Chapter 4
AC Theory
4.1 Definition of Alternating Quantity
An alternating quantity changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in direction at regular
intervals of time. Important terms associated with an alternating quantity are defined below.
i. Amplitude: It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. Also called as
maximum or peak value
ii. Time Period (T): It is the Time Taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating
quantity.
iii. Instantaneous Value: It is the value of the quantity at any instant
iv. Frequency (f): It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for frequency
is Hz or cycles/sec. The relationship between frequency and time period can be derived
as follows. Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second, Time taken to complete 1 cycle =
1/f second. Then T = 1/f
4.2 Advantages of AC system over DC system
i. AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer
ii. AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC motors
iii. Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC system.
4.3 Generation of sinusoidal AC voltage
Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown in the figure.
The coil is rotating in the anticlockwise direction at a uniform angular velocity of rad/sec.
When the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the plane of the
coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this position, the e.m.f induced in
the coil is zero.
When the coil moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction, there is a rate of change of
flux linking the coil and hence an e.m.f is induced in the coil. When the coil reaches the
horizontal position, the flux linking the coil is maximum, and hence the e.m.f induced is also
maximum.
When the coil further moves in the anticlockwise direction, the e.m.f induced in the coil reduces.
Next when the coil comes to the vertical position, the e.m.f induced becomes zero. After that the
same cycle repeats and the e.m.f is induced in the opposite direction. When the coil completes
one complete revolution, one cycle of AC voltage is generated.
The generation of sinusoidal AC voltage can also be explained using mathematical equations.
Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field in the position shown
in the figure. The maximum flux linking the coil is in the downward direction as shown in the
figure. This flux can be divided into two components, one component acting along the plane of
the coil ∅ max sin ωt and another component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil
∅ max cos ωt .
The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil.
Only the component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil i.e. ∅ max cos ωt induces an e.m.f
in the coil.
Hence the e.m.f induced in the coil is a sinusoidal e.m.f. This will induce a sinusoidal current in
the circuit given by;
4.4 Why Sine Waveform?
Although it is possible to produce alternating voltages and currents with an endless variety of
waveforms (e.g., square waves, triangular waves, rectangular waves etc), yet the engineers
choose to adopt sine waveform. The following are the technical and economic advantages of
producing sinusoidal alternating voltages and currents:
(i) The sine waveform produces the least disturbance in the electrical circuit and is the
smoothest and efficient waveform. For example, when current in a capacitor, in an
inductor or in a transformer is sinusoidal, the voltage across the element is also
sinusoidal. This is not true of any other waveform.
(ii) The use of sinusoidal voltages applied to appropriately designed coils results in a
revolving magnetic field which has the capacity to do work. In fact, it is this principle
which underlines the operation of induction motors which form about 90% of all
electric motors found in commercial and industrial applications. Although other
waveforms can be used, none leads to an operation which is as efficient and
economical as that achieved through the use of sinusoidal voltages and currents.
(iii) The mathematical computations, connected with alternating current work, are much
simpler with this waveform.
(iv) By means of Fourier series analysis, it is possible to represent any periodic function
of whatever waveform in terms of sinusoids. This is a notable advantage in the
mathematical sense because non-sinusoidal waves can be analysed in terms of
sinusoids.
Due to above advantages, electric supply companies all over the world generate sinusoidal
alternating voltages and currents. It may be noted that alternating voltage and current mean
sinusoidal alternating voltage and current unless stated otherwise.
Angular Frequency (ω)
Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second (i.e. the angle
covered by the rotating coil). The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.
2π
ω= =2 πf
T
Examples
1. An a.c. generator consists of a coil of 100 turns and cross-sectional area of 3 m 2,
rotating at a constant angular speed of 60 rad s –1 in a uniform magnetic field of 0·04 T.
The resistance of the coil is 500 Ω. Calculate maximum power dissipated in the coil.
2. An alternating current i is given by ; i = 141·4 sin 314 t. Find (i) the maximum value (ii)
frequency (iii) time period and (iv) the instantaneous value when t is 3 ms.
3. An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of 120A.
(i) Write down the equation for the instantaneous value.
(ii) Reckoning time from the instant the current is zero and becoming positive, find the
instantaneous value after 1/360 second.
(iii) Time taken to reach 96A for the first time.
4. An alternating current is given by; i = 10 sin 942t. Determine the time taken from t=0 for
the current to reach a value of +6A for a first and second time.
5. An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 Hz has an r.m.s. value
of 40 A. Find : (i) The instantaneous value 0.0025 seconds after passing through
maximum positive value, and (ii) The time measured from a maximum value when the
instantaneous current is 14.14 A.
4.5 Average and r.m.s Values of a.c Current or Voltage
Average Value: The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle
is called its average value.
For Symmetrical waveforms, the average value calculated over one cycle becomes equal to zero
because the positive area cancels the negative area. Hence for symmetrical waveforms, the
average value is calculated for half cycle.
Root mean square (r.m.s) or Effective Value: The effective or r.m.s value of an alternating
quantity is that steady current (dc) which when flowing through a given resistance for a given
time produces the same amount of heat produced by the alternating current flowing through the
same resistance for the same time.
Form Factor: The ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity is known
as Form Factor
Peak Factor or Crest Factor: The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating
quantity is known as the peak factor
