patient's “emotional complexes.” 3.2. Sack Sentence Completion - consists of 60 incomplete sen- tences. The subject completes the sentence with the first Introd ogmreIntroduction a thing that comes to mind. It measures four areas: family, sex, interpersonal relationships, and self-concept. 3.3 Thematic Perception Test — consists of a set of 20 pictures which the subject uses to narrate his or her past, present, and projected future. i 3.4 Rorschach Inkblot Test — consists of ten inkblot pictures. The subject describes what the blot looks like and what it might be. The responses are recorded on three bases: location, determinant, and content. 3.5 Expressive Technique — assesses personality through self expression. Examples are the drawing and toy tests. a) Drawing - Ex: Machover Draw a Person Test (DAP). The subject is instructed to first draw a person, and then a house, a tree, and another person, followed by an oral inquiry and quantitative analysis. b) Toy Test—dolls and puppets are used in play therapy to assess the child’s attitude towards his or her family, fears, aggression and aspirations. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is one of the most extensively used and firmly established personality inventories. It consists of 550 affirmative statements to which the testee must respond with “True,” “False,” or “Cannot Say.” Con- structed by Charles McKinley and Starke Hathaway in 1930, the items on the MMPI cover a wide variety of topics including social at- titudes, family relationships, overall health, phobias, etc. Ttinvolves ten basic clinical scales (Fehf, 1983). An advantage of the MMPI over other trait inventories is that it possesses four validity scales. The 16 Personality Factor (PF) Questionnaire developed by Raymund B. Cattell consists of 16 source traits drawn from a great number of surface traits through factor analysis. It consists of 187 items to be answered with either “Yes,” “Uncertain,” or “No.” The Child and Youth Research Center established Philippine norms for this test. Hence, it is used extensively by Filipino researchers.10 PERSONALITY 77a & Linpligeg i » California Psychological Inventory (CPI) test is deriveg in neds the MMPI by Harrison Gough inthe 1950s (Fehr, 1983), It aims to remedy some alleged criticisms regarding dominance, socialization, and femininity issues. Designed fornormal people, it contains 480 items to tap personality characteristics that are deemed important in a person’s ability to function ina world where social interfactional skills are critical. The scoring ofthe CPI is as objective as the MMPI and the 16 PF. The results, however, need interpreta- tion by experienced psychologists. Other models of assessing personality includes: Kelly’s Role Construction Repertory Test; Edwards’ Personal Preference Sched- ule which is used by Filipino researchers; semantic differential, Personal Orientation Inventory; and the Q-sort technique. Erroneous Methods of Assessing Personality 1, First Impression. Some people use their first impression to gain an idea of the observed individual's pattern of behavior. © They then brand that person as one from a certain “personality type.” A first impression may be based on physical appearance, — facial features or expressions, mannerisms, style of dressing,name, — nationality, race, what a person says and how it is said, what a person does and how it is done, or some physical or physiological characteristic which the observer identifies with a certain personal: ity type or stereotype. d Once an impression of an individual's personality is form the individual gains the reputation of being that certain type and is judged in terms of this reputation. Studies on social acceptance and prejudice demonstrate how difficult it is to change a re tion gained from first impressions. An individual may change or her behavior, but that will not guarantee that the reputation automatically change. That reputation will change only when attitude of others toward him or her also changes, "Introduction 2. Pseudo-scientific Methods A. Physiognomy. A method of judging personality through the measurement and study of a person’s physical features, particu- larly the facial features. The underlying assumption is that physical features are closely correlated with personality traits. Using sex and age group norms, the physiognomist uses physical features, such as the distance between the eyes, the size and shape of the chin, and the color of the hair, as clues to assess personality characteristics. The belief in physiognomy has been strengthened by widely ac- cepted stereotypes. For example, a person who is tall, well-built, and self-confident is viewed as a likely leader. B. Phrenology. Personality is judged by the size and shape of the skull. Elaborate techniques and tools are used to measure the skull. The measurements are then translated into corresponding personality characteristics. C. Graphology. Uses the handwriting to know his or her ality. It is believed that the penmanship and the way a letter is formed corresponds to certain personality characteristics. FILIPINO PERSONALITY AND CULTURE Itis difficult to choose a reliable method to analyze the Fili- pino personality since the country has been greatly influenced by numerous colonizers. Some researchers use Western models that are not applicable to Filipino culture, The situation has resulted in what Jocano (1978) described as discrepancies between research findings and the real Filipinp behavior. Despite these limitations however, it is worthwhile to ascertain the typical Filipino traits or the essence of the Filipino personality. The following general traits of the Filipino are based on sci- entific research and observations: 1, Smooth Interpersonal Relations or SIR - the ability to get along with others in such a way that conflict is avoided.Tria & Limpingco 12. PERSONALITY 4 4 SIR is acquired by three means: a) Pakikisama—derived from the Filipino ae , to go along. It refers to the yielding ofa person swi eo / leader or majority so as to make the group $ decision 7 nus. It is the “we” identification to the group. Ina way, paki isama isa positive Filipino value. It encourages mutual assistance in times of need or sympathy in times of sorrow. | outsiders as hospitality or congeniality. ; b) Go-between - the need for a mediator or facilitator. A 3 third party is used to avoid a feeling of inadequacy in face-to-face i encounters or to acf as an intermediary when asking: for favors. Helpfulness is extended to c) Euphemism - Stating an unpleasant truth, opinion, or request with beautiful language and a fine manner. Harsh and insulting speech is frowned upon and regarded as a sign of ill breeding. In Lynch’s (1970) research on social acceptance, he ad- vocated SIR. 2. Hiya— In 1965 Fr. Jaime Bulatao defined hiyaas the painful emotion arising from a relationship with an authority figure or a society that inhibits self-assertion, even during situations perceived as dangerous to one’s ego. Egan (1970) equated hiya with self-esteem, pride, and personal dignity. Lynch (1970) considered hiya asshame. Such sentiment is associated with the unpleasant experience of embarrassment that prevents one from wrongdoing. 3. Bahala Na ~ an expression derived from the Filipino word Bathala, meaning God. It is the “come what may” attitude that rests on the line of least resistance. One need not exert any effort because God will take care of everything. Itisa fatalistic resignation manifested in the withdrawal or running away from Personal re- sponsibilities; the tendency to leave initiative and action to superiors; the religious belief that people are governed by forces beyond their control. Lagmay (1977) and Jocano (1978) pointed out that bahala na is utilized to maintain mental balance in times of stress; it gives courage and determination. : ___4.Ningas Kugon —“ningas” means to catch fire, while “eagon’ Nr is a fast buming kind of grass. Thus, ningas kugon refers to enthu-Introduction 13 siasm that is intense only at the start but gradually dies down. The attitude could be a hindrance towards initiative and productivity. It reflects the low achievement motive among Filipinos that could be attributed to child-rearing practices. In our culture, child-rearing practices do not emphasize self-reliance and independence. A result is the tendency to curtail initiative to plan, organize, and execute. The child’s life is often dominated by over indulgent adults, leaving very little room for creativity. Ideally, the child should be trained to be self-reliant and to have a sense of responsibility and integrity. 5. Utangna Loob (debt of gratitude) — is of primary importance in the Filipino value system. This value permeates and influences all facets of the Filipino way of life - in business, education, poli- tics, morality, and religion. Since utang na loob stems from a service rendered or a material gift, it is often impossible to measure the debt. Children owe their parents respect, gratitude, and obedience for raising, feeding, and spending for their education and other needs. Therefore, children are expected to care for their parents in their old age. Utang na loob could have negative effects when applied, for instance, to the lagay system of bribery and extortion. It can also be a modern virtue provided it is applied not only to one person but to many persons. For example, utang na loob to the community infers loyalty to the community interest, a commitment in return for a debt that can never be repaid. 6. Hospitality - welcoming others to one’s home and offer- ing the best to visitors, whilé deriying the same to members of the family (Samson, 1965). : 7. Amoral Familism — the tendency to become individualistic and inward-directed, hence, unable to see beyond the family circle (Sendan, 1974, Ramirez 1966; Lapuz 1967, Guthrie, 1966). Some observers remark that Philippine society has become segmented, group-centered, and possessed by the tayo-tayo attitude which marks social individualism.Tria & Limpingcg 14 PERSONALITY ly expectations, such as sharing a on : which may discourage one’s 7). Holding on to children by Corollary to these are far resources with the entire family, creativity and productivity (Pal, 196: + making them feel guilty if they ‘hould ever leave their helpless” i ss, Filipinos must open parents could also be a hindrance to succe’ up and must broaden their horizons. They must ee non of the common good. The spirit of cooperation should prev. in efforts to counteract social evils. Studies show that value contrast or conflict is often rela| to Filipinos’ personality traits, due to the influences of traditiona vs. modem ways, family vs. school training, and urban vs. rural influences (Church 1986). ‘ Lapuz (1988) listed many polarities or contrasts mentioned — in Church’s studies, Filipino Personality: A Review of Research at Writings, in 1986. sl Some of the polarities are: 1) Emphasis on Smooth Int sonal Relations vs. a high level of hostility; 2) Hiya vs. p for status rank and the tendency toward extravagance and ness; 3. Bahala na vs. a vowed desire for security and advan emotion; 3) kagandahang loob or shared nobility, this is grounded kapiwa and pakiramdam. Kagandahiing loob may also be d a shared humanity. } ; Human interaction is essential in understan personality. Generally, Filipinos classify their i ibang tao, outsiders and with hindi ibang tao, one of us. . The levels of social interaction are: a) it b) Pakikisalamuha - mixing; c) Pakikihalahok — kibagay - conforming; e) Pakikisama — adjus15 Introduction In studying the Filipino personality and values, the common field methods used are; 1) Pagtatanong, asking around; 2) Paki- ramdam, shared inner perception; 3) Panunuluyan, staying with; 4) Pakikipamuhay, living with. The actual development and implementation of the methods should be sensitive to the situation and needs of the Philippines as a Third World country. Thus, the katutubong pamamaraan (indigenous method) should be designed to respond to the canons of science and at the same time culturally sensitive and appropriate. Above all, it should be people-oriented. The collective indigenous methods was developed to thresh out research problems in data collection and interpretation using of research expertise. Filipino Personality (based on the analysis of several researchers) A. Strength 1) ability to survive survivor 2) optimism—positive outlook in life insight of all adds 3) flexibility—can shared easily , 4) adaptability—can cope immediately 5) hard work—diligence perseverance 6) deep faith in god-religiosity 7) close family ties—closer to those with blood affinity B. Weakness 1) Colonial mentality, the preference for things imported and foreign: 2) Lack of appreciation for Jocal things and lack of pat- riotism; : 3) Kanya-kanya syndrome, feeling of competitiveness, : eee attitude (crab mentality), use of levelling instrument of gossip mongering and distructive criti; cism;16 PERSONALITY stivi f initiative, hiya which in rela. a pansy me high tolerance to destiny resignatio 5) Lack of discipline, space, poor decision time management, . i Extreme family centeredness, loyalty to the family a the detriment of the welfare ofthe community; 7) Personalism bias and emotional involvement. tude towards time making, procrastination and 6) SUMMARY The search for a distinctive Filipino personality has identit many trajts that are part of Filipino social heritage. Studies shown that, to get along with Filipinos, one must utilize Smooth In terpersonal Relations (SIR), the use of go-betweens, and euphe The interaction of these traits is highly valued in Philippine and found in all human interactions. Hiya, bahala na, ningas ku utang na loob, hospitaility, and amoral familism are also impo to comprehending the Filipino personality. GUIDE QUESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast the cultural traits of urb: rural ways of life. 2. Describe the typical Filipino personality traits. 3. Discuss child-rearin, tic iipinge eee ig Practices among Filipinos and oth 4. Explain how better interperso: ‘citings Filipinos can be attained. a a t 5, Are personality inventori Petocaecieete a reliable index1. THEORETICAL PARADIGM: Analysis of the Psyche PSYCHOANALYTIC PARADIGM A. SIGMUND FREUD (1856 — 1939): Classical Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud was a Jew born in the small town of Frieberg Moravia (now called Prebor Czechoslovakia) on May 6, 1856. He was the eldest of eight children by his father’s second wife. Freud graduated at the top of his class and was accepted to medical school at the age of 17. He aspired to be a medical researcher; at the age of 26, he did an exceptional research on the nervous system. He worked with the highly successful Viennese neurologist Joseph Breuer who was then developing a new method of treating hyste- ria, a disorder with a wide variety of symptoms such as paralysis, loss of sensation, and disturbance of speech and sight. In 1885 Sigmund and Breuer published the book Studies in Hysteria. They sold only 625 copies, but 13 years later, it was marked as the beginning of the psychoanalytic movement. He later went to France where he studied under Jean Char- ‘cot, a French psychiatrist who used hypnosis in treating hysteria. From Charcot, Freud learned that: 1) It is possible to treathysteria as a psychological disorder rather than as an organic one; 2) A patient’s problem can possibly have a sexual basis. In 1881, Freud established his own private clinic specializ~ ing in the treatment of the nervous system. He used hypnosis for treating hysteria but later 4bandoned it after discovering that not all patients could be hypnotized. He eventually developed the technique of free association, which he called the fundamental tule of psychoanalysis. Here, patients were encouraged to speak freely and report their thoughts regardless of their relationship (or lack of it) to their symptoms. Freud emphasized the importance of sexual conflicts as the cause of hysteria. This conflict of ideas and professional dif- ferences ended the harmonious relationship between Freud and Breuer, resulting in Freud’s dismissal from the Vienna Medical Society. : ~~ Sa18 PERSONALITY ays in 1986. They had six OT ; ally followed her father’s la, eventu pee gest, Anna aun child psychiatrist in London, a well-kné Freud marie children. The youn footsteps and became is father, Freud experienced intense | fear of traveling by train. Hence, he began his historical self-analysis which eventually led to the ic vi int focusing 07 the unconscious and lapel hed The Interpretation of Dreams, i 100 Freud publis - oun ie be his eee work. The following year he pub- lished Psychopathology of Everyday Life. With his influence, the International Psychoanalytic Association was established in 1902. In 1923 be was diagnosed with cancer of the jaw. Over the next years he endured 33 operations on his mouth and jaw. - Despite the pain, he continued to write. By 1930, it became extremely difficult for Jews living in Europe. Although he was constantly harassed, he refused to leave Vienna. After the Nazis invaded and occupied Austria in 1938, his daughter was arrested — then later released by the Gestapo. Freud consented to leave Aus- tria and transfer to England. On September 23, 1939, one year after his family migrated to England, Freud died at the age of 83. After the death of hi depression and an unnatural VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE Human beings are biological organisms motivated satisfaction of bodily needs. They are hedonistic creatures x by the same impulses as lower animals. Religion and civilization devel i of the unknown or for protection nk 7 dencies. Repressed thoughts manifest themselves in the cour: everyday life. All human behaviors have areason. Nothing. ; simply by chance- not even an accident. Minor mistakes, of the tongue, are likewise manifestations of anconenaas the psyche is to maintain or d supe etl at sin tae ea1. Psychoanalytic Paradigm: FREUD 19 ergy used originates in the id, which hasa primitive and instinctive nature. The ego, arising from the id, exists to deal rationally with its basic drives, It also mediates between the forces that operate on the id. The superego, arising from the ego, acts as a moral brake or counterforce to the practical concerns of the ego. It sets out a series of guidelines that define and limit the ego's flexibility. The superego is the moral arm of the personality. It develops from the internalized patterns of reward and punishment that a young child experiences. The superego is said to be fully developed when self-control replaces environmental or parental control. It functions as the conscience, for self-observation, and for the forma- tion of ideals. As conscience, the superego acts to restrict, prohibit, or judge conscious activity; it also acts unconsciously. The unconscious restrictions are indirect, appearing as compulsions or inhibitions. The superego develops, elaborates, and maintains the moral code of an individual. Thus, to obtain pleasure or reduce pain, a child learns to identify the constraints in any situation, and at the same time incorporates the moral views of his or her parents. The two subdivisions of the superego are: a) conscience — the internalized experiences for which a child is punished. When a child engages in this behavior or even just thinks about it, he or she feels “guilty.” b) ego-ideal - the internalized experiences for which a child is rewarded. A child who engages in this behavior feels successful and proud. . “ The superego constantly strives for perfection and is, therefore, unrealistic, just like the id. The job of the ego is to satisfy both id and superego. Thus, the ego acts as the executive arm of the personality. The practical goal of psychoanalysis is to strengthen. the ego, to make it independent of the overly strict concerns of the super- ego, and to increase its capacity to deal with behaviors formerly repressed or hidden in the id. :20 PERSONALITY Cathexis and Anti-cathexis Cathexis refers toa relationship or on ne and an object that satisfies the need. Anti-ca' i of an impulse by either the ego OF the superego. Anxiety beings experience an extreme fo ed from their mother at birth, called this birth trauma. It signifies a change from an environm of complete security to one in which the satisfaction of their is less predictable. The function of anxiety is to warn us that, if continue thinking or behaving ina certain way, we willbeind Since anxiety is not pleasant, we try to reduce negative behav There are three kinds of anxiety: __. a)reality anxie caused by real, objective sources of d in the environment. This is the easiest to reduce. E.g,, fire and b) neurotic anxiety — fear that the id’s impulses will ov whelm the ego and make the person do something for whi she will be punished. E.g., rape (becoming animal-like). c) moral anxiety ~ fear of doing somethin, trary superego and thus experience guilt. A ches ae te There are two general ways of asing anxiel to deal with the situation directly. ere relly comeing obstacles, confronting Of running fr od “ to terms with the problem to pe a these clarify difficulties, lower the chances of their wee decrease the prospects of additional anxiety in the The alternative approach to anxiety j distorting 0 the real situation, The ego protects the personality oh Eh the nature ofthe threat. This is sometimes referred te mechanisms,I. Psychoanalytic Paradigm: FREUD 21 Two things common to ego and defense mechanisms are a) both are unconscious, i.e., the person is unaware that he or she is using them; b) both falsify or distort reality. The defense mechanisms are: 1. Repression - when the ego prevents anxiety-provoking thoughts from being entertained in the conscious level. The thoughts may either be those innately part of the id (primal repression, memo- ries of painful experiences) or in repression proper. Repression forces a potentially anxiety-provoking event, idea, or perception away from consciousness, thus precluding any possible resolution. Although it is unconscious, the repressed element remains part of the psyche and is active. 2. Displacement - the substitution of one cathexis by another, the person’s true desire. When displacement results in something beneficial, it is called sublimation. Impulses toward destruction of less threatening objects are called displaced aggression. 3. Identification - the tendency to increase personal feelings of worth by taking on the characteristics of someone viewed as successful. 4, Reaction Formation — objectionable thoughts are repressed by the expression of their opposite goals. It masks parts of the personality and restricts a person’s capacity to respond to events. 5. Projection - the repression of anxiety-provoking behavior or thoughts and projected into someone else instead. A person can thereby deal with actual feelings, but without admitting or being aware of the fact that the feared idea or behavior is his or her own. 6. Rationalization - justifying behavior or thoughts that are anxiety-provoking, The person presents an explanation that is logically consistent with or ethically acceptable for an attitude, action, idea, or feeling that arises from other motivating sources. Rationalization disguises our motives, rendering our actions mor- ally acceptable.Tria & Limpingeo 22 PERSONALITY A 4 tage of development i to an earlier s' ) 7. Regression - returning, f " Hleviatin z when one experiences stress. Itisa ewe et Te es ee withdrawing from realistic thinking 1” duced anxiety in earlier years. TAPPING THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND Freud employed several methods to determine the contents of the unconscious mind: 1. Free Association. A trained observer can gain some hints of the unconscious mind from conscious expressions. What is not spoken is as important as what is said. Topics to which patients offer strong resistance provide the analyst with useful hints to problem areas in the unconscious mind. 2, Dream Analysis. Dreams are camouflaged or disguised thoughts. The manifest content of a dream is what it appears to be, while the latent content is the underlying repressed thought that caused the dream. ~ Forms of dream distortion: ‘ a) Condensation - when a part of something symbolizes the whole thing. E.g., an article of clothing symbolizes a person; one street symbolizes a city. b) Synthesis —when an idea contained ina dream is actually a combination of many ideas in the latent content. Eg., childhood pet represents an entire family. c) Dislocation - displacement of una i s ar C ceptable ideas to some- thing that is symbolically equivalent and acceptable. E.g. breast = mountains; penis = baseball bat eee The nature of dreams and the process of ressio: i why the memory of dreams is so short-lived. ve nee 3. Everyday Life. Freud believed that iuman behaviors Pe all , have a cause; nothing happens simply by Sage Little mistakes such as lapses of memory provide information about'the uncon- scious mind. Slips of the tongue reveal unconscious motives1. Psychoanalytic Paradigm: FREUD 23 : For Freud, “justbecause a thought is repressed does not mean that it goes away; it is always there striving for expression and these manifestations in everyday life are ways of getting a glimpse into the unconscious,” 4. Humor. Humor allows expression of repressed thoughts in a socially approved manner. For ajoke to be funny, it must contain anxiety-provoking material. We laugh only at things that bother us. Sex, elimination, and death are favorite topics. If you want to know what has been repressed in a person’s mind, examine what he or she finds humorous. THE DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY For Freud, human behavior is primarily instinctive and moti- vated mainly by unconscious mechanisms. Instincts are the driving forces behind personality. Its four components are: : a) The source, where the need arises, may be a part of the "whole body; a deficiency of some kind. E.g., hunger. b) The aim is to reduce the need until no more action is nec- essary; it is to give the organism. the satisfaction it now desires, thereby reestablishing internal balance. ~ The impetus is the amount of energy, force, or pressure "used to satisfy or gratify the impulse; usually determined " by the strength or urgency of the underlying need. ‘The object represents experiences or objects that reduce ‘or remove body deficiency. It refers to a thing, action, or expression that allows satisfaction of the original aim. ‘assumed thatnormal and healthy mental and behavioral achieved by reducing tension to previously acceptable with a need will continue seeking activities that an original tension. The complete cycle of behavior from to tension toactivity and back to relaxation is called ten- sction model. Tensions are resolved by returning the body of equilibrium that existed before the tension arose.Tria & Limpingco 24 PERSONALITY and behaviors, however, do not reduce ten- sion; in fact, they create and maintain genera a ; When this happens, it indicates that the direct exp 4 impulse has been redirected or blocked. Freud noted two basic impulses: the life instinct or Eros and | the death instinct or Thanatos. Each of these pa impulses — has a separate source of energy. The libido is the psychic energy associated with the life instinct. Freud believed that the libidinal — energy is expended to prolong life. insti the inorganic _ The death instinct prompts a person to retum to the inorganic” state that preceded'life. The struggle to satisfy the biological needs — ceases, For Freud, the aim of all life is death. A derivative of the death instinct is aggression, which is the need for self-destruction, manifested outwardly through cruelty, suicide, or murder. 4 Many thoughts PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Freud believed that every child goes through a sequence of developmental stages; experiences during these stages will later determine his or her adult personality characteristics, The adult personality is formed by the end of the fifth year of life. Each sta; has an erogenous zone, which’is the greatest source of stimulation and pleasure during that stage. In order to make a smooth transi- tion from one psychosexual stage to the next, the child must not - be over-gratified or under-gratified because this can lead to either fixation or regression. 4 Freud uses the term fixation to describe what occurs when ¢ person does not progress normally from stage to stage, and inste remains overly involved with a particular stage. That person prefer to gratify his or her needs in simpler or more childlike wat , rather than in an adult mode that leads to normal developn A. Pregenital stage 1. Oral stage ~ 1st year of life, The 7 uth, particularly the lips, tongue, and uae eaeI. Psychoanalytic Paradigm: FREUD 25 expressions are sucking, biting, and licking or smacking one’s lips. Although it is normal to retain some interest in oral pleasures, it can be pathological if this is the dominant mode of gratification, ie,, if a person is excessively dependent on oral habits to relieve anxiety or tension. 2. Anal stage - 2nd year of life. The erogenous zone is the anus or buttocks region. In the early part of this stage, pleasure is derived from feces expulsion; fixation results in the lack of sphincter control or enuresis. Symbolical acts are over-generosity or wanting to give away everything he or she owns; this character is called anal-explosive. In the later anal stage, pleasure comes from feces possession, and affection is manifested through constipation. Symbolic acts are stinginess, orderliness, and perfectionism. This character is called anal-fetentive. 3. Phallic stage - 3rd to 5th year life. The erogenous zone is the genital area. This is considered the most controversial stage. Both female and male children develop strong positive feelings to- ward the mother because she satisfies their needs. In contrast, they resent the father who is seen as a rival for the mother’s attention and affection. This feeling will persist in males but will change in female children. 4 The male child begins to fear the father who is viewed as his dominant rival. The fear becomes constriction anxiety, such that the boy develops a fear of losing his sex organ which is assumed to be responsible for the conflict between him and his father. The anxiety causes a repression of sexual desire for the mother and hostility towards the father. When he graws up, he will seek characteristics in women like his mother. On the other hand, the female child discovers she does not possess a penis, for which she holds the mother responsible and comes to hate her for it. This is known as the electra complex. Her positive feelings for her father are mixed with envy since he has something she does not have. Freud termed this penis envy. The only hope for a female child is to have a baby boy.26 PERSONALITY Homosexuality is thought to occur if the aeons ong. are reversed, e.g.,if the male child strongly ident ies eal fal i Regression to the phallic stage inthe male is m: : ested by disp! ing the father’s characteristics like brashness and overconcern masculinity and virility, while regression for the an is seen j promiscuity, seductiveness, OT actions that yin 3 ically castrate men such as embarrassing, deceiving, OF hurting them. The three stages - oral, anal, and phallic— are considered Freud as the basic ingredients of adult personality. B. Latency stage — lower sexual energy and no love ol a time of relative calm. For Freud, one’s personality is generally completed by this stage. C. Genital stage - the stage following puberty. This is when: a person emerges from the pre-genital stage as the adult he or she destined to become. Hopefully, the individual has been transforn from a selfish, pleasure-seeking child to a realistic social adult with heterosexual interests leading to marriage and child rearing. If the experiences during the pre-genital stages caused tions, these will be manifested throughout one’s adult life. psychoanalysis can bring out these repressed experiences, the individual face them, and reduce their effects. 2 EVALUATION StrengthsI. Psychoanalytic Paradigm: FREUD 7 b. Developing an encompassing theory on complex hu- man behavior Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes that phenomenological behavior can have very different antecedents and that similar mo- tives can lead to different behavior. For example, the need to satisfy thirst can have different approaches, such as by providing water, _ juice, or beverage. Sexual needs can likewise be expressed through __ thumb sucking, nail biting, or even through art forms like dancing. 3. Hall and Lindzey (1998) summarized the reasons for Freud’s “is because his ideas are challenging, because his conception of.man is both broad and deep and because his theory "has relevance for our times. Freud may not have been a vigorous - scientist nor a first rate theoretician, but he was a patient, meticu- 1, Freud has been widely criticized for over-emphasizing sex or libido. His basically negative perception of women and sexuality was a part of Victorian belief. Freud’s theories were ely controversial during his time and remain so even today. 2, He focused too much on the unconscious level of the mind. 3, Gave exclusive role to intrapsychic conflict, anxiety and s, and psychopathology. Freud shocked the world by illustrating the effects of repres- For him, the driving force behind repression is the instinctive se. Instincts have a source, an aim, an object, and an impetus. isa life instinct whose energy is collectively referred to as libido Freud’s theory remains the most comprehensive theoretical __ framework of personality. Many different disciplines — literature, ociology, history, anthropology, philosophy, and political science _ ~all make use of Freudian concepts. ‘