Ergonomic

Design of
Material
Handling
Systems
 Ergonomic
Design of
Material
Handling
Systems

Karl H. E. Kroemer, Dr. lng.

Professor and Director, Industrial Ergonomics laboratory
Human Factors Engineering Center
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, Virginia

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 About the Author

Karl H. E. ("Eb") Kroemer's interests are in engineering ap-

plications of ergonomic knowledge, especially in anthropome-
try, biomechanics, and work physiology, and in related research.
Since 1981, he has been a professor at Virginia Tech (VPI&SU)
where he directs the Industrial Ergonomics Laboratory. He is
also a director of the ERI, the Ergonomics Research Institute, Inc.,
a consulting firm in Radford, Virginia. He can be reached easily
bye-mail under [email protected], by telephone (540) 231-5677 or
639-0514 and via P.O. Box 1309, Radford, VA 24143-3019.
His academic degrees are in mechanical engineering from the
Technical University Hannover in Germany. He worked 7 years
as a research engineer at the German Max-Planck Institute for
Work Physiology and 3 years as director of the Ergonomics Divi-
sion of the B.A.U. (the "German NIOSH"). In the U.S.A., he
worked 7 years as research industrial engineer in the U.S. Air
Force's Human Engineering Division, and he spent 3 years as
professor of ergonomics and industrial engineering at Wayne
State University in Detroit. He has also served as U.N. ergonom-
ics expert in Romania and India. He has consulted extensively
with industry, government agencies, and universities in Ameri-
ca, Europe, and Asia and as an ergonomics expert in law cases.
Consulting, teaching, and research are Dr. Kroemer's fortes.
He conducts workshops, seminars, and courses, ranging from
the basic "Introduction to Ergonomics" to special topics in hu-
man engineering, for example on avoiding cumulative trauma
disorders, setup and use of computer workstations, ergonomic
management of material handling, matching work requirements
with human strength and endeavor and, in general, on the de-
sign of tasks, processes, and equipment to fit human capabilities.
 Preface

Ergonomics is the study of human characteristics for the appropri-

ate design of living and work environments. 1
The term "ergonomics" was devised in 1950 in England from
the Greek words "ergon," relating to work and strength, and
"nomos," indicating law or rule. In the United States and in Can-
ada, the term "human factors" is often used.
Human Factors/Ergonomics adapts the manmade world to
people, focusing on the human as the most important component
of our technical systems.
Ergonomics/Human Factors spans the whole range from ba-
sic research to engineering and managerial applications. They
have major roots in the biological sciences (anthropology, physi-
ology, and medicine), in the behavioral sciences (particularly ex-
perimental and engineering psychology), in the engineering
sciences (particularly the industrial, mechanical, and computer
disciplines), and in their interactions, such as occupational med-
icine, industrial hygiene, bioengineering, or biodynamics.
Ergonomics/Human Factors utilize the approaches and tech-
niques of their parent disciplines, combine these with new meth-
odologies and tools (e.g., biomechanics or computer-aided
systems modeling) to optimize concepts, designs, development,
manufacturing, testing, management, and human participation
in manned systems.
Ergonomics/Human Factors is:

• human-centered
• trans-disciplinary
• application-oriented.

The goal of Human Factors/Ergonomics is "humanization" of

working and living conditions. This goal can be symbolized by the two
"E's," Ease and Efficiency for which technological systems and all their
elements should be designed. This requires knowledge of the character-
istics of the people involved, particularly of their dimensions, capabili-
1 Kroemer, K.H.E., Kroemer, H.B., and Kroemer-Elbert, K.E. (1994). Ergonomics:
How to Design for Ease and Efficiency. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
 ties, and limitations, and the conscientious engineering and managerial
application of this knowledge. Purposeful consideration ofhuman needs
and abilities contributes essentially to successful, efficient, and safe per-
formance of technological systems, and to satisfying work and leisure.

HANDLING LOADS
If we move a sizeable object from point A to point B using our
hands, we speak of "load handling." This may mean that the
mass is brought vertically to a different height, horizontally to a
different distance, or held in place and possibly turned about a
pivot. We usually divide material handling into groups of activ-
ities: lifting and lowering, pushing and pulling, holding, carry-
ing, and turning. We create these groupings for the convenience
of separate analyses and ergonomic design, but in reality these
actions are often combined. In fact, some load handling is part of
other work, such as inspection, assembly, cleaning, polishing,
sorting, positioning, or placing.
There is a curious use of terminology. Obviously, "material
handling" originally meant moving a load by hand, but the ex-
pression has also come to be applied when machinery of some
kind does the job. To make clear that a human does the task, the
compound term "manual material handling" has been created:
this is not only a word monster but also a perfect tautology be-
cause "manual" means "by hand." (That is similar to the "foot
pedal.") In this text, the term handling always indicates that hu-
man hands move the object.

ERGONOMIC LOAD HANDLING

Ergonomics can be applied both in the original design of ma-
terial handling systems and in the modification of existing ones.
Ergonomics supplies information on people as supervisors,
equipment operators, or load handlers. Application of ergonom-
ic knowledge ensures prudent use of human capabilities and
abilities, and safeguards people from overexertion and undue
strain.
Ergonomics can be used in two major strategies:

Fitting the person to the job. This means selection of individ-

 uals for their ability to perform certain tasks, and train-
ing these persons to perform their task better and more
safely.
Fitting the job to the person. Here, the task, equipment, and
work organization are adjusted to fit human capabilities,
limitations, and preferences.

Especially in material handling, both approaches can be used

at the same time to supplement each other. However, fitting the
job to the person has highest priority.
Ergonomics overlaps and intertwines with traditional engi-
neering and management, in fact uniting them. Ergonomics pro-
vides the information for matching the work to the operator, and
for finding suitable operators and training them. Hence, ergo-
nomics achieves EASE for people and EFFICIENCY in material
handling.

Karl H. E. Kroemer
Blacksburg, VA
April1997
 Table of Contents

Preface

Key 1
Facility Layout 1

Key2
Job Design 13

Key3
Equipment 35

Key4
People 53

KeyS
Training Material Handlers 75

Key6
Screening Material Handlers 89

Key7
Ergonomic Design of Workplace and Work Task 95

Conclusion 117

Index 121
Keyl FACILITY LAYOUT

In the real world, one encounters either one of two situations.

In the first case, a facility exists, it must be used as found, and
the building and its interior layout cannot be changed signifi-
cantly. One must make the best of what there is. In the second
case, one can plan and design a new facility and its details
according to the process at hand, to suit the product and the
production.
The opportunity to "do it right at the drawing board" is most
desirable, allowing the closest approximation to the optimal
solution. Striving for the best possible solution is also the pur-
pose for modification of a given facility. Therefore, the ideal case
will be used here to guide even when only modifications may
be possible.
It is the purpose of facility layout, or facility improvement,
to select the most economical, efficient, and safest design of
building, department, and workstation. Of course, specific
details depend on the overall process.
A facility with well laid out material flow has short and few
transportation lines. Transportation is always costly in terms of
space, machinery, and energy; it does not add value to the object
being moved; and it is full of hazards to people. In many existing
facilities, reduction and simplification of material movement can
lower the expense of material transport considerably, which
often amounts to 30 to 75 percent of total operating cost. Of
course, even more important from a human point of view is the
possibility of reducing the risks of overexertion and injury to
workers by redesigning, improving, or eliminating transport
lines.
2 ERGONOMIC DESIGN OF MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS

Ergonomic Check 1-1. FEW TRANSPORTS

A facility that is well laid out has

• few and short transportation lines.

Of course it is much more efficient to design a facility- from

the very beginning of the planning - for ergonomically best
transport rather than trying to improve a design that is faulty.
For this reason it is very important to include an ergonomist in
the team that is planning a new facility.

Ergonomic Check #1-2. ERGONOMIC PLANNING

To design a facility that is laid out for minimal transport
and the least human load handling

• have an ergonomist on the design team.

Instead of simply moving an object from one workstation to

the next, mterrupting the flow for performing work on the piece,
one can consider performing work on the object while it moves.
Automobile assembly lines are early and well-known examples
of the "continuous flow" solution. This may work well if tools
and instruments, parts and components all move along with the
work piece, but may be impossible in other cases, for example,
if finely controlled precision work is necessary.

PROCESS OR PRODUCT LAYOUT

There are two major design strategies: process layout and prod-
uct layout. In the first case, all machines or processes of the same
type are grouped together, such as all heat treating in one room,
all production machines in another section, and all assembly
work in a different division. Figures 1-1 and 1-2 are examples of
process layout.
There is a major advantage to this process layout design:
Quite different products or parts may flow through the same
FACILITY lAYOUT 3

1 Store
2 Rack
3 Cutting
4 Marking
5 Drtlllng
6 Press
7 Correcting
8 Welding
9 Assembly
10 Painting

Figure 1-1 Flow diagram of bus seat production. (Adapted from International
Labour Office, 1974.)

workstations, keeping machines busy. But much floor space is

needed, and there are no fixed flow paths. Process layout
requires a relatively large amount of material handling. It is
worthwhile to study Figures 1-1 and 1-2 carefully to determine
what improvements should be made in each case to improve the
conditions depicted.
In contrast, in product layout all machines, processes, and
activities needed for the work on the same product are grouped
together. This results in short throughput lines, and relatively
4 ERGONOMIC DESIGN OF MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS

Truck Wall
unpacking, Inspection inventory bench
1 \

Receiving 0 Scales
Office
Unpacking space

n T
I
I
9

~-- __U__
I
Racks I
I
I
I
__ ..)I

Receiving - present setup

Figure 1-2 Flow diagram of receiving, inspection, inventorying, and storage:

original setup. (Adapted from International labour Office, 1974.)
FACILITY lAYOUT 5

little floor space is needed. However, the layout suits only the
specific product, and breakdown of any single machine or of
special transport equipment may stop everything. Altogether,
product layout is advantageous for material handling because
routes of material flow can be predetermined and planned well
in advance.

FLOW CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS

It is rather easy to describe events and activities with simple
sketches, symbols, and words.
The flow diagram is a picture or sketch of activities and events.
It indicates their sequence, and where they take place. Figure 1-1
shows the production of bus seats.
The flow chart is a listing or table of the same activities and
events. It indicates their duration and provides detailed infor-
mation on related facts or conditions.
Table 1-1 describes the steps taken in making flow diagrams
and charts.
Figure 1-2 depicts the flow of an item from arrival to storage
in a receiving facility, and Figure 1-3 presents more details. Fig-
ures 1-4 and 1-5 provide descriptions of an improved setup.
Figure 1-6 is a blank sample of a flow chart meant to analyze
load handling.
Of course, modem technology allows much more flexible
recording, and then analysis, of material flow by using computer
templates and software instead of the traditional paper-and-
pencil forms. The flow charts, for example, can be modified to
reflect special conditions in specialized industries, or to point
out specific concerns, such as repetitive manipulations. (See the
section on cumulative trauma in Key 2.)
6 ERGONOMIC DESIGN OF MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS

Table 1-1 Making Flow Chart and Diagram

1. SELECT THE ACTIVITY TO BE STUDIED:
Be sure that you are really studying what you need to know.
2. CHOOSE THE SUBJECT (operator or material) TO FOLLOW:
Pick the person or material depending upon which goes through the entire
process on which you are working. Stick with it. Every detail must be
recorded on that subject. (WATCH IT: Be careful not to confuse the subject
-either person or material- being followed. If a person carries an object,
puts it down, and then goes to get a truck, and we are following the person,
we do not show a delay symbol for the object. lt may be resting, but the
worker is not.)
3. DETERMINE STARTING AND ENDING POINTS:
This is to make sure you cover everything you want to cover, but no more.
4. WRITE A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF EACH DETAIL (in the chart):
Step by step, no matter how short or temporary, describe every operation,
every inspection, every transfer, and every delay. Write it on the chart as
you see it done.
5. APPLY THE SYMBOLS:
The description determines the symbol. (You may create your own symbols,
if needed!) Draw connecting lines between proper symbols.

0
OPERATION: When something is intentionally being
changed, created, or added, use a large 0
to show that an "operation'" or action is
done. (Picking up an object, tightening a
bolt, writing a letter.)

D INSPECTION: When something is checked or verified but

not changed, use a square to denote an
"inspection." (Checking a requisition,
measuring a machine part.)
TRANSPORT: When something is moved from one place
to another, use an arrow to show
"transportation." (Taking a part out of the
supply bin, carrying packaging material to
the dump.)
STORAGE: When something is put intentionally
('"formally'") in a place for some time (as in
a file or in a storage area), use the triangle
to indicate .,storage."

D DELAY: When something remains in one place

awaiting action, use the large D to show
"delay.'" (A carton waiting to be lifted.)
Number each series of symbols as they are used.
6. ENTER FACTS (in the chart):
Enter distance, time, weight, size of object, frequency of occurrence,
number of people involved, or other facts describing the activity.
7. DESCRIBE HAZARDS:
Mark whether material might fall, or has sharp edges on which one could
be cut, whether there are pinch points, if material is "handled," etc. Rate
the degree of hazard as related to other jobs (this is obviously subjective).
FACILITY LAYOUT 7

Table 1-1 Making Flow Chart and Diagram (Continued)

8. SUMMARIZE:
Add up all facts and hazards and put the totals in the "summary" block.
9. COMMENTS:
After the flow chart is completed, study all details of the job in order to
determine what improvements can be made. Jot down problems observed,
and/or possible improvements.
10. CONTROL ACTION:
Question each activity in order to establish suitable control actions. The
following scheme helps.
WHY is this activity necessary? An unsatisfactory answer here may lead to
the elimination of this element of the job or perhaps of the complete job.
WHAT is being done? What is the purpose of doing itl We want to know
if this activity achieves what it is supposed to. Often, one can simplify the
activity.
WHERE is the activity being done? Where is the best place to do the details?
WHY should it be done there? Be sure that if the detail is necessary it is
done in the right place. You will often find that the activity can be combined
with others.
WHEN is the activity done? Why should it be done by now? Be sure that
(if the activity is necessary) it is done at the right time.
WHO does it? Who should do it? Why is it done this way? Can we make
the activity easier to do and safer for both personnel and equipment? Or
should PPE (personal protective equipment) be worn? Use of PPE indicates
that you were not able to alleviate the hazard: it is still there.
11. PROPOSE A BETIER WAY:
The preceding steps should have made quite clear where problems lie,
what could be done, and what should be done. Propose a better way.
Document it on a flow chart form. Summarize the details of your proposal
in the box on the chart. Let the differences shown there be your best
arguments.
 00

SUMMARY
PRESENT PROPOSED DIFFERENCE
No. Time No. Tome No. Time
Q Operation• 2 8 FLOW PROCESS CHART ~m
Q Trantponatlona 11 211 JOB "-ceiva1 check, ln~l ~ori&e and
ltorage of ptrtl received 1ft CMtona.
0 Inspection• 2 35
m
0 o.tav• 7 85 0 O~RATOR OR 18] MATERIAL
CHART BEGINS lill~om.
\1 Storagao 1 2 CHART ENDS 11;llld!L
"'Cl0
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Figure 1-3 Flow chart of the setup shown in Figure 1-2. \0

10 ERGONOMIC DESIGN OF MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS

DscaJes

Partition

Motorized
Rack
conveyor

Rack

Rack 1------

Figure 1-4 Flow diagram of improved setup. (Adapted from International labour
Office, 1974.)
 SUMMARY
PRESENT PROPOSED UIFF RENCE ~.I
No. Time No. Ti•e Nu. Tlae , ••.-=.,,,_.-::.,,..,.2 ~
L B .... FLOW PROCESS CHART r=
11 16 f 6
~~SPORTATIONS
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0 DELAYS IIJ l u s_ 60 r
1 QOPEIATOII orEJ RAfUIAl.
Q STOIIACES I l. I ~ ?<
DISTANCE TRAVELLED _, CIIAIIT lfClNS --
. 30. 31. 0
Hi&h 0 0 CHAIIT !liDS --
NUIIIER OF Hed u11 I
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11 6
c-i
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Figure 1-5 Flow chart of improved setup shown in Figure 1-2.

 t..J

ANALYSIS of HAT. HANDLING CONTROL

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