A Dictionary of Units ~ Part 1

This part provides a summary of most of the units of measurement to be found in use around the world today (and a few of historical interest), and the conversion factors needed to change them into a 'standard' unit of the SI.

Summary table of conversion factors most often required

x means 'multiply by' . . . / means 'divide by' . . . # means it is an exact value All other values given to an appropriate degree of accuracy. To change . . into . . do this . . To change . . into . . do this . . x 0.4047 x 35.3 acres hectares kilograms ounces x 2.2046 acres sq. kilometres / 247 kilograms pounds x 4047 / 1000 # acres sq. metres kilograms tonnes / 640 # acres sq. miles kilograms tons (UK/long) / 1016 / 6.29 barrels (oil) cu.metres kilograms tons (US/short) / 907 x 1000 # barrels (oil) gallons (UK) x 34.97 kilometres metres x 0.6214 barrels (oil) gallons (US) x 42 # kilometres miles x 159 x 61.02 barrels (oil) litres litres cu.inches / 30.48 # x 0.2200 centimetres feet litres gallons (UK) / 2.54 # x 0.2642 centimetres inches litres gallons (US) / 100 # x 1.760 centimetres metres litres pints (UK) x 10 # centimetres millimetres litres pints (US liquid) x 2.113 x 0.06102 metres / 0.9144 # cubic cm cubic inches yards / 1000 # x 100 # cubic cm litres metres centimetres x1# x 1.609 cubic cm millilitres miles kilometres / 25.4 # cubic feet cubic inches x 1728 # millimetres inches x 28.35 cubic feet cubic metres x 0.0283 ounces grams x 0.5683 cubic feet cubic yards / 27 # pints (UK) litres cubic feet gallons (UK) x 6.229 pints (UK) pints (US liquid) x 1.201 x 0.4732 cubic feet gallons (US) x 7.481 pints (US liquid) litres x 28.32 x 0.8327 cubic feet litres pints (US liquid) pints (UK) x 16.39 x 0.4536 cubic inches cubic cm pounds kilograms x 0.01639 pounds x 16 # cubic inches litres ounces x 35.31 cubic metres cubic feet To change . . into . . feet feet centimetres metres do this . . To change . . square cm x 30.48 # square feet x 0.3048 # square feet into . . sq. inches sq. inches sq. metres do this . . x 0.1550 x 144 # x 0.0929

/3# feet yards square inches fl.ounces (UK) fl.ounces (US) x 0.961 square inches x 28.41 fl.ounces (UK) millilitres square km fl.ounces (US) fl.ounces (UK) x 1.041 square km x 29.57 fl.ounces (US) millilitres square km x8# gallons pints square metres x 0.1605 gallons (UK) cubic feet square metres gallons (UK) gallons (US) x 1.2009 square metres x 4.54609 # square metres gallons (UK) litres x 0.1337 gallons (US) cubic feet square miles gallons (US) gallons (UK) x 0.8327 square miles x 3.785 gallons (US) litres square miles / 1000 # grams kilograms square yards / 28.35 grams ounces tonnes x 2.471 hectares acres tonnes / 100 # hectares square km tonnes hectares square metres x 10000 # tons (UK/long) hectares square miles / 259 tons (UK/long) hectares square yards x 11 960 tons (US/short) inches centimetres x 2.54 # tons (US/short) / 12 # inches feet yards Go to the top of this document

square cm square feet acres hectares square miles acres hectares x 10.76 square yards acres hectares square km square metres kilograms tons (UK/long) tons (US/short) kilograms tonnes kilograms tonnes metres

x 6.4516 # / 144 # x 247 x 100 # x 0.3861 / 4047 / 10 000 # x 1.196 x 640 # x 259 x 2.590 / 1.196 x 1000 # x 0.9842 x 1.1023 x 1016 x 1.016 x 907.2 x 0.9072 x 0.9144 #

Categories of Units
length area volume or capacity mass temperature density, area density, line density, volume energy force fuel consumption mass per unit length mass per unit area mass per unit volume power pressure speed spread rate (by mass) spread rate (by volume) stress torque

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List of Units
Units are listed in alphabetical order. Scanning can be speeded up by selecting

the initial letter of the unit from these individual letters or groups

A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - IJ - K - L - M N - O - PQ - R - S - T - UVW - XYZ
A to K A
acres angstroms ares astronomical units atmospheres ells (UK) ems (pica) ergs (energy) ergs (torque)

IJ
inches inches of mercury or water inches of rain (by mass) inches of rain (by volume) inches per minute etc. joules joules per hour etc.

B
barleycorns barrels (oil) bars British thermal units Btu/hour etc. bushels

F
Fahrenheit fathoms feet feet of water feet per hour etc. fluid ounces foot pounds-force foot pounds-force per minute etc. foot poundals furlongs

K
Kelvin kilocalories kilocalories per hour etc. kilograms-force kilogram-force metres (energy) kilogram-force metres (torque) kilogram-force metres per hour etc. kilogram-force per area kilograms kilograms per area kilograms per metre kilograms per volume kilojoules kilojoules per hour etc. kilometres kilometres per hour etc. kilometres per litre kilonewton per square metre kilonewtons kilopascals kilowatts kilowatt hours kips (force) kips per square inch knots

C
calories calories per hour etc. carats, metric Celsius centigrade centigrade heat units centilitres centimetres centimetres of mercury or water centimetres per minute etc. chains (surveyors') circular inches cubic (+ any units) cubic measures per area cubits

G
gallons gallons per area gigajoules gigawatts grains grains per gallon grams gram-force centimetres grams per area grams per cm grams per (any volume)

D
decilitres denier drex dynes

H
hands hectares hides horsepower horsepower hours hundredweights

L to Z L
leagues light years links (surveyors') litres litres per area

O
ounces ounces per inch ounces per area ounces per volume

M
Mach number megajoules meganewtons meganewtons per square metre megawatts metres

metres of water metres per second etc. microns (=micrometres) miles miles per gallon miles per hour etc. millibars milligrams per cm milligrams per (any volume) millilitres Rankine millimetres of mercury or water Reaumur millimetres of rain (by mass) roods millimetres of rain (by volume)

tex therms tonnes ton-force metres tonnes-force PQ tonnes-force per area parsecs tonnes per hectare pascals tonnes per km perch (=rods or poles) tonnes per volume picas ton-force feet pints tons points (printers') tons-force poundals tons-force per area poundals per square foot tons per acre pounds tons per mile pounds per area tons per volume pounds per foot townships pounds per volume troy ounce pounds-force UVW pound-force inches pounds-force per area watt second quarts watt hours watts R

XYZ

yards yards per hour etc.

N
newton metres (energy) newton metres (torque) newtons (per area) newtons (force) newtons (weight) Go to the top of this document

slugs (or g-pounds) stones square (+ any units) squares (of timber) sthenes

Length
The S I unit of length is the metre. To change any of these other units of length into their equivalent values in metres use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy. Where some uncertainty is indicated it means that a good idea of the size of the unit can be given but that a

better value would depend upon knowing the period and/or culture in which the unit was being used. Note than in matters concerned with land measurements, for the most accurate work, it is necessary to establish whether the US survey measures are being used or not.
angstroms astronomical units barleycorns centimetres chains (surveyors') cubits ells (UK) ems (pica) fathoms feet (UK and US) feet (US survey) furlongs hands inches kilometres leagues light years links (surveyors') metres [m] microns (=micrometres) miles (UK and US) miles (nautical) parsecs perch (=rods or poles) picas (computer) picas (printers') points (computer) points (printers') yards divide by 10 000 000 000 # x 149 598 550 000 x 0.008 467 x 0.01 # x 20.1168 # x (0.45 to 0.5) x 0.875 (but many variations) x 0.004 233 3 x 1.8288 # x x x x x x x x x 1 x x x x x x x x x x 0.000 001 # 1609.344 # 1852 # 30 856 770 000 000 000 5.0292 # 0.004 233 333 0.004 217 518 0.000 352 777 8 0.000 351 459 8 0.9144 # 0.3048 # 0.304 800 609 6 201.168 # 0.1016 # 0.0254 # 1000 # (4000 to 5000) 9 460 500 000 000 000 0.201 168 #

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Area
The S I unit of area is the square metre. To change any of these other units of area into their equivalent values in square metres use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy. Where some uncertainty is indicated it means that a good idea of the size of the unit can be given but that a better value would depend upon knowing the period and/or culture in which the unit was being used. Note than in matters concerned with land measurements, for the most accurate work, it is necessary to establish whether the US survey measures are being used or not.

acres x ares x circular inches x hectares x hides x roods x square centimetres x square feet (UK and US) square feet (US survey) square inches x square kilometres x square metres square miles square millimetres squares (of timber) square rods (or poles) square yards townships 1 x x x x x x

4046.856 422 4 # 100 # 0.000 506 707 479 10 000 # 485 000 (with wide variations) 1011.714 105 6 # 0.000 1 # x 0.092 903 04 # x 0.092 903 411 613 0.000 645 16 # 1 000 000 #

2 589 988.110 336 # 0.000 001 # 9.290 304 # 25.292 852 64 # 0.836 127 36 # 93 239 571.972

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Volume or Capacity
The S I unit of volume is the cubic metre. However, this seems to be much less used than the litre (1000 litres = 1 cubic metre).To change any of these other units of volume into their equivalent values in litres use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy. The litre. There can be some ambiguity about the size of the litre. When the metric system was introduced in the 1790's the litre was intended to match up with the volume occupied by 1 kilogram of pure water at a specified pressure and temperature. As the ability to measure things got better (by 100 years later) they found that there was a mismatch between the kilogram and the litre. As a result of this they had to redefine the litre (in 1901) as being 1.000028 cubic decimetres. Very handy! This nonsense was stopped in 1964 when it was ruled that the word "litre" may be employed as a special name for the cubic decimetre, with the additional recommendation that for really accurate work, to avoid any possible confusion, the litre should not be used. Here the litre is taken as being a cubic decimetre.
barrels (oil) bushels (UK) bushels (US) centilitres cubic centimetres cubic decimetres cubic decametres x x x x x 1 x 158.987 294 928 # 36.368 72 # 35.239 070 166 88 # 0.01 # 0.001 # 1 000 000 #

cubic feet cubic inches cubic metres cubic millimetres cubic yards decilitres fluid ounces (UK) fluid ounces (US) gallons (UK) gallons, dry (US) gallons, liquid (US) litres [l or L] litres (1901 - 1964) millilitres pints (UK) pints, dry (US) pints, liquid (US) quarts (UK) quarts, dry (US) quarts, liquid (US)

x 28.316 846 592 # x 0.016 387 064 # x x x x x x x x x 1 x x x x x x x x 1.000 0.001 0.568 0.550 0.473 1.136 1.101 0.946 028 # 261 610 176 522 220 352 1000 # 0.000 001 # 764.554 857 984 # 0.1 # 0.028 413 062 5 # 0.029 573 529 562 5 # 4.546 09 # 4.404 883 770 86 # 3.785 411 784 #

25 # 471 357 5 # 473 # 5 # 942 715 # 946 #

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Mass (or Weight)

The S I unit of mass is the kilogram. To change any of these other units of mass into their equivalent values in kilograms use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
carats, metric grains grams hundredweights, long hundredweights, short kilograms [kg] ounces, avoirdupois ounces, troy pounds slugs (or g-pounds) stones tons (UK or long) tons (US or short) tonnes x x x x x 1 x x x x x x x x 0.028 349 523 125 # 0.031 103 476 8 # 0.453 592 37 # 14.593 903 6.350 293 18 # 1016.046 908 8 # 907.184 74 # 1000 # 0.000 2 # 0.000 064 798 91 # 0.001 # 50.802 345 44 # 45.359 237 #

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Temperature
There have been five main temperature scales, each one being named after the person who invented it. G D FAHRENHEIT (1686-1736) a German physicist, in about 1714 proposed the first practical scale. He called the freezing-point of water 32 degrees (so as to avoid negative temperatures) and the boiling-point 212 degrees. R A F de REAUMUR (1673-1757) A French entomologist, proposed a similar scale in 1730, but set the freezing-point at 0 degrees and the boiling-point at 80 degrees. This was used quite a bit but is now obsolete. Anders CELSIUS (1701-1744) a Swedish astronomer, proposed the 100-degree scale (from 0 to 100) in 1742. This was widely adopted as the centigrade scale. But since grades and centigrades were also measures of angle, in 1947 it officially became the Celsius scale. Also, the S I system of units gives preference to naming units after people where possible. William Thomson, 1st Lord KELVIN (1824-1907) a Scottish mathematician and physicist, worked with J P Joule - about 1862 - to produce an absolute scale of temperature based on laws of heat rather than the freezing/boiling-points of water. This work produced the idea of 'absolute zero', a temperature below which it was not possible to go. Its value is -273.15 degrees on the Celsius scale. William J M RANKINE (1820-1872) a Scottish engineer and scientist, promoted the Kelvin scale in its Fahrenheit form, when the equivalent value of absolute zero is -459.67 degrees Fahrenheit. Nowadays, while scientists use the KELVIN scale, the CELSIUS scale is the preferred scale in our everyday lives. However, the Fahrenheit scale is still widely used and there frequently is a need to be able to change from one to the other.
To change temperature given in Fahrenheit (F) to Celsius (C) Start with (F); subtract 32; multiply by 5; divide by 9; answer is (C) To change temperature given in Celsius (C) to Fahrenheit (F) Start with (C); multiply by 9; divide by 5; add on 32; answer is (F)

the

the

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Line density

Line density is a measure of mass per unit length. The S I compatible unit of line density is kilograms/metre. A major use of line density is in the textile industry to indicate the coarseness of a yarn or fibre. For that purpose the SI unit is rather large so the preferred unit there is the tex. (1 tex = 1 gram/kilometre) To change any of these other units of line density into their equivalent values in kilograms/metre use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
denier drex grams/centimetre grams/kilometre (tex) grams/metre grams/millimetre kilograms/kilometre kilograms/metre milligrams/centimetre milligrams/millimetre ounces/inch ounces/foot pounds/inch pounds/foot pounds/yard pounds/mile tex tons(UK)/mile tons(US)/mile tonnes/kilometre divide divide divide divide divide 1 divide 1 divide by 10 000 # divide by 1000 # x 1.116 125 x 0.093 01 x 17.858 x 1.488 164 x 0.496 055 x 0.000 281 849 divide by 1 000 000 # x 0.631 342 x 0.563 698 1 by 9 000 000 # by 10 000 000 # by 10 # by 1 000 000 # by 1000 # by 1000 #

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Density
Density is the shortened term generally used in place of the more accurate description volumetric density.It is a measure of mass per unit volume. The S I compatible unit of density is kilograms/cubic metre. However, this a rather large unit for most purposes (iron is over 7000, wood is about 600 and even cork is over 200). A much more useful size of unit is kilograms/litre (for which the previous values then become 7, 0.6 and 0.2 respectively). This unit also has the great advantage of being numerically unchanged for grams/cubic centimetre and tonnes/cubic metre (or megagrams/cubic metre). To change any of these other units of density into their equivalent values in kilograms/litre use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
grains/gallon(UK) divide by 70 157

grains/gallon(US) grams/cubic centimetre grams/litre grams/millilitre kilograms/cubic metre megagrams/cubic metre milligrams/millilitre milligrams/litre kilograms/litre ounces/cubic inch ounces/gallon(UK) ounces/gallon(US) pounds/cubic inch pounds/cubic foot pounds/gallon(UK) pounds/gallon(US) tonnes/cubic metre tons(UK)/cubic yard tons(US)/cubic yard

divide 1 divide 1 divide 1 divide divide 1 x x x x x x x 1 x x

by

58 418

by 1000 # by 1000 # by 1000 # by 1 000 000 #

1.729 994 044 0.006 236 023 0.007 489 152 27.679 905 0.016 018 463 0.099 776 373 0.119 826 427 1.328 939 184 1.186 552 843

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Energy or work
There is a lot of room for confusion in some of the units used here. The calorie can take 5 different values and, while these do not vary by very much, for accurate work it is necessary to specify which calorie is being used. The 5 calories are known as the International Table calorie = cal(IT) thermochemical calorie = cal(th) mean calorie = cal(mean) 15 degree C calorie = cal(15C) 20 degree C calorie = cal(20C). Unless a clear statement is made saying otherwise, assume the IT calorie is being used. As a further complication, in working with food and expressing nutritional values, the unit of a Calorie (capital C) is often used to represent 1000 calories, and again it is necessary to specify which calorie is being used for that. The British thermal unit (Btu) can also take different values and they are named in a similar way to the calorie, that is Btu (IT), (th), etc. Also note that the therm is 100 000 Btu so its exact size depends on which Btu is being used. The S I unit of energy or work is the joule. To change any of these other units of energy or work into their equivalent values in joules use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
British thermal units(IT)x 1055.056

Btu (th) Btu (mean) calories - cal (IT) - cal (th) - cal (mean) - cal (15C) - cal (20C) Calorie (food) centigrade heat units ergs foot pounds-force foot poundals gigajoules [GJ] horsepower hours joules [J] kilocalories (IT) kilocalories (th) kilogram-force metres kilojoules [kJ] kilowatt hours [kWh] megajoules [MJ] newton metres [Nm] therms watt seconds [Ws] watt hours [Wh]

1054.350 1055.87 4.1868 # 4.184 # x 4.190 02 x 4.185 80 x 4.181 90 x 4186 (approx.) x 1900.4 divide by 10 000 000 # x 1.355 818 x 0.042 140 x 1000 000 000 # x 2 684 520 (approx.) 1 x x x x x x x x 1 x 4186.8 # 4184 # 9.806 65 # 1000 # 3 600 000 # 1 000 000 # 1 # 105 500 000 (approx.) 3600 #

x x x x

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Force
The S I unit of force is the newton. To change any of these other units of force into their equivalent values in newtons use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
dynes kilograms force kilonewtons [kN] kips meganewtons [MN] newtons [N] pounds force poundals sthenes (=kN) tonnes force tons(UK) force divide by 100 000 # x 9.806 65 # x 1000 # x 4448.222 x 1 000 000 # 1 x x x x x 4.448 222 0.138 255 1000 9806.65 # 9964.016

tons(US) force

x 8896.443

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Fuel Consumption
Fuel consumption of any means of transport (car, aeroplane, ship etc.) that uses fuel is a measure giving the relationship between the distance travelled for an amount of fuel used. The most common example is the car where it is usually expressed (in English-speaking countries) in miles per gallon. It could also be expressed in gallons per mile. However, for a car the latter method gives a rather small figure: 35 miles per gallon is about 0.0286 gallons per mile. In that case it would be better to give a figure for 100 miles, so it would be 2.86 gallons per 100 miles. That is the metric way of expressing fuel consumption - as litres per 100 kilometres. From regular enquiries it appears that in real life people are using all sorts of ways of expressing their fuel consumption, so this section (unlike all the others) tries to cover as many ways as possible. All the values are given to an accuracy of 4 significant figures.
To change miles per miles per miles per miles per miles miles miles miles per per per per into miles per gallon (US) multiply by 0.833 miles per litre multiply by 0.22 miles per gallon (UK) multiply by 4.546 kilometres per litre multiply by 0.354 miles per gallon (UK) multiply by 1.2 miles per litre multiply by 0.2642 miles per gallon (US) multiply by 3.785 kilometres per litre multiply by 0.4251 gallons per 100 miles: divide 100 by X (both gallons must of the same type)

gallon (UK) gallon (UK) litre gallon (UK) gallon (US) gallon (US) litre gallon (US)

X miles per gallon X X X X

miles per gallon (UK) litres per 100 km: divide 282.5 by X miles per gallon (US) litres per 100 km: divide 235.2 by X km per litre litres per 100 km: divide 100 by X miles per litre litres per 100 km: divide 62.14 by X

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Power
Since power is a measure of the rate at which work is done, the underlying units are those of work or energy, and that section should be looked at for explanations concerning the calorie and

Btu. In this section the (IT) values have been used. In this section it is the horsepower which provides confusion. Just like the calorie, it can take 5 different values, and these are identified as necessary by the addition of (boiler), (electric), (metric), (UK) and (water). Unlike the calorie (whose 5 values are reasonably close to each other), the horsepower has 4 which are close and 1 (boiler) which is considerably different - it is about 13 times bigger than the others - but it seems to be very little used. The S I unit of power is the watt. To change any of these other units of energy or work into their equivalent values in watts use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
Btu/hour Btu/minute Btu/second calories/hour calories/minute calories/second ft lb-force/minute ft lb-force/second gigawatts [GW] horsepower (electric) horsepower (metric) watts [W] joules/hour joules/minute joules/second kilocalories/hour kilocalories/minute kg-force metres/hour kg-force metres/minute kilowatts [kW] megawatts [MW] x x x x x x x x x x x 1 divide by 3600 # divide by 60 # 1 x 1.163 x 69.78 x 0.002 724 x 0.163 444 x 1000 # x 1 000 000 # 0.293 071 17.584 267 1055.056 0.001 163 # 0.069 78 # 4.1868 # 0.022 597 1.355 82 1 000 000 000 746 # 735.499

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Pressure or Stress
The S I unit of pressure is the pascal. The units of pressure are defined in the same way as those for stress - force/unit area. To change any of these other units of pressure (or stress) into their equivalent values in pascals use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy. Measures based on water assume a density of 1 kg/litre - a value which is rarely matched in the real world, though the error is small.
atmospheres x 101 325 # bars x 100 000 # centimetres of mercury x 1333.22

centimetres of water feet of water hectopascals [hPa] inches of water inches of mercury kg-force/sq.centimetre kg-force/sq.metre kilonewton/sq.metre kilopascal [kPa] kips/sq.inch meganewtons/sq.metre metres of water millibars pascals [Pa] millimetres of mercury millimetres of water newtons/sq.centimetre newtons/sq.metre newtons/sq.millimetre pounds-force/sq.foot pounds-force/sq.inch poundals/sq.foot tons(UK)-force/sq.foot tons(UK)-force/sq.inch tons(US)-force/sq.foot tons(US)-force/sq.inch tonnes-force/sq.cm tonnes-force/sq.metre

x x x x x x x x x x x x x 1 x x x 1 x x x x x x x x x x

98.066 5 # 2989.066 92 # 100 # 249.088 91 # 3386.388 98 066.5 # 9.806 65 # 1000 # 1000 # 6 894 760 1 000 000 # 9806.65 # 100 #

133.322 9.806 65 # 10 000 1 000 000 # 47.880 6894.757 1.448 16 107 252 15 444 256 95 760 13 789 500 98 066 500 # 9806.65 #

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Speed
The S I compatible unit of speed is metres/second. To change any of these other units of speed into their equivalent values in metres/second use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
centimetres/minute centimetres/second feet/hour feet/minute feet/second inches/minute inches/second kilometres/hour kilometres/second knots divide by 6000 # divide by 100 # divide by 11 811 x 0.005 08 # x 0.3048 # divide by 2362.2 x 0.0254 # divide by 3.6 # x 1000 # x 0.514 444

Mach number metres/hour metres/minute metres/second [m/s] miles/hour miles/minute miles/second yards/hour yards/minute yards/second

x 331.5 divide by 3600 # divide by 60 # 1 x 0.447 04 # x 26.8224 # x 1609.344 # divide by 3937 x 0.015 24 # x 0.9144 #

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Spread Rate (by mass)

The spread rate of a substance is a measure of how much of it there is covering a unit area. The 'how much' can be measured by volume or by mass. The S I compatible unit of spread rate by mass is kilograms/square metre. It is also a measure of area density (mass/unit area) and is similar to - but not the same as - pressure, which is force/unit area. For the rainfall conversions a density of 1 kg/litre has been assumed. To change any of these other units of spread rate into their equivalent values in kilograms/square metre use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy. The conversion for rainfall assumes a density of 1 kg/litre which is accurate enough for all practical purposes.
grams/sq.centimetre x 10 # grams/sq.metre divide inches of rainfall x 2.54 kilograms/hectare divide kilograms/sq.centimetre milligrams/sq.metre divide millimetres of rainfall kilograms/sq.metre ounces/sq.foot ounces/sq.inch ounces/sq.yard pounds/acre pounds/sq.foot pounds/sq.inch pounds/sq.yard tonnes/hectare tons(UK)/acre tons(US)/acre 1 x 0.305 152 x 43.942 divide by 49.494 divide by 8921.791 x 4.882 428 x 703.07 x 0.542 492 divide by 10 # divide by 3.982 942 divide by 4.460 896

by 1000 # by 10 000 # x 10 000 # by 1000 # 1

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Spread Rate (by volume)

The spread rate of a substance is a measure of how much of it there is covering a unit area. The 'how much' can be measured by volume or by mass. The S I compatible unit of spread rate by volume is cubic metres/square metre. However, this is a rather large unit for most purposes and so litres/square metre is often preferred. To change any of these other units of spread rate into their equivalent values in litres/square metre use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
cubic feet/acre cubic inches/sq.yard cubic yards/sq.mile cubic metres/hectare cubic metres/sq.km cubic metres/sq.metre fl. ounces(UK)/sq.yard litres/square metre divide divide divide divide divide x 1000 divide 1 by by by by # by by 1 890.184 1069.066 2199.692 2641.721 10 000 # 1000 # by by by by by # by 142.913 51.024 3387.577 10 # 1000 # 29.428

gallons(UK)/acre divide gallons(US)/acre divide gallons(UK)/hectare divide gallons(US)/hectare divide inches of rainfall x 25.4 litres/hectare divide millilitres/sq.metre divide millimetres of rainfall

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Torque
The S I compatible unit of torque is the newton metre. To change any of these other units of torque into their equivalent values in newton metres use the operation and conversion factor given. Those marked with # are exact. Other values are given to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
dyne centimetres divide by 10 000 000 # gram-force centimetres x 0.000 098 066 5 # kg-force centimetres x 0.098 066 5 #

kg-force metres newton centimetres newton metres [Nm] ounce-force inches pound-force inches pound-force feet poundal feet ton(UK)-force feet ton(US)-force feet tonne-force metres

x 9.806 65 # divide by 100 # 1 divide by 141.612 x 0.112 984 x 1.355 818 x 0.042 140 x 3 037.032 x 2 711.636 x 9 806.65 #

Call up a Conversion Calculator for Units of Torque OR the Background Notes on Torque Go to the top of this document

Notes
Errors Whilst every care has been taken in the compilation of this document, and many checks have been carried out, the possibility of an error is always present in a work like this and that must be borne in mind by all users. The author would be glad to be told of any errors detected. Accuracy In a general dictionary like this it is impossible to know just what accuracy is needed by any particular user. Where the given value is an exact one then it has been signalled. In most cases other values are accurate to at least the number of significant figures shown. In some cases it might be more than that as trailing zeros have not been included. Presentation The conversion factors have mainly been presented as multipliers, but exceptions to that have been made for two reasons. First, it is easier to convey the exact value 'divide by 60' rather than the approximation 'multiply by Inverse usage In nearly all cases the conversion factors have been given to change 'non-standard' units into standard units of the SI. For those cases where it is necessary to do a conversion the other way it is only a matter of reversing the operation. For example to convert feet into metres you multiply by 0.3048 so, to convert metres into feet you divide by 0.3048. Following on from this it can be seen how conversions can be made between non-standard units, changing first into the standard unit and then back into the required unit. Author's Note A guiding principle behind the writing and presentation of this document has been that of clarity for non-specialist readers. To that end I have been guilty of breaking "the rules" in a few places. I am sorry that these transgressions may offend some readers but I have done so in the belief that it will be a little bit easier for many, and also help the flow of a continuous narrative.

0.0166667' and it is more likely to be keyed in without errors if a calculator is being used. Second, most calculators accept only 8 digits, which means that 'multiply by 0.000 084 666' will become '0.000 0846' (3 significant figures) whereas 'divide by 11 811' will give the result to 6 significant figures. The appearance of a '1' needs no operator but shows that the named unit is exactly equivalent to the standard unit.

This dictionary is not meant to be encyclopaedic in its coverage, and there are many many more units which are not touched upon, but it is hoped that all 'ordinary' needs are covered. The many references to other sources, both in books and on-line should take care of anything beyond that. Finally, I must thank all of those who wrote with suggestions (and corrections!) after reading the earlier editions.

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Frank Tapson2004

Cleave Books

A Dictionary of Units ~ Part 2

by Frank Tapson

This provides a summary of most of the units of measurement to be found in use around the world today (and a few of historical interest), and the definitions and rules of the various systems in which they are found. Conversions between the various units are dealt with in Part 1
There are NO units of currency. There is an outline of the a list of its 7 basic some of its together with a list of all the and some of the rules and conventions for On the subject of measures generally, there is a short Then there are descriptions of the and the followed by statements on the implementation of and then the At the bottom of this document is a and also some links to other And then there is its There is a separate document covering the most S I system, definitions, derived units, S I prefixes, its usage. historical note. Metric system, U K (Imperial) system, 'metrication' in the U K, U S system of measures. list of other sources, Web sites. publishing history . FAQ and other measures.

The Systeme International [S I]

Le Systeme international d'Unites officially came into being in October 1960 and has been officially recognised and adopted by nearly all countries, though the amount of actual usage varies considerably. It is based upon 7 principal units, 1 in each of 7 different categories Category Length Mass Time Electric current Temperature Amount of substance Luminous intensity Name metre kilogram second ampere kelvin mole candela Abbrev. m kg s A K mol cd

Definitions of these basic units are given. Each of these units may take a prefix. From these basic units many other units are derived and named. Go to the top of this document

Definitions of the Seven Basic S I Units

metre [m] The metre is the basic unit of length. It is the distance light travels, in a vacuum, in 1/299792458th of a second. kilogram [kg] The kilogram is the basic unit of mass. It is the mass of an international prototype in the form of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at Sevres in France. It is now the only basic unit still defined in terms of a material object, and also the only one with a prefix[kilo] already in place. second [s] The second is the basic unit of time. It is the length of time taken for 9192631770 periods of vibration of the caesium-133 atom to occur. ampere [A] The ampere is the basic unit of electric current. It is that current which produces a specified force between two parallel wires which are 1 metre apart in a vacuum.It is named after the French physicist Andre Ampere (1775-1836). kelvin [K] The kelvin is the basic unit of temperature. It is 1/273.16th of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. It is named after the Scottish mathematician and physicist William Thomson 1st Lord Kelvin (1824-1907).

mole [mol] The mole is the basic unit of substance. It is the amount of substance that contains as many elementary units as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12. candela [cd] The candela is the basic unit of luminous intensity. It is the intensity of a source of light of a specified frequency, which gives a specified amount of power in a given direction. Go to the top of this document

Derived Units of the S I

From the 7 basic units of the SI other units are derived for a variety of purposes. Only a few of are explained here as examples, there are many more. farad [F] The farad is the SI unit of the capacitance of an electrical system, that is, its capacity to store electricity. It is a rather large unit as defined and is more often used as a microfarad. It is named after the English chemist and physicist Michael Faraday (1791-1867). hertz [Hz] The hertz is the SI unit of the frequency of a periodic phenomenon. One hertz indicates that 1 cycle of the phenomenon occurs every second. For most work much higher frequencies are needed such as the kilohertz [kHz] and megahertz [MHz]. It is named after the German physicist Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-94). joule [J] The joule is the SI unit of work or energy. One joule is the amount of work done when an applied force of 1 newton moves through a distance of 1 metre in the direction of the force.It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818-89). newton [N] The newton is the SI unit of force. One newton is the force required to give a mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration of 1 metre per second per second. It is named after the English mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). ohm [ ] The ohm is the SI unit of resistance of an electrical conductor. Its symbol, is the capital Greek letter 'omega'. It is named after the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854). pascal [Pa] The pascal is the SI unit of pressure. One pascal is the pressure generated by a force of 1 newton acting on an area of 1 square metre. It is a rather small unit as defined and is more often used as a kilopascal [kPa]. It is named after the French mathematician, physicist and philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623-62). volt [V] The volt is the SI unit of electric potential. One volt is the difference of potential

between two points of an electical conductor when a current of 1 ampere flowing between those points dissipates a power of 1 watt. It is named after the Italian physicist Count Alessandro Giuseppe Anastasio Volta (1745-1827). watt [W] The watt is used to measure power or the rate of doing work. One watt is a power of 1 joule per second. It is named after the Scottish engineer James Watt (17361819). Note that prefixes may be used in conjunction with any of the above units. Go to the top of this document

The Prefixes of the S I

The S I allows the sizes of units to be made bigger or smaller by the use of appropriate prefixes. For example, the electrical unit of a watt is not a big unit even in terms of ordinary household use, so it is generally used in terms of 1000 watts at a time. The prefix for 1000 is kilo so we use kilowatts[kW] as our unit of measurement. For makers of electricity, or bigger users such as industry, it is common to use megawatts[MW] or even gigawatts[GW]. The full range of prefixes with their [symbols or abbreviations] and their multiplying factors which are also given in other forms is
yotta zetta exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deca deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto zepto yocto [Y] 1 000 [Z] 1 000 [E] 1 000 [P] 1 000 [T] 1 000 [G] 1 000 [M] 1 000 [k] 1 000 [h] 100 [da]10 1 [d] 0.1 [c] 0.01 [m] 0.001 [] 0.000 [n] 0.000 [p] 0.000 [f] 0.000 [a] 0.000 [z] 0.000 [y] 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10^24 = 10^21 = 10^18 = 10^15 = 10^12 (a thousand millions = a billion) (a million) (a thousand) (a hundred) (ten)

001 000 000 000 000 000 000

001 000 000 000 000 000

001 000 000 000 000

001 000 000 000

(a tenth) (a hundredth) (a thousandth) (a millionth) (a thousand millionth) = 10^-12 = 10^-15 001 = 10^-18 000 001 = 10^-21 000 000 001 = 10^-24

[] the symbol used for micro is the Greek letter known as 'mu' Nearly all of the S I prefixes are multiples (kilo to yotta) or sub-multiples (milli to yocto) of 1000. However, these are inconvenient for many purposes and so hecto, deca, deci, and centi are also used. deca also appears as deka [da] or [dk] in the USA and Contintental Europe. So much for standards!

Call up a Conversion Calculator for Prefixes OR Notes on Prefixes (inc. other types) Go to the top of this document

Conventions of Usage in the S I

There are various rules laid down for the use of the SI and its units as well as some observations to be made that will help in its correct use.
y y

y y y y

Any unit may take only ONE prefix. For example 'millimillimetre' is incorrect and should be written as 'micrometre'. Most prefixes which make a unit bigger are written in capital letters (M G T etc.), but when they make a unit smaller then lower case (m n p etc.) is used. Exceptions to this are the kilo [k] to avoid any possible confusion with kelvin [K]; hecto [h]; and deca [da] or [dk] It will be noted that many units are eponymous, that is they are named after persons. This is always someone who was prominent in the early work done within the field in which the unit is used. Such a unit is written all in lower case (newton, volt, pascal etc.) when named in full, but starting with a capital letter (N V Pa etc.) when abbreviated. An exception to this rule is the litre which, if written as a lower case 'l' could be mistaken for a '1' (one) and so a capital 'L' is allowed as an alternative. It is intended that a single letter will be decided upon some time in the future when it becomes clear which letter is being favoured most in use. Units written in abbreviated form are NEVER pluralised. So 'm' could always be either 'metre' or 'metres'. 'ms' would represent 'millisecond'. An abbreviation (such as J N g Pa etc.) is NEVER followed by a full-stop unless it is the end of a sentence. To make numbers easier to read they may be divided into groups of 3 separated by spaces (or half-spaces) but NOT commas. The SI preferred way of showing a decimal fraction is to use a comma (123,456) to separate the whole number from its fractional part. The practice of using a point, as is common in English-speaking countries, is acceptable providing only that the point is placed ON the line of the bottom edge of the numbers (123.456) and NOT in the middle.

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A Brief History of Measurement

One of the earliest types of measurement concerned that of length. These measurements were usually based on parts of the body. A well documented example (the first) is the Egyptian cubit which was derived from the length of the arm from the elbow to the

outstretched finger tips. By 2500 BC this had been standardised in a royal master cubit made of black marble (about 52 cm). This cubit was divided into 28 digits (roughly a finger width) which could be further divided into fractional parts, the smallest of these being only just over a millimetre. In England units of measurement were not properly standardised until the 13th century, though variations (and abuses) continued until long after that. For example, there were three different gallons (ale, wine and corn) up until 1824 when the gallon was standardised. In the U S A the system of weights and measured first adopted was that of the English, though a few differences came in when decisions were made at the time of standardisation in 1836. For instance, the wine-gallon of 231 cubic inches was used instead of the English one (as defined in 1824) of about 277 cubic inches. The U S A also took as their standard of dry measure the old Winchester bushel of 2150.42 cubic inches, which gave a dry gallon of nearly 269 cubic inches. Even as late as the middle of the 20th century there were some differences in UK and US measures which were nominally the same. The UK inch measured 2.53998 cm while the US inch was 2.540005 cm. Both were standardised at 2.54 cm in July 1959, though the U S continued to use 'their' value for several years in land surveying work - this too is slowly being metricated. In France the metric system officially started in June 1799 with the declared intent of being 'For all people, for all time'. The unit of length was the metre which was defined as being one ten-millionth part of a quarter of the earth's circumference. The production of this standard required a very careful survey to be done which took several years. However, as more accurate instruments became available so the 'exactness' of the standard was called into question. Later efforts were directed at finding some absolute standard based on an observable physical phenomenon. Over two centuries this developed into the S I. So maybe their original slogan was more correct than anyone could have foreseen then. Go to the top of this document

Metric System of Measurements

Length 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre 1 sq. cm 10 centimetres = 1 decimeter metre 10 decimetres 10 metres hectare 10 decametres 1 hectare = 1 hectometre 10 000 sq. metres = = 1 metre = 1 decametre 100 sq. metres = 1 are 100 ares = 1 10 000 sq. cm = 1 sq. Area 100 sq. mm =

10 hectometres = 1 kilometre kilometre 1000 metres = 1 kilometre kilometre 1000 centilitre 1000 decilitre 1000 litre 1 million metre Volume cu. mm = 1 cu. cm cu. cm = 1 cu. decimetre cu. dm = 1 cu. metre cu. cm = 1 cu. metre

100 hectares

= 1 sq.

1 000 000 sq. metres = 1 sq. Capacity 10 millilitres = 1 10 centilitree = 1 10 decilitres 1000 litres = 1 = 1 cu.

Mass 1000 grams = 1 kilogram 1000 kilograms = 1 tonne

The distinction between 'Volume' and 'Capacity' is artificial and kept here only for historic reasons. A millitre is a cubic centimetre and a cubic decimetre is a litre. But see under 'Volume' for problems with the litre. Go to the top of this document

The U K (Imperial) System of Measurements

12 3 22 10 8 5280 1760 Length inches = feet = yards = chains = furlongs = feet = yards = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 foot yard chain furlong mile mile mile Area 144 sq. inches = 1 square foot 9 sq. feet = 1 square yard 4840 sq. yards = 1 acre 640 acres = 1 square mile Capacity fluid ounces = gills = pints = quarts =

Volume 1728 cu. inches = 1 cubic foot 27 cu. feet = 1 cubic yard Mass 437.5 grains 16 ounces 14 pounds 8 stones grains) 20 cwt (Avoirdupois) = 1 ounce = 1 pound (7000 grains) = 1 stone = 1 hundredweight [cwt] = 1 ton (2240 pounds) Measures fl.scruple fl.drachm fl.ounce

20 4 2 4

1 1 1 1

pint pint quart gallon (8 pints)

Troy Weights 24 grains = 1 pennyweight 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce (480 grains) 12 ounces = 1 pound (5760

Apothecaries' 20 minims = 1 3 fl.scruples = 1 8 fl.drachms = 1

Apothecaries' 20 grains = 1 3 scruples = 1 8 drachms = 1

Weights scruple drachm ounce (480 grains)

20 fl.ounces

= 1 pint

12 ounces

= 1 pound (5760 grains)

The old Imperial (now UK) system was originally defined by three standard measures - the yard, the pound and the gallon which were held in London. They are now defined by reference to the S I measures of the metre, the kilogram and the litre. These equivalent measures are exact. 1 yard = 0.9144 metres - same in US 1 pound = 0.453 592 37 kilograms - same in US 1 gallon = 4.546 09 litres - different in US Note particularly that the UK gallon is a different size to the US gallon so that NO liquid measures of the same name are the same size in the UK and US systems. Also that the ton(UK) is 2240 pounds while a ton(US) is 2000 pounds. These are also referred to as a long ton and short ton respectively. Go to the top of this document

Metrication in the U K
There have been three major Weights and Measures Acts in recent times (1963, 1976 and 1985) all gradually abolishing various units, as well re-defining the standards. All the Apothecaries' measures are now gone, and of the Troy measures, only the ounce remains. The legislation decreed that From the 1st October 1995, for economic, public health, public safety and administrative purposes, only metric units were to be allowed EXCEPT that y y y y

pounds and ounces for weighing of goods sold from bulk pints and fluid ounces for beer, cider, waters, lemonades and fruit juices in RETURNABLE containers therms for gas supply fathoms for marine navigation

could be used until 31st December 1999. The following could continue to be used WITHOUT time limit y y y y

miles, yards, feet and inches for road traffic signs and related measurements of speed and distance pints for dispensing draught beer and cider, and for milk in RETURNABLE containers acres for land registration purposes troy ounces for transactions in precious metals.

Sports were exempt from all of this, but most of them have (voluntarily) changed their relevant regulations into statements of equivalent metric measures.

That was how the legislation was framed. In common usage the 'old' units are still very apparent.

Historical Perspectives on Metrication by Jim Humble

who was the last Director of the UK Metrication Board.
The first parliamentary reference to metrication in the UK was 13th April 1790. This was when parliamentarian Sir John Riggs Miller [Britain] and the Bishop of Autum, Prince Talleyrand [France] put to the British Parliament and French Assembly respectively, the proposition that the two countries should cooperate to equalise their weights and measures, by the joint introduction of the metric system. There was no immediate progress although there were many positive debates in the second half of the 19th Century. For example, 1st July 1863 the Bill for a compulsory change to the metric system was approved by 110 votes to 75 votes. Speakers argued many of the points we hear today. On the one hand supporters argued its logic and simplicity, savings in time and money, advantages to trade and education. Opponents stressed the undesirability of following the precedent of France and the problems of conversion for the illeducated and disadvantaged. However no specific cut-off dates were proposed. The following year, 9th March 1864, the House of Lords debated a Bill to permit the use of metric weights and measures in trade. One supporter noted that Englishmen were notorious for liking old terms and old habits and he hoped that the new nomenclature would not be diverted by attempts at ridicule. He said the sound of the word 'metric' can be absurd to anyone but a fool who has never heard it before; but no more than a 'yard' to a man who has never heard of a 'yard' before.... !!! Parliament passed the Bill and this became the Metric Weights and Measures Act 1864. On the 24th February 1868 a parliamentary proposal to set Imperial cut-off dates was withdrawn on promise of a Royal Commission of enquiry. The Enquiry Report was positive, and on the 26th July 1871 Britain almost became a metric country. The government lost the Bill to make metric compulsory after two years, by only 82 votes to 77 votes. An argument that might have influenced opponents was a plea that Britain would be "letting down America and our colonies" who had harmonised their systems with the ones in use in Britain. [NB At that time the American Congress had emulated Britain by allowing contracts in metric. A particularly strong USA advocate for metric was John Quincy Adams.] There were further debates, and near misses, in the UK Parliament in 1872 and 1896, before a comprehensive debate [21st June - 6th August 1897] concluded by legalising the use of metric for all purposes. There were no contrary votes. [NB This is the debate which most references indicate to be the genesis of metrication in the United Kingdom.] Metrication continued to be debated for the next 10 years. In 1904 The House of Lords unanimously voted to make metric compulsory after two years. It was claimed that the Austrian

and German nations had successfully made metric compulsory with a changeover time of only "one week"!!!!! . The Government said they would not obstruct the proposal, but the Bill was never adopted in the Commons. Two similar debates in 1907 failed. By now, the Board of Trade was expressing some reservations, claiming that metrication had failed in France and that the agricultural labourer would never ask for 0.56825 of a litre of beer. The vote against compulsion rose to 150 votes to 118 votes. Conflicts in Europe put further political consideration of metrication out of mind until the publication of a Government White Paper on Weights and Measures 10th May 1951. The 1951 White Paper was in fact the 28th Report put to Parliament during the preceeding 100 years. This latest report was in response to the the Hodgson Committee Report published in 1949. Eventually we had the Weights and Measures Act 1963; a long series of Parliamentary questions to Ministers and the Federation of British Industries [now the CBI] lobby in favour of metrication in 1965. These initiatives culminated with the creation of the Metrication Board in 1969 by Anthony Wedgewood Benn, Minister of Technology. The target date for completion was end 1975. The transition to metrication and the role of the Board were given positive support and encouragement by Geoffrey Howe the responsible Minister of the new Government in 1972. Indeed at that time, and until circa 1977/8, there was good, sensible and steady progress which seemed to be supported by every section of society including, for example, the small retailers and the elderly as represented by Age Concern. Prepackaged food changed but the really difficult issue to emerge affected retailers of 'loose weight' products. They needed to be reassured there would be an agreed cut-off date for their transfer from Imperial to metric. The retail problem was that metric prices would always appear to be more expensive than their nearest Imperial equivalent. Voluntary transferees to metric found themselves commercially disadvantaged. This is because viz. 4 ozs is smaller than 125 g: one pound is smaller than 500 g and a pint is smaller than a litre. Prices are correspondingly lower. The issue of how best to explain the position to consumers dominated much of the Board's creative thinking. The product which brought all voluntary retail initiatives to a full stop was the experience of the floor covering and carpet retailers. Their 1975 change to sales by the sq. metre started well, but in 1977 one of the major High Street retailers found enormous commercial advantage in reverting to sales by the square yard. Consumers could not be persuaded to believe that goods costing, for example, 10 per square yard or 12 per square metre were virtually priced the same. Consumers bought, in very significant volume, the apparently cheaper priced imperial version. Metrication of carpet sales entered into full scale reverse and the Chambers of Trade and retail associations pressed for firm Government leadership i.e. compulsory cut-off. With hindsight one of the Metrication Board jingles may have helped spread the 'carpet' misunderstanding. This was the jingle " a metre measures about three foot three, just a bit longer than a yard you see". Consumers understandably couldn't relate an e.g. 2 per square unit price difference with the Metrication Board's "just a bit longer". Then the political nerve began to fail. Board of Trade Ministers Shirley Williams, Alan Williams and later Roy Hattersley and John

Fraser supported metrication. They seemed to recognise the setting of a cut-off date was unavoidable. They had had, by this time, the benefit of analysing the results of successful metric changes in all the Commonwealth countries. There was a wealth of information within the Department of Trade to show that a clear retail cut-off date was both desirable and inevitable....exactly as 19th Century parliamentarians had forseen. The necessary Order, drafted by the Board of Trade in 1978, was agreed by a huge range of retail trade, industry, engineering, consumer, trade union, elderly person, sporting and educational organisations and..... the overwhelming number of parliamentarians. A small number of critics, in each political party, did voice opposition to the element of compulsion but this seemed to come from a relatively small minority within the Eurosceptic movement. However, the initiative was in the hands of Secretary of State for Trade, Roy Hattersley and a General Election was expected in 1979. There seemed to be weeks and weeks of "will he/ won't he" allow Parliament to vote for the Order giving the final Imperial cut-off. Almost every private test of opinion indicated the Order would command a substantial majority in Parliament. Although the Opposition sensed a weakness in the resolution of the Labour Government it was acknowledged that many conservative MPs had been career-long advocates for cut-off and would therefore be likely to favour the Government Order, or at least abstain. In the event, Roy Hattersley chose not to test opinion, not to allow the vote. He withdrew the draft Order. Speculation was that he judged the issue might lose some votes in the forthcoming election. Plenty of time to introduce Imperial cut-off Orders after a Labour victory. The junior Trade Minister, John Fraser, made his disgust and disappointment apparent... suggesting the actions of his Secretary of State would be seen as "gutless". Many shared that view. Labour lost the election anyway and Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister. One Conservative backbencher, Sally Oppenheim had been almost the lone but persistent critic of the metric programme. Ironically she was appointed junior Minister of Consumer Affairs at the DTI and then metrication was added to her portfolio. In letters to MP's and associations she made it clear [a] she was not opposed the metrication in principle, [b] metrication was not the result of Britain's accession to the EEC but [c] she did object to measures which would compel people to adopt metric against their will. Proponents of metrication, trade and consumer organisations, officials and the Metrication Board explained and argued that a voluntary change at retail level was absolutely impossible...it could never happen. It was a recipe for confusion, waste and duplication. Government had to lead over the last hurdle. It did, it led backwards. In 1980 the Metrication Board was abolished. In truth the Metrication Board had little else to do. Every possible programme had been agreed, consumer information campaigns composed and there was nothing to do until or unless a date was fixed for the completion of the transition. We little knew then the die was set for a further 20 years of waste, confusion and argument. Successive DTI Ministers did nothing to inform consumers or public opinion. They did nothing to refute the new 'big lie' namely, that Britain was being forced to change because of the European Commission. In fact, during the past 20 years most Commission Officials, European Politicians and businesses in Continental Europe

'couldn't have given a damn' whether Britain changed to the metric system or not. They seemed to quite like the idea of Britain shooting itself in its economic foot, by imposing upon itself the extra costs and waste of maintaining a dual system. For twenty years not one single British Minister has attempted to explain the advantages of metrication; been frank about the changes which had successfully taken place in the rest of the World or the fact that we had committed ourselves to become a metric nation long before we joined the European Community. Most tried to pretend or imply they were protecting our British culture from the European bully. How sad, what a waste, what a pity. Jim Humble OBE Director of the Metrication Board [1978-1980]

Some other dates of note

1950 The Hodgson Report was published which, after arguing all the points for and against, favoured a change to metric. 1963 Weights and Measures Act defined the basic measures of the 'yard' and the 'pound' in terms of the 'metre' and the 'kilogram'. Many of the old imperial measures were abolished (drachm, scruple, minim, chaldron, quarter, rod, pole, perch, and a few more) 1971 Currency was Decimalised 1985 Weights and Measures Act abolished several more imperial measures for purposes of trade, and defined the 'gallon' in terms of the 'litre'. Thus, all the measures had been metricated even if the public hadn't! Return to the top of this document

The U S System of Measurements

Most of the US system of measurements is the same as that for the UK. The biggest differences to be noted are in Capacity which has both liquid and dry measures as well as being based on a different standard - the US liquid gallon is smaller than the UK gallon. There is also a measurement known at the US survey foot. It is gradually being phased out as the maps and land plans are re-drawn under metrication. (The changeover is being made by putting 39.37 US survey feet = 12 metres)
Length 12 inches = 1 foot 3 feet = 1 yard Area 144 sq. inches = 1 square foot 9 sq. feet = 1 square yard

220 8 5280 1760

yards furlongs feet yards

= = = =

1 1 1 1

furlong mile mile mile

4840 640 1 36

sq. yards acres sq.mile sections

= = = =

1 1 1 1

acre square mile section township

Volume 1728 cu. inches = 1 cubic foot 27 cu. feet = 1 cubic yard Capacity (Dry) 2 pints 8 quarts 4 pecks pints) = 1 quart = 1 peck = 1 bushel Capacity (Liquid) 16 fluid ounces = 1 pint 4 gills = 1 pint 2 pints = 1 quart 4 quarts = 1 gallon (8

Mass 437.5 grains = 16 ounces = 14 pounds = 100 pounds = grains) 20 cwt =

1 1 1 1

ounce pound (7000 grains) stone hundredweight [cwt]

Troy Weights 24 grains = 1 pennyweight 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce (480 grains) 12 ounces = 1 pound (5760

1 ton (2000 pounds) Apothecaries' 20 grains = 1 3 scruples = 1 8 drams = 1 12 ounces = 1 Weights scruple dram ounce (480 grains) pound (5760 grains)

Apothecaries' Measures 60 minims = 1 fl.dram 8 fl.drams = 1 fl.ounce 16 fl.ounces = 1 pint

As with the UK system these measures were originally defined by physical standard measures the yard, the pound, the gallon and the bushel.They are now all defined by reference to the S I measures of the metre, the kilogram and the litre. These equivalent measures are exact. 1 yard = 0.9144 metres - same as UK 1 pound = 0.453 592 37 kilograms - same as UK 1 gallon (liquid) = 3.785 411 784 litres 1 bushel = 35.239 070 166 88 litres Note particularly that the US gallon is a different size to the UK gallon so that NO liquid measures of the same name are the same size in the US and UK systems. Also that the ton(US) is 2000 pounds while a ton(UK) is 2240 pounds. These are also referred to as a short ton and long ton respectively. Note than in matters concerned with land measurements, for the most accurate work, it is necessary to establish whether the US survey measures are being used or not. Go to the top of this document

Other Sources in Books

Conversion Tables of Units for Science and The Weights and Measures of England

Engineering by Ari L Horvath Macmillan Reference Books, London, 1986 (147 pages) ISBN 0 333 40857 8 Probably the most comprehensive set of conversion factors in print, covering both old and modern units. There are 77 tables covering categories from Length to Radiation dosage. The Length table alone lists 107 units together with the conversion factors needed to change each one into metres. The Dent Dictionary of Measurement by Darton and Clark J M Dent, London, 1994 (538 pages) ISBN 0 460 861379 Very comprehensive coverage of all kinds of units (including currencies), ordered in conventional dictionary form, and giving several conversion factors. The Economist Desk Companion Random Century, London, 1992 (272 pages) ISBN 0 7126 9816 7 A handy compendium of units used in Science, Medicine, Engineering, Industry, Commerce, Finance and many other places, together with all the necessary conversion factors. There is also much other incidental (but related) information. The Encyclopaedia Britannica The modern E B has many references to units, but extensive use needs to be made of the index to find them all. It gives a wide selection of weights and measures from countries around the world and the appropriate conversion factors. World Weights and Measures Statistical Office of the United Nations, New York 1955 (225 pages) A very comprehensive survey of each country in the world (as it was then) from Aden to Zanzibar, giving the units used in each for Length, Area and Capacity with their British

by R D Connor H M S O, London, 1987 (422 pages) ISBN 0 460 86137 9 A scholarly and detailed account of the history of the development of the British (Imperial) system of weights and measures from the earliest times. British Weights and Measures by R E Zupko A history from Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century The University of Wisconsin Press, 1977 [248 pages] ISBN 0 299 07340 8 The actual history occupies only 100 pages. There is then an extensive list of the various units used in commerce, tables of many preImperial units, a long list of pre-metric measures used in Europe together with their British and metric equivalents, and nearly 40 pages giving other sources. The World of Measurements by H Arthur Klein Allen and Unwin, London, 1975 (736 pages) ISBN 0 04 500024 7 A very readable and comprehensive account of the history of units used in measuring, from the earliest known beginnings and around the world. Scientific Unit Conversion by Francois Cardarelli Springer-Verlag, London, 1997 (456 pages) ISBN 3-540-76022-9 It claims "This practical manual aims to be the most comprehensive work on the subject of unit conversion. It contains more than 10 000 precise conversion factors." It is certainly a very chunky and compact (= handy-sized) book. Comprehensive it certainly is but still not complete. However, with its very wide coverage, both historical

and Metric equivalents. There is an appendix on the measures used for selected commodities. Currencies are also given. The indexes are very thorough.

and modern, it should certainly satisfy nearly all users.

Other Sources on the World Wide Web

There are now several sites concerned with this topic. (It is popular with those wishing to start up a site.) Almost all the Search Engines will find links to more sites than anyone could really need, and each of those will give more links . . . . . The problem is simply: which one best suits the purpose? The first to be considered must the Official SI Web-site in France. In the UK a very good place to make a start is the UK Metric Association. It covers just about everything one could want to know about metrication and, if not covered, gives links to sites where you might find it. Current state of progress, legislation, directives, arguments (for and against), conversions, practical usage and many other points of interest, all get a mention. In the USA the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is excellent, and there is no shortage of information concerning units and their conversion. There is even an excellent 86-page book on the subject (SP 811) which can be read on-line or downloaded and printed out. The US Metric Association is also a good starting point which provides a wealth of links to other suitable sites. An excellent A to Z of units is available from this site run by Russ Rowlett at the University of North Carolina. Another account of metrication and associated items which has, in addition, some very good pages on historic measures (Anglo-Saxon, Biblical etc.) is provided by Jack Proot (in Canada) The International Standards Organisation] [I S O] based in Switzerland, is responsible for the world-wide publication of standards for just about anything for which standards can be set. Whilst none of the actual data is online, details of the work of ISO and the publications they produce are. They also give many references to other organisations concerned with standards. Go to the top of this document

Please send queries and comments to And here is a very brief biographical note about the author.

Go to Cleave Books Home Page. Publishing history 19th June 1995 (First placed online) 27th August 1997 (Minor corrections) 21st November 1997 (Major corrections and alterations) 20th January 1999 (Minor corrections and alterations) 9th August 1999 (A few adjustments to links) 13th December 1999 (Summary table of conversion factors added) 1st March 2000 (Some re-writing of Web section and links to first conversion calculators put in) 1st May 2001 (Link to 'FAQ and other measures' put in) 2nd December 2001 (Several minor alterations throughout and 2 corrections made) 18th March 2002 (More links added) 1st August 2002 (Major makeover, and the 40th Conversion Calculator added) 1st December 2003 Dictionary divided into two parts.
Frank Tapson 2004