Advanced Grammar

By: Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

2nd Semester, 2023

 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

The 8 Parts of Speech

1. Nouns
A noun is a person, place, concept, or object. Basically, anything that’s a ‘thing’ is a noun.
A girl, Michael Jackson, Planet, University, and thought
In a sentence, nouns can play the role of:
 Subject
 Indirect object
 Direct object
 Subject complement
 Object complement
 Appositive
 Adjective
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.

2. Pronouns
Pronouns are the words you substitute for specific nouns when the read or listener knows which
specific noun you are referring to. She … we … they …. It
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.

3. Adjectives
Adjectives are the words that describe nouns. An adjective can go right before the noun it’s
describing; pretty … old … blue … smart
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Adjective order:
Opinion: ugly, beautiful
Size: big, small
Physical quality: neat, rough
Shape: round, square
Age: old, new
Color: pink, orange
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Origin: Japanese, Chinese

Material: plastic, leather
Type: unisex, three-legged
Purpose: cooking, sewing

4. Verbs
Listen to me! Write what you hear! Learn to speak!
Dynamic or action verbs refer to literal actions such as walking, running, talking.
Stative verbs refer to feelings and states like to love, to be, to think.
Auxiliary verbs are used in English to change another verb’s tense, mood, or voice. This is why they
are often referred to as ‘helping verbs’. The main auxiliary verbs are:
Be
Have
Do
We also have modal auxiliary verbs, which are added to another verb to show: capability,
possibility, or necessity. Some common examples are: may, might, must, can, could, should, shall,
would, will
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
5. Adverbs
An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; gently … extremely …
carefully … well
I entered the room quietly.
That is an unusually tall tree.
Unfortunately, we had already left.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.

6. Prepositions
A preposition is a word that tells you when or where something is in relation to something else.
by... with.... about... until
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

7. Conjunctions
Conjunctions make it possible to build complex sentences that express multiple ideas. and... but...
or... while... because

Coordinating conjunctions allow us to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank. When
remembering coordinating conjunctions, think of FANBOYS! (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So)
Correlative conjunctions are pairs that work together for example: either and or neither and nor

Subordinating conjunctions join dependent and independent clauses together. Common

subordinating conjunctions are: Although, as, since, while
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.

8. Articles
Finally, we have the articles! The definite article is the word 'the'. It limits the meaning of a noun
to one particular thing. For example: Give me the ticket.
The indefinite article is either 'a' or 'an'.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Subject-Verb Agreement
1. And (use a plural verb)
She and her friends are at the fair.
She and I run every day.

2. Or/Nor
The book or the pen is in the drawer. (use a singular verb)
The boy or his friends run every day. (the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is
nearer the verb)
His friends or the boy runs every day.

3. A phrase that comes between the subject and the verb

One of the boxes is open.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.

4. Each, each one, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone,
and no one (use a singular verb)
Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
Either is correct.

5. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two
parts to these things.)
Those trousers are made of wool.
6. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since
"there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
There are many questions.
There is a question.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

7. Collective nouns such as group, team, committee, class, and family are considered singular
and take a singular verb.
The team runs during practice.
My family has never been able to agree.

8. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well
do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
All of the books, including yours, are in that box.

9. With fractions, the verb agrees with the whole.

One-fourth of the books are gone. (“books” is a plural noun)
One-fourth of the sand is white. (“sand” is a singular noun)

10. The number takes a singular verb, and a number takes a plural verb.
The number of freelancers in the workforce is growing every day.
A number of freelancers are actually looking for full-time work.

11. Specific amounts of money take a singular verb, while vague amounts take a plural verb.
Five euros is equal to a little more than six US dollars.
Millions of dollars were spent on this year's presidential campaigns.

12. Nouns ending in -ics and referring to a field of study or subject take singular verbs.
Politics is best not discussed at the dinner table.
Simple economics determines how much something costs.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

What makes subject-verb agreement so difficult?

1. A long, complicated subject
The writer gets lost in it and forgets which noun is actually the head of the subject phrase and
instead makes the verb agree with the nearest noun:
The arrival of new fall fashions have excited all the back-to-school shoppers. Incorrect
The arrival of new fall fashions has excited all the back-to-school shoppers. Correct (should be has
to agree with arrival)

2. Notional agreement
Notional agreement occurs when the agreement between a subject and its verb (or, in some
instances, a pronoun and its antecedent) is determined by meaning rather than form. Simply put,
the verb agrees with the notion or idea the subject is trying to convey, whether it is singular or
plural:
Twenty-five rules is a lot to digest. Incorrect
Twenty-five rules are listed on the notice. Correct
 Some common cases of notional agreement involve collective nouns (for example, "family");
plural expressions of quantity ("five years"); plural proper nouns ("United States"); and
some compound units with and ("bed and breakfast").
Ten dollars is the cost of admission.
Is five miles too far to walk?
Two plus three makes five.
A majority of the voters support the amendment.
There are a handful of good reasons for us to go.
A committee of volunteers were selected.
Ultimately: A crowd of revelers were approaching.
Notional agreement is something to which we don't often pay notice because it's almost instinctive,
a part of our regular speaking habits. And it's not a set rule in its own right, but rather a matter of
preference, and it's more common in British English than American English. If you preferred to say
"a crowd of revelers was approaching," you wouldn't be wrong.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Pronouns
Pronouns are words to replace nouns and avoid repetition of the noun. We use pronouns to refer
to both people and objects.
Sam is my brother. He speaks English well.
name pronoun
Subject pronouns Object pronouns Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns Reflexive pronouns
I Me My Mine Myself
You You Your Yours Yourself/ yourselves
He Him His His Himself
She Her Her Hers Herself
It It Its No pronoun Itself
We Us Our Ours Ourselves
They Them Their Theirs Themselves

Subject Pronouns
We use subject pronouns before verb; subject pronouns are used instead of a noun as the subject
of a verb.
 Sam plans to get up early. He has a music class.
name pronoun

Object Pronouns
We use object pronouns after verbs or prepositions; object pronouns are used instead of a noun
as a direct or indirect object.
 My friends are studying with me.
 Direct object: I met Sam yesterday. I like him.
 Indirect object: Those books belong too Sam. Can you give them to him?

Possessive adjectives:
We use possessive adjectives before a noun to express belonging.
 That book belongs to me. This is my book.
We use ‘s with singular nouns and irregular plural nouns:
 Europe’s technological advancements.
We use ‘s after regular plural nouns: the children’s toys
Possessive pronouns:
We use possessive pronouns instead of a possessive adjective + noun
 I do not have a phone here? Can I use yours? (= your phone)
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Reflexive pronouns:
We use reflexive pronouns when the subject and object are the same person or thing.
‫ ضمایر انعکاسی میگوییم و موقعی استفاده می شوند که فاعل و‬ourselves, yourselves, yourself, myself ‫به ضمایر‬
.‫مفعول یک فعل یکسان هستند‬
 They had to cook for themselves.
 The baby’s burn herself.

Proper Usage
Jane shook herself awake.
.‫ جین احتماال در میان کالس یا جلسه در حال به خواب رفتن بوده که خودش را تکان میدهد تا بیدار شود‬.‫معنی کامال واضح است‬
:‫اما به این جمله دقت کنید‬
Jane shook her awake.
.‫این طور تلقی میشود که جین کس دیگری را ناگهان بیدار کرده است‬
Imporper Usage
If you have questions, e-mail Bob or myself.
‫ از هم متفاوت‬،‫ نیست چرا که فاعل (شخص ارسال کنندۀ ایمیل) با شخصی که به او ایمیل می شود‬myself ‫در این مثال نیازی به وجود‬
:‫ نسخۀ درست این خواهد بود‬.‫هستند‬
If you have questions, e-mail Bob or me.

More examples:
I fell over and hurt myself.
Would you like to pour yourself a drink?
He was feeling very sorry for himself.

Exception:
.‫ است‬Emphatic ‫ در ساختارهای تاکیدی یا‬،‫تنها حالی که ممکن است از ضمایر انعکاسی به صورت استثناء استفاده شود‬
I closed the store on Saturday myself.
As parents ourselves, we understand the problem.
We ourselves are in charge of our destiny.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Each other/ one another

Each other refers to two subjects, one another to more than two, though we tend to use the form
interchangeably in informal speaking.
 The boys taught each other/ one another some new words (each boy taught the other boy)

Using one/ one’s/ oneself

To refer to people in general, one is sometimes used in formal written English. One is third person
singular; there is also a possessive determiner one’s and a reflexive pronoun oneself.
 Before applying for a job, one needs to make sure one has the necessary skills or degrees.
 A basic rule is that one should always prepare oneself very carefully before going to a job
interview.

Indefinite pronouns and adverbs

Person Object Place Manner
Someone/body Something Somewhere Somehow
Anyone/body Anything Anywhere Anyhow
Everybody/one Everything Everywhere
No one/nobody Nothing Nowhere

There pronouns and adverbs do not refer to a specific person or place.

 Nobody is permitted to enter.
When we use some compound → it means a specific person or place and when we use any
compound → it means general person or place
 Nobody is permitted to enter.
 Somebody has broken the window.
If we use these pronouns and adverbs as subjects, they take a singular verb.
 Everything is going smoothly and NASA expects to launch the shuttle.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Articles
1. Indefinite Articles: A/AN
Uncountable nouns do not use a/an. This is a simple rule to learn from the start.
We use the indefinite article when referring to a singular noun which is not specified and when
referring to something for the first time.
Single object or single person
 Owing a car can make some people’s life easier.
 Having a child is a responsibility.
 Having a poor diet is a common problem for many people.

Objects or people that are not specific

 It is normal to go a doctor when you are feeling unwell.
 Learning a language becomes more difficult as a person gets older.

Professions
 He is a teacher. She is a doctor.

The article a is used with nouns that begins with a consonant sound. The article an is used as an
indefinite article before nouns that begins with a vowel sound:

An elephant a, e, I, o, u (vowels)

An apple, an easy lesson, an originally grown apple

 It is said that an apple a day will keep the doctor away.
 Starting a new job is an opportunity to learn new things and meet new people.

Use a if a word that begins with “u” has /yu/ sound: a university, a usual event, a unique
opportunity
Use an if a word that begins with “u” has a vowel sound: an uncle, un ugly picture.
In some words that begins with” h”, the “h” is not pronounced. Instead the word begins with a
vowel sound and an is used: an hour, an honor.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

2. Definite Articles:
The can precede singular, plural, and uncountable nouns. The is used with:
Specific Person or Object

 An applicant with lots of experience will probably get a job.

This refers to any applicant, not a specific one. It also refers to any job, not a particular job.

 The applicant with lots of experience will probably get the job.
This refers to a specific applicant (the one with experience). It also refers to a specific job.
When the person or object has already been mentioned

 Children should be encouraged to take up a hobby. The hobby they choose should be
something that they have a particular skill or interest in.
In the first sentence, hobby refers to any hobby. It is non-specific. However, in the second
sentence, we refer to the hobby because we are specifying it is the one that is chosen by the
children and the one already mentioned in the first sentence.
Names of mountain ranges, rivers, seas, oceans, islands, buildings, hotels and museums

 The Nile, the Indian Ocean, the alps, the Tower of London. The British museum
Groups of people

 The English, the poor, the rich, the homeless, the disabled, the sick, the hungry, the
unemployed, the young, the elderly
Musical instruments and works of arts

 The piano, the violin, the Mona Lisa

Social institutions, groups, systems and services

 The government, the department of education, the church, the police, the army, the media,
the papers

.‫ استفاده کنیم‬the ‫ باید از‬،‫هر وقت بخواهیم به یک سیستم یا یک سرویس خدماتی اشاره کنیم‬
 I heard it on the radio.
 You should tell the police.
 How long does it take on the train?
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Species groups
This does not refer to one specific animal, fish, or insect, but to the whole species group. Note the
noun is singular.

‫ نه به یک مثال خاص ازش‬.‫ز مان که به یک اسم به معنای کیل آن اشاره یم کنیم‬

 We don’t know the effect of such chemicals on the body.

 People should plant more flowers to support the honey bee.

Something unique

This is when there is only one of it in the world

 The media, the moon, the sun, the sky, the sea, the weather, the earth, the world
 some of these chemicals can be very damaging to the environment.
Competitions

 The Olympics, the World Cup

Organizations and newspapers

 The World Wildlife Fund, The Red Cross, The Times

Countries, groups of countries, and directions

 The UK, the United States, the EU, the People’s Republic of China, The north (of China)

Ordinal numbers and decades

 The first, the second, the eighties (the 80s/ the 1980s)
Times of the day or weekend

 In the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, at the weekend.

Definite noun phrases

The +Noun+ of
.‫ استفاده یم کنیم‬the ‫ قبلش از‬،‫ استفاده یم کنیم‬of ‫زمان که بعد از اسیم از‬
 The standard of living is better in urban areas.
 The idea of one global language sounds ideal but, in reality, it is problematic.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

The +Noun+ to + Verb

 The motivation to succeed is as important as the skills a person possesses.

 Most students are driven by the desire to surpass themselves.

Superlatives and comparatives

 I had the worst headache last night.

 Improving public transport is the best way to tackle air pollution in city centres.
Before only
 The only tea that I like is black tea.

Used before adjective clauses, such as who and which

 The man who wrote this book is famous.

 I live in the small town with a blue door.

3. No Article:
With plural or uncountable nouns to talk in general about things:

 Prices keep going up.

 There has been a big increase in crime.

With certain proper nouns

Continents (Asia, Europe)/ countries (Iran)/ cities (Tehran)/ mountains (Damavand)/ companies
(Microsoft)

In common expressions after prepositions

 To/at school/ university/; to/in class/; in prison/hospital/bed

 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Nouns
Nouns are the name of people, things, place, they can pronouns.
Proper and Common Nouns
Proper Noun refers to a particular group (the name of cities, countries, people, rivers). It is
written by a Capital letter.
 Everest, New York, Ali
Common Noun refers to all types of people or thing. It is written by a Small letter
 mountain, city, daughter
Singular and Plural Nouns
Most nouns form plural with -s.
Nouns end in consonants (road→ roads, bag → bags, town → towns) and nouns end in vowels a
and e (area →areas, rope → ropes).

Noun Plural form Examples

Ending in
consonant +y vowel + ies Family→ families
+y +s Monkey→ monkeys
Ending in ch, sh, x, z + es Watch→ watches, boss→ bosses
Ending in
Consonant+ o Vowel + es Potato→ potatoes
+o +s Radio → radios
Ending in -f/ -fe + ves Leaf→ leaves, wife → wives
Irregular + (r)en Child→ children, ox→ oxen
Change of vowel Woman→ women, foot → Feet
No change in plural Sheep→ sheep, craft→ craft

Some nouns are common in plural:

Clothing: clothes, jeans, pajamas, trunks, dungarees
Tools/ equipment: scissors, glasses, scales, handcuffs, pliers
Games: dominoes, darts, cards, bowls
Subjects/activities: physics, maths, politics, economics, aerobics, athletics others: goods,
whereabouts, remains, thanks, news, stairs, proceeds Countable Nouns
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Countable nouns are used to refer to people, things or concepts.

 An artist, a lot of artist/ a shop, several shops/ a person, many people/ a city, many cities

These nouns are called countable because we can say one shop, two shops, three shops. Countable
nouns have singular and plural form. They can be used with a/an, with numbers (one, five, etc.)
quantifiers (may, a few, etc.) and demonstratives (this, those etc.).
 Most public libraries offer a wide range of services and often open their doors to various
local community groups and charities.

Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are used to refer to concepts, feelings, activities, materials and substances,
etc. that are seen as a whole or as a mass.
 Education, water, advice, fear work, rice, information, sadness, leisure, bread, time, empathy,
fun, milk, money, warmth
These nouns are called ‘uncountable’ because we cannot say one work, two advices, three
informations.
Uncountable nouns have only one form. The are not used in the plural or with a/an or with
numbers.
 A large number of websites offer support, advice and guidance about education for children
with special needs.
 A lot of information about accommodation in the world’s major tourist hotspots is available
online.
Using Countable Noun Phrase for Uncountable Nouns
If you want to talk about a specific number or amount of an uncountable noun, you need to use an
alternative phrase such as a piece of/ pieces of; a bit of/ bits of; an item of/ items of
 It can be very hard for young couples to find a suitable accommodation.
 It can be very hard for young couples to find suitable accommodation.
 It can be very hard for young couples to find a suitable place to live.
 It can be very hard for young couples to find a suitable flat or house. Below are a few
examples of measure words used in English.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Food Liquid Personal items

A bowl of rice A teaspoon of medicine A bar of soap
A dish of spaghetti A A tablespoon of vinegar A tube of toothpaste
pound of meat/ cheese A A glass of water A container of shampoo
piece of cake/pie A cup of coffee A stick of deodorant
A pint of blood A bottle of perfume/cologne
A can of soup
A quart of milk A roll of toilet paper
A box of cereal A half-gallon of juice A ball of cotton
A gallon of punch Sewing items
A bag of flour
A tank of gas A spool of thread
A carton of ice cream A jug of lemonade A skein of yarn
A jar of peanut butter A bottle of wine A yard/meter of ribbon
A keg of beer A (square) foot/meter of
A loaf of bread A shot of vodka fabric/cloth
A slice of bread/pizza A drop of rain Stationery
A piece of paper
A package of pasta
A pad of paper
A dash of salt A roll of tape
A cube of ice A stick/piece of chalk
A bottle/tube of glue
A pack of gum A head of A jar of paste
lettuce/ cabbage An ear A pair of scissors
of corn
A kernel of corn
A grain of
wheat/salt A stalk
of celery
A spear of asparagus
A clove of garlic
• a bag of flour | rice | gold dust a bar of chocolate | gold | soap
• a bottle of Coke | milk | water | wine a bowl of cereal | rice | soup
• a box of cereal | paper a can of cream | meat | tuna
• a carton of ice-cream | orange juice | milk a cup of hot chocolate | coffee | tea
• a drop of blood | oil | water a glass of beer | juice | water | wine
• a grain of rice | sand | truth an item of clothing | expenditure | news
• a jar of honey | jam | peanut butter a piece of advice | furniture | paper
• a roll of paper | tape | toilet paper | Scotch a slice of bread | cheese | meat | toast
tape
• a spoonful of sugar | syrup | whisky a tablespoon of butter | honey | ketchup
• a teaspoon of cinnamon | medicine | salt a tube of glue | lipstick | toothpaste
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Nouns Used to Refer to Substances

Many nouns used to refer to substances can be used as either countable or uncountable nouns.
The countable form usually refers to a specific quantity or a particular kind of something, while
the uncountable form has a general meaning. For example:
 countable: we stopped at a roadside café and ordered two teas and a sparkling water.

In this sentence, tea and water are used as countable nouns because they refer to specific
quantities: two cups of tea, a bottle of sparkling water
 Uncountable: In many cultures, drinking tea is social activity.
 In this sentence, tea is used as an uncountable noun because the meaning is tea in general,
not a specific quantity or a particular type of tea.
Specific and General Meanings
There are many other nouns which can be used either as countable or uncountable nouns.
For example:
Business/ experience/ Labor/ society/ communication/ food/ language/ support/ culture/
growth/ power/ time/ development/ industry/ practice/ value/ economy/ interest/ property/
work
Usually, the countable form has a more specific meaning, while the uncountable form has a
general meaning.
 Uncountable noun: Many young people are seeking career in business.
In this sentence, the noun business denotes the activity of buying, selling or producing goods and
services. In this sense, it is uncountable.

 Countable noun: A lot of local businesses are going broke because of large corporations.

In this sentence, the noun businesses denote particular companies that buy or sell goods and
services, in this sense, it is countable. Some very common abstract uncountable nouns can be
used with the indefinite article a/an like countable nouns when you want to talk about a
particular kind of something. Such nouns are typically used in the following patterns:

a(an) + adj + noun a(n)+ noun + of a(an) + adj+ noun + of education,

help, life, sleep, hatred, knowledge, love, understanding
 A lot of people can speak several languages even though they have had little or no formal
education.
 All parents want a good education for their children.
 In my experience, it is not true that elderly people have a deep hatred of anything new.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

 In my opinion, schools should spread knowledge of civil rights issues through discussion
and social media.

Uncountable Nouns Ending in -s

Some nuns end in -s but are uncountable nouns and are followed by a singular verb. These are
mostly nouns used to refer to diseases, subjects of study, activities and games. For example:
Diabetes, rabies/ economics, electronics, linguistics, mathematics, physics/ aerobics, athletics,
gymnastics. Billiards, cards.
 Economics has become a very popular field of study.
 Diabetes is affecting an increasing number of young people who are heavily overweight.
 It is often claimed that aerobics increases blood flow and body stamina.

Nouns That Only Have a Plural Form

Some nouns in English only have a plural form and so are never used with a(n). They always take
a plural verb. Typically, these are nouns that are used to refer to clothing, things people wear,
instruments, tools and other things that are thought of as considering of more than one part. For
example:
Glasses, sunglasses, clothes, jeans, trousers, pajamas, binoculars, headphones, scissors,
belongings, expenses, goods, savings, outskirts, premises, surroundings, congratulations, thanks
 Many old people have t spend more of their savings on healthcare.
 In many countries, the poorest people live in slums on the outskirts of large cities. With
nouns used to refer to clothing, instruments and tools, it is usually possible to use a pair of
(or one pair of) if you want to specify that you are referring to only one example.
 If you are a music lover, it is worth investing in a good pair of headphones.
 If you are a music lover, it is worth investing in some good headphones.
Note that the noun police is plural although it does not end in -s. it always takes a plural verb.
 It is good to know that the police are there to protect us and prevent crime.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Quantifiers
Quantifiers are small words or phrases such as some, much, many, a lot of, a few, both, each,
etc. that are used to refer to a number of things or to a quantity of something. Some quantifiers
are used only with countable nouns or only with uncountable nouns. Whiles some can be used
with both countable and uncountable nouns.

1. Quantifiers used with both countable Some, any, more, most, all, no, enough, a lot, plenty of
and uncountable nouns
2. Quantifiers used with countable Many, not many, few, a few, several a number of, both,
nouns either, neither, all vs non, each, every
3. Quantifiers used with uncountable Much, more much, little, a little
nouns
4. Using compound quantifiers instead • A lot of, plenty
of much/ many • A large number of, a great number of, a good
number of
• A great deal of, a good deal of, a large quantity of,
a large amount of

1. Quantifiers + Countable Nouns and Uncountable Nouns

These quantifiers can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns: Some, any, more,
most, all, no, enough, a lot, plenty of
 [C] In some situations, body language can be more effective than verbal communication.
 [U] When applying for a job, some practical experience is often an asset.
 [C] A few decades ago, animals did not have any rights.
 [U] Meat eaters like to argue that animals do not suffer any pain when slaughtered.
 [C] As a result of global warming, more animal species are becoming extinct.
 [U] We should spend more money on healthcare for people rather than on animal welfare.
 [C] Most people find it difficult to set themselves realistic goals.
 [U] It is well known that most scientific research is funded by government grants.
 [C] In my opinion, all wild animals have the right to live in their natural habitat.
 [U] In some countries, all animal testing for cosmetics has already been banned.
 [C] No children should be denied their right to quality education.
 [U] In some countries, the school workload is so heavy that children have no free time for
sport or hobbies.
 [C] Very often, schools in rural areas do have enough resources.
 [C] Not enough hospitals are getting the funding they need.
 [U] Hospitals in rural areas sometimes do not have enough medical equipment.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

 [C] A lot of prospective parents are not fully ware of the demands of childrearing.
 [U] As young children usually demand a lot of attention; it is better for parents to have a
part-time job or to be able to work from home.
 [C] Yong people from rural areas wrongly believed that there are always plenty of jobs
available in cities.
 [U] In the past, people always seemed to have plenty of time to help their neighbors or just
to talk to them.
Note that the word enough implies a sufficient quantity. The opposite of this is lack.
Note that some, any, more, most, all are followed by of if you want to refer to a specific group or to
member of a specific group.
 [C] Some of the people you meet while travelling can become friends for life.
 [U] People should try to put aside some of their income as savings.
Some/ any
As you know, the general rule is that we use some in positive sentences, and any in sentences with
a negative and in questions:
 [C] Some video games seem t incite teenagers to commit criminal offences.
 [U] Isolation and lack of community may be responsible for some criminal behavior.
 [C] Some governments lack compassion and refuse to let any refugees enter the country.
 [U] In my opinion, it is dangerous to allow children to use smartphones and computers
without any parental supervision.

1. Quantifiers + Countable Nouns

These quantifiers can be used with both countable nouns. They are never used with uncountable
nouns and are always followed by a plural noun: Many, not many, few, a few, several a number of,
both, either, neither, all vs non, each, every.

 Many historic buildings are damaged by the tourists who visit them.
All these quantifiers can be followed by of + a noun, a pronoun, a noun phrase to refer to members
of a specific group:
 Children generally enjoy school, but not many of them would enjoy going to school at
weekends.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Few vs a few
Few has a slightly negative meaning:
 Unfortunately, few people genuinely care about the environment.
This means ‘not as many people as one would expect’ or ‘or as many people as I would like’.
You can paraphrase this sentence as:
 Unfortunately, only a small number of people genuinely care about the environment.
 Unfortunately, not many people genuinely care about the environment.
By contrast, a few is more positive meaning:
 Fortunately, a few people genuinely care about the environment.
You can paraphrase this sentence as:
 Unfortunately, some people genuinely care about the environment.
 Unfortunately, a number of people genuinely care about the environment.
Instead of some (+plural noun), use a number of (because a number of is a neutral expression)
rather a few (a few means ‘not many’).
 Some people believe that it is good for children to be given more freedom.
 A number of people think that children benefit from having more freedom.
 In large cities, not many people know their neighbors, and fewer still would be willing to
help them.
 Areas where housing prices are relatively low have the fewest homeless people.

Remember that fewer is the comparative form of few and is used with plural nouns, while less is
the comparative form of little and is used with uncountable nouns.
 Although there are fewer fatalities due to plane crashes than to road accidents, many people
still consider flying unsafe.
 The popularity of the internet means that people spend less money than before on music
CDs. Besides, fewer people now listen to the radio.

Several
Several means ‘more than a few, though not a lot.’ This is a good alternative to use than repeat the
words some or a few.
 Several countries have already introduced a ban on single-use plastic bags.
 World peace has already been threatened on several occasions this century.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

Both/ either/ neither

These three words can function as conjunctions an as quantifiers.
Conjunctions:
 Obviously, both Maths and Science are essential subjects.
 People can either control their emotions or be controlled by them. ➢ Fast food is neither
cheap nor healthy.
Quantifiers: we use both, either, neither to talk about two people or two things that you have
mentioned or can be identified from the context. Both means ‘one and the other’; either means
‘one or the other’; neither means ‘not one or the other’.
 Young offenders could be sent to a rehabilitation center or told to do community service.
Both solutions are fairly easy to implement.
 Young offenders could be sent to a rehabilitation center or told to do community service.
However, either solution is likely to draw criticism from different sections of society.
 Young offenders could be sent to a rehabilitation center or told to do community service.
However, neither solution is likely to draw criticism from different sections of society.
Important: the plural noun and verb after both/ the singular noun and verb after either and
neither.
Both of/ either of/ neither of
i. The + noun or noun phrase
 Both of the solutions proposed by the government have drawn a lot of criticism.
(both→ plural verb)
ii. These/ Those + noun or noun phrase
 Such a critical issue needs to be dealt with soon, so either of those solutions has to be
adopted. (either → singular verb)
iii. A possessive determiner + noun or noun phrase
 The government proposed two ways of dealing with the issue, but neither of their solutions
was very popular. (neither → singular verb)
iv. A personal object pronoun
 The government put forward two different proposals to reduce social security benefits, but
both of them were rejected.
v. A possessive pronoun
 Losing a parent can be traumatic for a child, so we should show even greater compassion t
children who have lost both of theirs.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

All / none
As explained above, both and neither are used to talk about two people or things. If you want to
talk about three or more people or things, use all and none (=not any):
 Many solutions were proposed, but all of them draw a lot of criticism.
 There ways of dealing with the issue were propose, but none of them was very popular.
Notes:
- While none can be used with countable nouns, all can be used with uncountable nouns (all
the time/ all their money).
- It is recommended that you use a singular verb after neither and none.
Each / every
These quantifiers are often interchangeable, but their meaning is slightly different. You use every
to generalize, hen you think about things or people as a group. You use each to separate, when
you think about the things or people individually.
 Every professional sportsperson practices every day.
 Each child in a class has a slightly different way of learning.
Only the word very can be used with words such as almost, nearly, practically, not.
 Almost every country has serious pollution problems.
 Not every student likes to be praised in front of their peers.
Note that after each and every, the noun and the verb are always singular.

2. Quantifiers + Uncountable Nouns

These quantifiers are used by uncountable nouns and are always followed by a singular noun
and a verb form. They are: not much, much, little, a little not much / much
 In most countries, it seems that not much effort is being put into creating a health service
that would be free for all citizens.
 Some jobs do not require much experience as on-the-job training is provided. Not much
experience is required for jobs that provide on-the-job training.
Note that much in affirmative sentences is considered very formal. You can use a lot of instead.
 A fairly number of elderly people say they derived much benefit from serving in the army.
 A fairly number of elderly people say they derived a lot of benefit from serving in the army.
The expressions so much and too much can be used in affirmative sentences.
 In some countries, schoolchildren have so much homework that they suffer from burnout
and depression.
 In my opinion, most governments spend too much money on defense and not enough on
health and education.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

All these quantifiers can be followed by of + a noun/ a noun phrase to refer to members of a
specific group:
 It is generally accepted that much of human behavior is influenced by culture.
 There is some evidence to support the claim of some cities that much of the money donated
after natural disasters is either misused or stolen.

Little / a little
These expressions do not have the same meaning.
Note that little has a slightly negative meaning:
 Unfortunately, little effort is made to educate people about how democracy really works.
This means ‘not as much effort as one would expect’ or ‘not as much effort as I would like.’
 Unfortunately, not much effort is made to educate people about how democracy really
works.
By contrast, a little is more positive in meaning:
 Fortunately, most countries have made a little progress towards eradicating poverty.
However, there is still a long way to go.
 Fortunately, most countries have made some progress towards eradicating poverty.
However, there is still a long way to go.
Note that little can have a comparative and a superlative form:
 The poorest people are those who have the least power.

3. Using compound quantifiers instead of much/ many

As you know, much is used with uncountable nouns and many with countable nouns. Much and
many are used mainly I negative sentences and in questions. Much and many are unusual in
positive sentences, except in expressions such s too much/ too many, so much/ so many, very
much/ very many. In positive sentences, you can use another quantifier as an alternative to
much/may. These are called ‘compound quantifiers’ or ‘phrasal quantifiers’. All compound
quantifier can also be used in negative sentence and in questions.
Compound quantifiers + uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns
These quantifiers can be used with both uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns:

A lot of / plenty of
The verb will be either singular or plural depending on the noun before it. Singular nouns
including uncountable nouns require a singular verb. Plural nouns require a plural verb.
 [C] Food additives and preservatives are not popular with a lot of consumers.
 [C] A lot of people spend too much time looking at a screen.
 Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi

 [U] Parents spend a lot of time and energy bringing up their children.
 [U] A lot of value is placed on success.
 [C] Climate change is pushing plenty of species to extinction.
 [U] Plenty of evidence shows that fossil fuels are partly to blame for global warming.
 [U] There is plenty of evidence that fossil fuels are partly to blame for global warming.

Note that plenty of cannot be used in a negative form unlike a lot of.
 Not a lot of people exercise enough these days.
Compound quantifiers + plural countable nouns
These quantifiers can only be used with plural countable nouns:

A large number of / a great number of /a good number of / a wide range of

Note the plural noun and verb after a (large/ great/ good) number of and after a (wide) range.

 Food additives and preservatives are not popular with a large number of consumers.
 A large number of consumers are opposed to food additives and preservatives.
 Climate change is pushing a great number of species to extinction.
 A great number of species are being pushed to extinction by climate change.
 A wide range of products can now be recycled.

Compound quantifiers + uncountable nouns

These quantifiers can be used with both uncountable nouns:

A great deal of/ a good deal of/ a large quantity of/ a large amount of

Note the singular noun and verb after these quantifiers.

 Catastrophes receive a great deal of coverage in the media.
 Even people who are not so well off seem to spend a good deal of money on luxuries.
 A large quantity of plastic wave finds is way into the oceans every year.
 A large amount of fake information circulates in the social media.
Advanced Grammar by Samaneh Ahadi Kalashi