CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1. Inverters are power electronics-based devices which convert direct

current (DC) to alternating current (AC).

2. This function is fundamental to the integration of power from many

sources into the distribution system.

3. Widely used in photovoltaic, wind turbine generators and energy

storage resources.

4. In these applications, inverters convert a generated or stored DC to a

precisely modulated and grid synchronized AC waveform.

5. Beyond this fundamental purpose, there exist a range of.

Complementary, technologically viable, and demonstrated functions that

an inverter may be designed to provide. in power electronics the

application of solid-state electronics for the control and conversion of

electric power. It also refers to a subject of research in electrical

engineering which deals with design, control, computation and

integration of nonlinear, time varying energy electronic systems with fast

dynamics. processing The first very high power electronic devices were

mercury-arc valves. In modern systems the conversion is performed

with semiconductor devices switching as diodes, thyristors and

transistors, as pioneered by R. D. Middle brook and others beginning in

the 1950s. In contrast to electronic systems concerned with

transmission and processing of signals and data, in power electronics

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 substantial amounts of electrical such energy are processed. (rectifier)

is the most An AC/DC converter typical power electronics device found

in many consumer electronic devices, e.g. television sets, personal

computers, battery chargers, etc. The power range is typically from tens

of watts to several hundred watts. In industry a common application is

the variable speed drive (VSD) that is used to control an induction

motor. The power range of VSDs starts from a few hundred watts and

end at tens of megawatts. The power conversion systems can be

classified according to the type of the input and output power AC to DC.

1.1 PARTS OF THE INVERTER

The inverter is made up of the following parts and components.

 The ups module

 The battery module

 The battery charger

 The converter

 The output power transformer

 The display and controls

 The battery assembly

1.2 THE INVERTER AS A SUSTAINED DEVICE

In basic terms, string inverters connect an array of multiple solar panels, and

can be mounted either indoors or outdoors. This differs fundamentally from

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micro inverters, which are always roof-mounted directly under the solar panel

it serves. For microinverter servicing, a panel must first be located and then

disassembled by two technicians for safety reasons, according to U.S.

Occupational Health & Safety Administration (OSHA) rules. Conversely, string

inverters can be easily serviced where they are mounted, minimizing PV

system downtime.

That’s just the beginning. Developments like installation-friendly features such

as built-in string combiners and disconnects are helpful for installers and can

also help better manage PV system costs through reduced equipment and

labour. Increasing serviceability by offering string inverters with power stages

separable from the wiring compartment, or even replaceable components, is

definitely an added perk for installers by reducing service time while

simplifying future inverter replacement.

Another positive development for string inverters is incorporation of arc fault

circuit interruption (AFCI). The National Electrical Code NEC 2011 requires

detection and interruption of “arcing faults resulting from a failure in the

intended continuity of a conductor, connection, module, or other system

component” (NEC 2011 Section 690.11). String inverter manufacturers have

responded by developing and integrating technology that detects and

extinguishes an arc fault. This protects both installers and PV systems

operators from excessive downtime while also preventing potential damage

due to fire.

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Other innovations, such as SunSpec Alliance’s MODBUS communication

protocol suite, are also improving overall sustainability of PV systems. New

MODBUS cards allow string inverters to communicate with third-party

monitoring systems and can easily be integrated into many inverters, so

energy yield can be maximized.

1.3 THE FUTURE

New utility requirements for advanced control are on the horizon and string

inverters will play an important role, especially with the growth of the smart

grid. For example, advanced power control functionality allows for a higher

penetration of PV systems on existing distribution circuits. In the past,

inverters have experienced harsh conditions. NEMA classifications and

environmental segregation have led to enforcement of more reliable inverter

designs to limit moisture and containment intrusion.

Although the solar industry has seen many improvements, it does still see

some challenges that string inverters can address. For example, the National

Fire Protection Association (NFPA) implemented a change in NEC 2011 with

the 2014 Rapid Shutdown requirement, which has to do with the safety of

emergency and fire safety services in relation to solar electronic equipment.

Specifically, it requires PV source circuits installed on roofs be de-energized

from all sources within 10 seconds of when the utility supply is de-energized.

This presents a challenge for all inverter designers, including those that

manufacture string inverters, because they now have to design units so that

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responders can safely and easily de-energize the system in a very short

amount of time.

1.4 THE AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The primary aim of the project is to design and construct a electrical device

that will provide a solution to the generation of electricity.

THE OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The objectives of the project include:

 To design a quality and economical electrical object.

 To preserve knowledge of all project.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

1. The limitation encountered in this project work is as follows:

2. Cost of Materials: As it stands now in the market, things are very

costly as regard to the materials for the construction of the inverter.

The expected amount has increase leading to addition of money

3. Time Factor: Is seen as if the time provided by the authority to write

and finish the project was not enough and secondly, this is our first

experience and exposure in project writing.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW.

In an inverter circuit, the DC power is connected to a transformed primarily

through the center tap of the priory windings. A switch is rapidly switched back

and forth to allow current to flow following two alternate paths though one end

of the primary winding and then the other end. The alternation of the direction

of flow of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces an

alternating current in the secondary winding. The electromechanically version

of switching devices incudes: two stationary contact and spring support

moving contact. A power inverter converts DC power or direct current to

standard AC power or alternating current, which facilitates the running

electrical equipment of the car, home or office for mobile Applica at ion,

emergencies or simple convenience. The output voltage could be fixed or

variable voltage and antenna the DC gain of the inverter constant1, on the

other hand, if the DC input voltage is fixed, a variable output voltage can be

obtained by varying the gan of the inverter, which is normally accomplished by

PWM control within the inverter.

Power inverters are great for camping at parks and picnics where electricity is

not or rarely available. The toaster, bender, and printer can all still be used. In

a utility outage, a power inverter can be used for emergency electricity. The

radio can be plugged.

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2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF INVERTER

Inverter can be classified into many types based on their output, source, type

of load etc.

(I) According to the Output Characteristic

1. Square Wave Inverter

2. Sine Wave Inverter

3. Modified Sine Wave Inverter

(II) According to the Source of Inverter

1. Current Source Inverter (CSI)

2. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

(III) According to the Type of Load

1. Single Phase Inverter

        a) Half Bridge Inverter b) Full Bridge Inverter

1. Three Phase Inverter

        a) 180-degree mode Inverter b) 120-degree mode Inverter

IV) According to different PWM Technique

1. Single Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

2. Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM)

3. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

4. Modified sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (MSPWM)

(V) According to the connection

1. Series Inverter

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 2. Parallel Inverter

One-by-one here i explain all the types of inverter –

(I) According to the Output Characteristic

There are three most common types of inverters used for powering AC loads

include:

(1) pure sine wave inverter used for general applications (2) modified square

wave inverter used for resistive, capacitive, and inductive loads and (3) square

wave inverter used for some resistive loads. 

According to the Source of Inverter

According to the source there are two types of inverters

(II) VSI (Voltage Source Inverter)– In voltage source inverter input

voltage is kept constant. In this type of inverter DC voltage source

having small or negligible impedance at the inverter input terminals.

The waveform of the load current as well as its magnitude depends

upon the nature of load impedance.

  CSI (Current Source Inverter) – In current source inverter input current is

kept constant. CSI is fed with adjustable current source from a DC voltage

source of high impedance. The magnitude of output voltage and its waveform

depends upon the nature of the load impedance.

(III) According to the Type of Load

(III) Single Phase Inverter– A single-phase inverter converts DC input

into Single phase AC output. The output voltage/ output current of

single-phase inverter has exactly one phase which has a nominal

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 frequency of 50HZ or 60Hz a nominal voltage. Here Nominal voltage

means voltage level at which electrical system operates. Single

phase inverter is used for residential purpose (low loads).

MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION.

Electrical insulation, heat dissipation, and EMC/EMI materials can be custom

manufactured for solar inverters. Discrete or multilayer insulation products can

be tailored for dielectric strength, temperature resistance, and resistance to

tearing and puncturing during assembly. Materials include electrical grade

papers, films, coated cloths, laminates, and tapes for core, barrier, layer, and

magnetic wire insulation; lead pads; and phase separators.

Thermal management materials including foil tapes, metal-filled elastomers,

and wire mesh help transfer heat away from components. Electrical tape with

aluminium and copper backings for grounding, bonding, and EMI shielding as

well as conductive and nonconductive adhesive systems are available as is,

custom die-cut, or laminated to other materials.

2.2 TYPES OF INVERTERS

There are various types of inverters:

There are 3 major types of inverters - sine wave (sometimes referred to as a

"true" or "pure" sine wave), modified sine wave (actually a modified square

wave), and square wave.

 Sine Wave

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A sine wave is what you get from your local utility company and (usually) from

a generator.  This is because it is generated by rotating AC machinery and

sine waves are a natural product of rotating AC machinery. The major

advantage of a sine wave inverter is that all of the equipment which is sold on

the market is designed for a sine wave. This guarantees that the equipment

will work to its full specifications. Some appliances, such as motors and

microwave ovens will only produce full output with sine wave power. A few

appliances, such as bread makers, light dimmers, and some battery chargers

require a sine wave to work at all. Sine wave inverters are always more

expensive - from 2 to 3 times as much.

 Modified Sine Wave

A modified sine wave inverter actually has a waveform more like a square

wave, but with an extra step or so. A modified sine wave inverter will work fine

with most equipment, although the efficiency or power will be reduced with

some. Motors, such as refrigerator motor, pumps, fans etc will use more

power from the inverter due to lower efficiency. Most motors will use about

20% more power. This is because a fair percentage of a modified sine wave is

higher frequencies - that is, not 60 Hz - so the motors cannot use it. Some

fluorescent lights will not operate quite as bright, and some may buzz or make

annoying humming noises. Appliances with electronic timers and/or digital

clocks will often not operate correctly. Many appliances get their timing from

the line power - basically, they take the 60 Hz (cycles per second) and divide it

down to 1 per second or whatever is needed.  Because the modified sine

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wave is noisier and rougher than a pure sine wave, clocks and timers may run

faster or not work at all. They also have some parts of the wave that are not

60 Hz, which can make clocks run fast. Items such as bread makers and light

dimmers may not work at all - in many cases appliances that use electronic

temperature controls will not control. The most common is on such things as

variable speed drills will only have two speeds - on and off.

 Square Wave

There are very few, but the cheapest inverters are square wave. A square

wave inverter will run simple things like tools with universal motors without a

problem, but not much else. Square wave inverters are seldom seen anymore.

2.3 USES OF INVERTERS:

An inverter is used primarily convert dc current to ac current.

1. Solar power supply

2. Power grid and HVDC power transmission

3. Induction heating

4. Electric motor speed control

5. Electric shock weapons

6. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

2.4 MAINTENANCE OF AN INVERTER:

Regular Inspection:

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Regular inspection can be done as often as possible. It is suggested that

inspection be daily and that the operator maintains a daily log of the

information to be able to advise an engineer or technician properly.

1. It is advised to always check for changes in the environment in which

the inverter is installed. Check for dust, humidity, gas, any unusual

dropping of water and other liquid, increase or decrease in room

temperature.

2. regular checks on component parts should be conducted. Check for

unusual noises, smell, discoloration and vibration in the inverter and in

the environment. For the batteries, check for the indicators for their

operating state. Also check for spilled electrolyte or corrosion of

terminals.

3. It is also advised to check the operation data, that is the voltage, current

and temperature. If the inverter is operating outside the range, report to

technicians. The operation data of every inverter is often given in the

user manual. It is advised that you the operator, intimate yourself with

them.

4. The liquid level on the batteries should be checked at least once every

week. They may not need filling but it is important to check them

everyday.

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PERIODICAL INSPECTION:

Periodical inspections are to be made every three or six months depending on

operating conditions. This inspection is to be conducted manually. When

touching the battery, make sure to wear protective clothing. Lead-acid

batteries hold a liquid electrolyte with sulphuric acid which can cause serious

burns. Protective clothing should be worn when working on the battery. Acid

spilt on the floor or equipment must be diluted with water and neutralised with

sodium bicarbonate. Keep all personal protective equipment and other safety

materials easily available.

Most importantly, make sure that the inverter is from the mains when

conducting periodical inspections.

1. You are advised to check if any wire terminals are loosened. If any,

tighten it with a screwdriver.

2. Make sure visually that there is neither poorly clinched part nor

overheated clinch in wire terminals.

3. Check if there is any damage on wire or cable.

4. Clean up any accumulated dust using a dry rag.

5. Do not make any pressure test, because it may cause damage to

internal parts.

6. Any unusual changes in the state of the inverter must be reported

immediately to the technicians.

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REPLACEMENT OF DAMAGED PARTS:

If the inverter is used under normal operating conditions, it may have to be

entirely replaced after a specified number of years. Otherwise, the inverter has

expendable parts, like the cooling fan or any other part of the circuit which

deteriorate with time, which will have to be independently replaced at some

point. Continual use of such parts may cause the inverter itself to deteriorate

in performance and to become faulty.

The lifespan of the inverter is not necessarily fixed, there are a number of

factors which determine how long an inverter will last, which of course,

includes how it is being used. installations since are still working optimally.

Factors that may determine the life of an inverter system include

 Service life of part differs depending on operating environment.

 The temperature and humidity at which the inverter is used.

 Frequency of operations and shutdowns

 Nature of power or load.

 Installation environment.

 long -term storage.

 Power capacity being greater than the inverter capacity.

 Etc.

It is the electrician that will decide which part to replace following a failure.

Certified replacement parts should be used in case a replacement is

recommended.

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BATTERY MAINTENANCE:

The following are advised:

1. Batteries are to be used regularly and not kept idle for a long time as

this may cause inactivation of the battery cells.

2. The battery is not to be charged with very high rate of current because

high rate of charging causes high temperature rise and excessive

gassing resulting in heavy loss of water and sometimes overflowing of

electrolyte from the battery cells.

3. Also, batteries should not be discharged below the depth of charge,

which for most batteries is 80%. In most cases, not up to 50%.

4. Some inverters are able to carry up to 110% overload soon after they

will go into safety mode or sound an alarm. However, it is very important

to ensure that only the designed loads are connected to the system.

The operator is advised to read the manual, information on product or

demand information from the dealer or installing engineer or technician.

5. The job of the operator is to ensure that only the equipment on the

design sheet is plugged into the system, and this equipment is only

used for the number of hours that the designer indicated as part of the

operation data.

6. The water level should be maintained. If the electrolyte level inside the

battery cell comes down, it must be filled with distilled water up to the

level marked on the cell itself. This is to compensate for the loss of

water due to evaporation.

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 7. The batteries are constructed so there is a reservoir above the plates,

but this must be checked frequently, and the cells topped with water

whenever needful.

8. Distilled water is to be used to top up the battery. Tap or rain water is

not to be used because of minerals and impurities which affect the life

and performance of the battery.

9. The surfaces and sides of the battery are to be kept clean.

10. The battery terminals should be kept corrosion and rust free. When

corroded, use hot water and baking soda solution to clean the terminals.

After cleaning them, apply vaseline to avoid further corrosion. Rusting in

terminals restricts the flow of current which results in slow battery

charging which ultimately reduces battery life

11. Do not short across the battery terminals.

12. The terminals must be covered to prevent accidental shorting. Tools,

such as spanners, used on the battery terminals should be single ended

and have fully insulated handles.

13. System owners should read and fully understand the manufacturer’s

manual for their battery bank accessible at all times and kept near the

battery bank.

14. The battery should be refilled with fresh electrolyte once in three years

interval to maintain the battery in proper operating conditions.

15. Batteries should be replaced when damaged.

16. Following permanent damage, batteries are to be properly disposed.

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17
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY.

1. Literature review and design of the inverter: Literatures will be reviewed

to obtain the working principles and circuit diagram after which a design

will be made to ascertain the rating and parameters of the different

components involved in the inverter.

2. Construction of the inverter: The circuit will be constructed firstly on a

breadboard before soldering.

3. Testing of the circuit: The circuit will be tested with appliances according

to the calculated rating of the inverter.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 PRESENTATION OF RESULT AND DISCUSSION.

The design and development of the inverter begins with the step-up

transformer (T3 of Figure 2) construction. The subsection details the step-up

transformer design in general terms (Fitzgerald et al., 1994; Maris, 1980). The

desired power rating for the inverter system is 2000 VA (Volt-Amperes). The

maximum primary input voltage available from the four batteries connected in

both parallel and series, of 12V each, is 24V dc (direct current). Although the

two Solite N200Z batteries used in this design are rated 12V 200AH each but

their measured values were 13.5V respectively. The desired maximum

secondary output voltage of the inverter is specified at 220V (but varies

between 220V and 240V when the batteries are fully charged or when new).

The desired frequency is 60Hz single phase. The cooling device for the

inverter is a direct current 12V 500mA suction fan. Output power of the

transformer Output power = VsIs Cosθ Watt. (1) where Vs = Secondary

voltage of transformer, Is = Secondary current of transformer and Cosθ =

Power

factor.

But P I V s s s = (2)

For Ps

= 2000VA and Vs = 220V. Using (2), Is

= 9.1A.

And using (1), with Ps, Vs and Is, Cosθ = 0.9.

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 Substituting the value of Cosθ into (1), the output power

(in Watts) in terms of the power factor is 1802Watts.

Also from (2), the output power rating (in Volt-Ampere)

in terms of the power factor is:

Output power (in VA) =

( ) 1802 2002 .

0.9

outputpower in Watts VA

Cosθ = =

In Mega-Volts Ampere gives 3

2.002 10 MVA −

× . The transformer core area determination

The frame size of the transformer is obtained from the transformer equation

(Gottles, 1985):

0.2 m fe cu S fB JA A MVA = (3)

where f = frequency, J = current density,

Bm = maximum flux density, Afe = core area,

Acu = area of copper wire and

MVA = Mega Volt Ampere rating of the transformer.

But S= frame size

2.002 10 4

6.673 10 MVA

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 Moreover, the core area (Afe) = 2 K SA

The thermal conductivity coefficient ( KA) for a 2000Watt transformer

from the standard table is

2.86x10-1 (Gottles, 1985). So that from (5), the core

area is computed as Afe = 73.88 ≈ 75.00cm2

Hence, Afe (75.00cm2) is factored to obtain the core dimensions of 5cm by

15cm which is used for the inverter step-up transformer construction. Voltage

per turn

The voltage per turn is obtained from the equation;

Given:Np = 90,Ns= 120Vs = 310V

By using the transformer calculation formula we get:

VpVsVpVs\frac{V_{p}}{V_{s}}=

NpNsNpNs\frac{N_{p}}{N_{s}}VP=

  NSNPNSNP\frac{N_{S}}{N_{P}} x VSVP =

9012090120\frac{90}{120} x 310 Vp = 232.5 volt.

where f = frequency, Bm = flux density, Afe = core area. The material chosen

for the magnetic circuit of the transformer is Silicon Steel because of its higher

magnetizing quality. Its flux density is between 0.4 – 0.8 Tesla (Nadon, 1989).

However, for safe operation without saturation, 0.6Tesla is selected for this

transformer design. Thus, if Bm = 0.6Tesla, f = 60Hz and Af = 75cm2, then:

1.02 V= Volts per turn. 2.4 Magnitude of the primary turns

21
Since the Voltage per turn is 1V, the number of primary turns is calculated

from

where Ep = Applied primary voltage from the battery, Np= Number of

turns in the primary winding and N=24 turns (minimum) To reduce heat loss

and overloading of the primary coil as well as for improved and high efficiency,

the primary coil winding is increased in multiple of 24. The primary turns used

in this design is 72 turns (24 turns x 3). 2.5 Magnitude of the secondary turns

Given,

Primary voltage V1 =220 V

Primary turns N1 = 200 turns

Secondary turns N2 = ?

Secondary voltage V2 =33 V

According to formula,

frac{V2HV1}=frac{N2HN1})

N2 200 * 33/220

N2 30

Hence, the number of turns in secondary coil

must be 30 turns.

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where Es = Output Voltage of the inverter and Ns = Number of turns in the

secondary winding. Although the actual Ns=240 but for safety reasons and for

higher efficiency, the secondary coil winding is increased in multiples of 240

(Ns). The secondary turns in this design is 720 turns (240 turns x 3).

Determination of conductor wire gauge: .(i) The primary conductor size

depends on the current that will flow through it.

Thus

Choosing from the American table for standard wires gauge (Gottles, 1985),

SWG 17(gauge-17) is suitable an has been chosen for this design. (ii) The

secondary conductor size also depends on the current that will flow through it.

Thus 2000 8.33 (max )

Again from the American table for standard wires gauge, SWG 25(gauge-25)

is suitable and has been chosen for this design.

23
4.1 EFFICIENCY OF THE TRANSFORMER.

The resistance of the primary winding is 0.10Ω and both are copper wires.

The heat loss by the secondary winding copper wire is given by:

2 2 (8.33) 0.24 16.7 Q I R Watts.

The efficiency (E) of the output stage of the transformer is given by (Maris,

1980):

100% heat loss by copper E output voltage heat loss by copper

Thus, the efficiency of the transformer is approximately

=93.5%.

24
DIAGRAM OF AN INVERTER SYSTEM .

Fig: complete diagram of an inverter system.

25
 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF AN INVERTER SYSTEM.

Fig: isometric view of a inverter.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this project is focused towards boosting the construction of an

inverter and to have suitable power supply that can supply the power to be

used by other equipments or materials.

And also to have a good inverter that is sufficiently powered no matter the

material used in the construction and to solve the problem of power outages in

the home or industry.

5.1 RECOMMENDATION

This project construction of an inverter is to serve the purpose of storing and

transmitting power. And also to expose students to some other fields of study

that is relevant in their course.

Therefore recommend that this project is good as it exposes students and at

the same time reflecting that the study of electricity should be encouraged in

Mechanical engineering.

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 REFERENCES

Adeyanju, A. Y. (2003). Design and Construction of a 2.4KVA Inverter,

Allan, C. (1997). The Principle of Computer Hardware 2nd Edition, Oxford

Ganiyu, S. (2004). Design and Construction of a 2.4KVA Power Inverter,

http://www.maxim IC SG 3524 Pulse Width Modulation.

http://www.maxim IC TC 4066BP.

Hughes, E. (1998). Electrical Technology, Longman Scientific Technological

LAUTECH, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.

Nelson, J. C. (1986). Basic Operation Amplifier, London, Butter Worth and Co.
Limited.

Ronald, J. T. and Neal, S. W. (1998). Digital System Principle and

Suleiman, D. (2000). Design and Construction of a 2,4KVA inverter,

Theraja, A. K. and Theraja, B. L. (1997). A text book of Electrical Technology,

Thomas, C. B. (1991). Computer Architecture and Logic Design, McGraw-Hill,

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