The Making of a Newspaper

Identify five roles (other than Copy Taster) in a newsroom.

Text Editor / Sub Editor / Reporter / Projection Editor / Freelance Journalist / Photographer.

What is a newsroom?

A newsroom can be defined as: "an office at a television or radio station or a newspaper where news is
gathered and reports are prepared for broadcasting or publishing."

The newsroom is where the stories are gathered, written, put together, edited and assembled for the
news broadcast, telecast or newspaper.

Who is in the newsroom?

The number of jobs and people working in the newsroom vary depending on the media outlet. In
smaller media outlets, at suburban weekly newspapers for example the newsroom will probably feature
only a couple of journalists and a photographer. Sometimes the editor will be there, although in many
suburban newspapers the editor has a roving role overseeing a number of newspapers in different
offices.

In larger media outlets, such as metropolitan newspapers, radio or television, the newsroom is much
bigger, with a larger staff of people. They can include:

• Journalists/reporters.

• Photographers.

• Camera operators.

• Sound and lighting technicians.

• Editing room staff (where television and radio stories are cut and compiled).

• Sub-editors (who edit newspaper journalists' stories and check them for any legal, factual or
other problems before publication).

• Receptionists and News Desk coordinators.

• Archive or Library staff (sometimes)

• Graphic designers

• Editors or chiefs of staff - either in charge of sections of the media's coverage, or of its overall
coverage.
 How the newsroom works

Each newsroom has differences - they can be slight or significant.

Not only are there differences between newsrooms of similar media outlets (for example,
different newspapers) but there are larger differences between, say, television and
newspaper newsrooms.

Generally, a newsroom works along these lines:

1. Stories come into the newsroom - this can occur in a number of ways, some of which
are:

o Through tip-offs from contacts, or press releases

o Through coverage of newsworthy events, activities and occasions.
o From story leads followed-up by journalists.
o From issues or stories the editors, producers or chiefs-of-staff themselves want
covered.
o From calls by journalists chasing up new angles on current stories.

2. As this pool of stories develops, journalists are either assigned stories by editors or, in
some smaller media organisations, cover the stories themselves.

o This is done either by attending the event or through phone or face-to-face

interviews or the use of press releases.
o At times they may use archival material, such as old photographs, footage or
sound, which is stored in written archives or on computer.

3. At this time photographers, camera operators, sound and lighting technicians come into
play.

o In larger print media organisations, the visuals for stories can be organised
through the photographic editor.
o Often TV camera crews are assigned jobs through the editor or chief-of-staff
after they have looked at the pool of stories.
o In smaller organisations like suburban newspapers, journalists and
photographers often liaise directly to organise photo opportunities and book
photos.
o Sometimes photographers and camera operators get sent out to do their job on
site, while journalists stay in the office to follow up the story or conduct
interviews on the phone.
o Any graphics needed to accompany a story is organised and the work allocated
to graphic designers.
 4. Once photographers or camera operators return with their visuals the newsroom can
become a frantic place, as items are put together and the stories are completed before
deadline.

o With electronic media, raw visual footage or audio ends up in the editing suite,
where it is reviewed and the most relevant or newsworthy grabs are used to put
together the story. Any overdubbing or re-recording also occurs at this stage.
o For print media, photographs are loaded into a computer and saved.
o At this stage any other graphic information needed is completed or almost
completed and ready for use.
o Meanwhile, the journalist spends time finishing their story before it is saved and
sent to sub-editors.
o At this time, particularly in larger newsrooms, editors, producers and chiefs-of-
staff often meet again to review the story list and see if there are any new
stories to include (or others to discard) and re-order them in priority for
presentation in the newspaper or bulletin.

5. When stories or news items are completed, they are usually checked to ensure they are
factually correct, make sense and adhere to any legal requirements.

o Copy or check sub-editors (copy subs or check subs) will go through stories,
particularly in newspapers, and often make changes to improve readability and
ensure they are not libellous. Stories receive headings and photo captions are
checked.
o Lay-out sub-editors then draw the story, photograph and graphic elements
together and lay them out through a computer on the page.
o In visual or broadcast media, production staff are responsible for ensuring tapes
for completed stories are ready to be played in the right order as the bulletin
progresses.
o Competition for space or air-time can be fierce, with stories often missing the
cut, or being cut-down, due to space or time restrictions.

6. Even at this late stage things can change if a big news story occurs.

o Some stories might be cut back or even left out of the newspaper or news
bulletin to accommodate any "late breaking news".
o Those stories may then appear in a truncated form, or could be cut completely
and never appear at all.
Explain the role, skills and responsibilities of a Copy Taster in a newsroom.

 Needs a sensitive news palate.

 Good nose for news.

 Does not read every word, but skims through stories.

 Main role is selection.

 Checks stories are in tune with the requirements of the newspaper.

 Checks stories are suitable for readership demographic.

 Checks for taste.

 Rejects unsuitable copy.

 Spikes copy for later use.

 Gives paragraph fillers to Text Editor for editing.

Identify five points that need to be checked in a report before it is published.

Length / house style / grammar / spelling / accurate names / accurate dates / accurate figures /
possibility of libel.

Describe ten duties of a Text Editor.

 Write the headline (1) and the sub-headings (1)

 May have a specialist area (1) e.g. foreign news (1)

 Read the story for clarity and meaning (1) Re-write where necessary (1)

 May have to shorten or lengthen the story (1) Needs to retain essential facts, unity and coherence (1)

 May combine two stories or running reports (1) Must produce a single report from a series of confused
and sometimes contradictory messages (1)

 Adds important background facts (1) Provides answers for implied questions (1)

 Save space when verbosity creeps in (1)

 Corrects grammar (1) Corrects spelling (1) Corrects punctuation (1)

 Checks for factual errors (1)

 Checks for legal errors (1) e.g. libel, contempt of court (1)

 Checks for taste (1)

 Checks for house style (1

The Projection Editor

It is the projection editor’s job to refine the process of selection by deciding an order of priorities and
expressing them with space and type and illustration. Projection editors may act alone or they may
consult a galaxy of senior executives and designers, but their basic task is judicial projection.

Projection editors have to look ahead and gauge the pressures on precious space even before the copy-
taster has received this other news.

Before the page is complete all the copy has to be processed in accordance with the projection editor’s
prescriptions. It has to go to the text editors, who are the link between the projection editor’s
imagination and the mechanics of printing.

The Revise Editor

Once the text editor has completed these tasks, the copy is often passed to a third executive, the ‘revise
editor’. Revise editors check the work, ensuring that every detail is correct: simple mistakes can wreck
any production scheme and make the whole page late.

What Makes a Good Text Editor?

The qualities collectively are:

 The ‘human interest’ qualities of sympathy, insight, breadth of view, imagination, sense of
humour
 An orderly and well-balanced mind, which implies level judgment, sense of perspective and
proportion
 A cool head, ability to work in an atmosphere of hurry and excitement without becoming
flurried or incapable of accurate work
 Quickness of thought coupled with accuracy
 Conscientiousness, keenness and ruthlessness, rightly directed
 Judgment, based on well-informed common sense
 A capacity for absorbing fact – and fancy – and expressing them in an acceptable manner.
 Adaptability – the power, whatever one’s personal predilections, of seeing things from the
reader’s point of view
 Knowledge of the main principles of the laws of libel, contempt and copyright
 Physical fitness for a trying, sedentary life which takes its toll of nerves, sight and digestion
  The team spirit – a newspaper is one of the most striking products of co-operative enterprise
and effort

THE STRUCTURE OF A NEWS STORY – THE NEWS LEAD

THE NEWS LEAD

A lead (or an intro) is the beginning paragraph for a story. It is the hardest part to write as it
sets the tone and introduces the reader to the rest of the story. A good lead paints a vivid
picture of the story with a few words.

The lead should reflect the mood of the story. A routine lead is a short summary of an event.
But if the story is interesting, a wide varieties of lead can be tried out.

Straight lead (or Summary lead)

A good lead incorporates the inverted pyramid style with the most important facts first. It tells
readers what they want to know in a creative manner. If the reader only read the lead, he or
she would have a solid grasp of the story. The above accident report can be written in a straight
lead. Journalists often resort to summary leads pressed for time.

Two children at play were killed today when a sports car jumped the curb outside Prospect Park
and ran them down. Twelve in the group were injured.

Police Chief J.W. Carmichael attributed the tragedy to reckless driving. The driver, slightly
injured, was . . .

Punch lead is a variation of summary lead. Here attention is attracted by concentrating with a
brief, to-the-point lead sentence and developing details later in the story.

Descriptive lead

A descriptive lead describes how an event happened rather than simply telling what the event
is about.
BRIGHTON, England (UPI) -- Mrs. Pamela Bransden slowly counted five, snapped into a hypnotic
trance, and gave birth to an eight-pound baby. It was as easy as that.

Today she relaxed at her home here, delighted that she has become Britain's first self-hypnosis
mother.

Eyewitness accounts can provide the background for writing lucid descriptions which help the
reader to visualise a news situation.

Quotation lead

Quotes frequently are the essential documentation for a lead and should be used immediately
after a paraphrase that summarises them. Here paraphrasing the verbatim quotation permits
the removal of unnecessary words. But if a verbatim quotation itself is very important or
interesting, it can be the lead itself. This lead would add an element of interest such as drama,
pathos, humour, astonishment, or some other factor that will reach out to the reader. The brief
statement by U.S. President Johnson in 1968 that he would not be a candidate for reelection
was widely used as a lead.

Here, however, is a quote lead that takes a lot of explaining.

``I was furious that that disreputable young man had the audacity to sit in my antique rosewood
chair.''

That's how tiny, 82-year-old Louise Freeland today described her brush with a gun-toting
escaped convict whom she talked into surrendering to Sheriff's officers.

When a fellow engineering student was murdered by John David in his hostel room in a ragging
rage, the lead for a follow-up story was a Biblical quotation found on the door of the culprit.

Question lead

Many editors dislike question lead on the basis that people read newspapers to get answers,
and not to be asked questions. But if the question is provocative, it may be used as a lead.

What is the first thing that a woman buys when she is advised that she won $2,50,000 in a jingle
contest?

Mrs. Jane Roe, informed by XYZ Soaps that her entry took top prize in the nationwide contest,
said that she will buy a rhyming dictionary that . . .

Personal lead
It involves the use of the first person singular in the lead. Normally such a use is discouraged
except for a columnist or such privileged writers.

(By Reg Murphy, while editor of the Atlanta Constitution, after being released by a kidnapper)

When the tall, heavy, garishly dressed stranger appeared at the door, it was clear this was
trouble.

He said, ``I'm Lamont Woods,'' in a Southern accent quickened by exposure to speech patterns
elsewhere.

I let him into my living room for a moment but hustled him out quickly because of the anxiety
within him. My wife, Virginia, stayed out of sight but went to the window as we left and noted
that he was driving a dark green Ford Torino. She tried for the licence plate but couldn't see it.

'You' lead (or Direct Address lead)

The `You' lead is intended to make a personal appeal to the reader involved in a complicated
situation. The second-person approach reaches out to involve the reader and capture his/her
attention. Here is an example, fairly typical of a trend toward consumerism in the news:

WASHINGTON (UPI) -- If you are one of 30 million Americans working for a company with a
private pension plan, Congress has given you a new bill of rights. It is the Employment
Retirement Income Security Act and it promises that if you have worked long enough to earn a
pension, you will receive one at retirement age. Nothing -- including bankruptcy, plant closings,
dismissal or resignation -- can stand in the way.

Contrast lead

To vary monotony, a saga can be split into two sentences -- the first of which refers to the
humble beginning and the second to the hero's latest triumph. When Van Cliburn, the pianist,
returned from a musical triumph in Moscow, one reporter wrote:

Harvey Lavan (Van) Cilburn Jr. of Kilgore, Tex., came home from Russia today with 17 pieces of
luggage. They bespoke his triumph as pianist in Moscow. He had three when he went over.

Here goes another example:

Richard Roe, who started 47 years ago as a $10-a-week janitor for Consolidated Corporation,
today took office as the firm's $2,63,000-a-year chairman and chief executive officer.

Delayed lead (or suspended interest lead)

A situation can be exploited in an interesting way so that an ordinary item stands out. The
reporter delves in several paragraphs to find out what had happened. The reader must get the
story by reading to the end of the story.

Dwight David Eisenhower once said he would rather win the Medal of Honour than be president.
Dwight Harold Johnson -- who was named for Dwight Eisenhower -- said once to a friend that
``winning the medal has changed my life so much I don't know if I'll ever get my head straight
again. But I know this. Nobody's hero forever.''

Friday, April 30, in the drizzle of a Detroit dawn, Dwight Johnson died but not as a hero. He died
in the emergency room of a Detroit hospital with three bullet wounds in his side and one in his
head. He was shot, according to police, by a store owner he had tried to rob.

Here goes another example:

Bill Turner, 8, received a red coaster wagon for Christmas and it led to problems.

This morning, while leaving for school, he noticed that it was missing from his front yard.

Two hours later his mother, Mrs. John Turner, received a call from school officials asking why Bill
was absent.

Blind identification lead

If the person concerned is not well known in the community, his/her name is less important
than other salient facts that identify the person. eg. "a 80-year-old woman" instead of her
name.

A police inspector's son was attacked with a knife by some miscreants on Mount Road this
evening.

The victim Pratap Daniel, 20, has been admitted to a private hospital and his condition is critical.

Anecdotal lead

The anecdotal lead is used when the anecdote is bright and applicable and not too wasteful of
space. It brings the reader quickly into a news situation that might not attract his attention if it
were routinely written. Here is one that began a series on divorce in the U.S.

David and Kay Craig's two-year-old marriage is a second one for both and their story is one that
is being repeated with increasing frequency across the country.

Each was married for the first time at 18. David's marriage lasted through five years and two
children. Kay's first marriage ended in divorce after a year and eight months.
The Craigs (not their real name) are among the 13 million Americans who, according to the
Census Bureau, at one time or another have been through a divorce. More than four million
Americans currently list their marital status as divorced. The rate of divorces in this country has
been and still is steadily increasing.

Gag (or funny) lead

A journalist who writes a funny story put up the saddest face in a newsroom. Journalistic
homour requires the skilled and practice. Here is how an AP reporter wrote when a woman
broke her leg trying to climb out of a locked London public toilet:

LONDON -- What's a lady do when trapped in a loo?

Literary allusion lead

Parallelling the construction of a nursery rhyme or part of a well-known literary creation can
add to variety.

Mary had a little camera, and everywhere that Mary went the camera was sure to go.

Mary Richards' perseverance in carrying her camera on every trip with her anthropologist
husband has resulted in the publication of her first book, a collection of photographs of natives
in seldom-visited areas of South America.

Topic: Application of English to a News Story

PRECIS WRITING

Précis is the presentation of ideas with succinctness and brevity. Utility of the art of précis writing is
universally accepted in administrative affairs. In CSS preparation, learning of the précis writing art wields
momentous importance because the passing of the Précis and Composition paper is highly dependent
on it.

The process of précis writing involves three parts: (1) comprehending the paragraph; (2) picking up the
main points; and (3) developing the précis from those.

1. Comprehending the paragraph

This, undeniably, is the most important part of précis writing. My experience with CSS aspirants
transpires that most of the failures in précis are caused by erroneous and fallacious
comprehension of the paragraph. Roughly, seven out of ten aspirants feel difficulties in this
particular part. My advice to all such aspirants, who find difficulty in making out after reading the
paragraph, would be to increase the time they spend on reading. Reading good pieces of writing
is worth recommending for all aspirants generally, and for such ones specially. Newspapers,
magazines, research papers, novels, journals; everything would be helpful in equipping yourself
with the art of unfolding the true meanings hidden in the words.

During the course of paper, not more than twenty minutes should be spent on the
comprehension of the paragraph. The steps mentioned below will guide the candidates regarding
the procedure they should adopt while trying to comprehend a paragraph in the actual exam.

Step 1: Give a quick reading to the complete paragraph without getting tangled in the sentences
or words which appear baffling at this stage. The purpose is to get a broad idea of what the
paragraph is all about. Neither does it happen nor would it that a candidate, after the very first
reading, is able to understand the paragraph properly. So, the fact that he could make neither
head nor tail of the paragraph shouldn’t be something frustrating for him/her.

Step 2: Now give a more attentive and focused reading to the paragraph and try to understand
the meaning of every sentence. Do remember that understanding the meaning of a sentence
never requires understanding the meaning of every word in it. There are always some recondite
words and phrases, yet the message contained in the particular sentence is possible to be
comprehended even without understanding them. And, if you are still unable to comprehend a
sentence despite repeated readings, don’t worry, just highlight it, move ahead and do the same
thing with the whole paragraph.

At the end of the step 2, candidates will be having two types of sentences; the ones which they
have comprehended and the ones which are still unintelligible and are highlighted.

Step 3: Now, give a focused reading to only those sentences which remained incomprehensible
in the previous step. Try to understand them, and if it is not possible, try to make a safe guess, at
least, of their direction. Usually, making a well-calculated guess is possible. Those who think they
would face a problem in this context should overcome their deficiency by making more and more
practice well before sitting for the exam.

Step 4: Go through the whole paragraph once again and you are done with the first part of the
précis making process successfully.

2. Picking up the main points

Following tips would be helpful for the aspirants in deftly handling this particular part:

1. Usually, the maximum time available for this purpose is 10 minutes. Candidates should practice
at least to such an extent that they don’t require more time than this in the examination hall.
2. Picking up the main points means writing down the main ideas on the rough part of the answer
sheet. Merely underlining the point on the passage won’t be sufficient. The candidates, who lack
substantial grip over English, may write down main points in Urdu or even in their native
language.

3. Only those points should be picked up as main points which are in consonance with the overall
direction of the passage. If a sentence adds nothing to the main agenda of the passage, it should
never be among the main points merely on the basis of its length.

4. Usually, examples, illustrations, metaphors and other such things used by the writer to
substantiate his argument or explain his viewpoint are not included while picking up the main
points.

3. Developing a précis from the main points

In this part, main points picked up in part 2, are used to make a précis in maximum 15 minutes.
Usually two drafts are made in this part. The first is the rough draft and the second is the final
one. In fact, final draft is the refined form of the rough draft made after necessary amendments
and truncations. Following guidelines would be helpful for the aspirants in this part:

1. Repetition of ideas must be avoided. If two main points carry the same message, one must be
dropped.

2. Sentences of the précis should be properly connected with each other. Generally, the main
points picked up in part 2 lack coherence, and this is in this third part that you join them with
each other by using different conjunctions.

3. Ideal length of the précis is one-third of the original passage (± 10 words). Length adjustment
is made while making final draft from the rough one.

Some other guidelines

Suitable title of the précis must be given. Do give the title even if it has not been asked for.

Only one title of the précis should be given. Giving more than one title reflects candidate’s
indecisiveness and dubiety.

Précis, generally, is written using third pronoun and indirect language. Use of first and second
pronoun is avoided even if it was made in the passage.

A good précis is the true reflection of the message given in the passage. Candidates should be
extremely objective while making précis. They are never allowed to change the colour or shade
of the message given in the passage.
Use of simple but grammatically correct language is the most recommended technique.
Candidates, while practicing, should give more attention to that particular part of précising in
which they are weaker.

Avoid borrowing vocabulary from the paragraph as maximum as possible.

It is advisable to follow the sequence of thoughts in the original paragraph. However, slight
rearrangement is allowed if it adds to the quality of the expression.

Topic: Writing Styles

Style differs from grammar in that it cannot be quantified: it has no precise rules. Style is
concerned not so much with the mechanics of language as with the way the writer uses it to
play on the sensations of the reader. Style adds impact to writing, strengthens the contact with
the reader and heightens their awareness. This is true even though the reader may be unaware
of what is happening and unable to analyze the techniques used.

To be effective, a journalist must develop a style that has four principal attributes: suitability,
simplicity, precision and poise.

Some journalists — broadsheet sports writers, for example — strain too hard for effect and/or
try to pack too much into their sentences. Here is an example of what not to do:

In the summer, as Liverpool tried to navigate a fractious transfer window with their newly
poached recruitment specialists on gardening leave, a decision was made … (feature)

Not suitable, not simple, not precise and not much poise. How do you navigate a window? See
mixed metaphors (pp104–5) How can a window, even a transfer window, be ‘fractious’ (ready
to quarrel, cross)? And why complicate the reference to ‘recruitment specialists’ with poaching
and gardening? I think the meaning is that Liverpool had no ‘recruitment specialists’ available
(because theirs had been poached by another club) so why not just say ‘without recruitment
specialists’?

Suitability
The way a story is written must match the subject, the mood and pace of the events described
and, above all, the needs of the reader. The style must arouse their interest and maintain it
throughout. It must also present the facts or arguments in a way that enables the reader to
understand them quickly and easily. For example:

1 If the subject is serious, treat it seriously.

2 If the subject is light, treat it lightly — for example, use a delayed-drop intro or a punning
headline.

3 Whatever the subject, do not needlessly offend the reader. Thus, where a story concerns
eccentric beliefs or practices, avoid cynicism and facetiousness.

4 Where a story concerns events that have action and movement, the style should suggest
pace. Write tersely; avoid superfluous adjectives and adverbs; use direct, active verbs;
construct crisp, taut sentences.

5 Where a story concerns a sequence of events, a straightforward narrative style may be the
best bet. If you use one event to create impact in the intro, remember to repeat the reference
in its proper time context. Also, make sure your tenses are consistent.

6 Where a story concerns stark, horrific events, avoid the temptation to overwrite. The events
themselves will provide all the impact you need.

7 Whatever the story, don’t rhapsodize. Remember that understatement is usually more
effective than overstatement.

Simplicity

Be direct: get to the point. For example:

1 Prefer the short, Anglo-Saxon word to the long, Latinate one.

2 Prefer the concrete statement to the abstract one.

3 Prefer the direct statement to any form of circumlocution.

4 Avoid words or phrases that merely sound good.

5 Avoid pomposity at all costs.

6 In general, use transitive verbs in the active voice:

Jones told the meeting he was resigning.

7 Choose adjectives with care and don’t use too many. Avoid tautology: ‘a new innovation’.

8 Be even more sparing with adverbs.

9 In general, prefer the short sentence to the long one, particularly in the intro.

10 Avoid over-complex sentences full of subordinate clauses and phrases.

Precision

Precision is vital to the journalist, above all in news reporting. To be precise you need to know
exactly what words mean. Study words and their meanings and never use a word you are not
sure about.

You must also master the principles of grammar to ensure that you express your meaning
clearly and accurately. Read the chapters on grammar carefully and then refer to them when
necessary.

As a writer, do not leave it to the sub to spot inaccuracy or ambiguity. Read your own copy and
ask: ‘Do I mean what I say and have I said what I mean?’ Often the honest answer will be: ‘No.’

If you pass that self-imposed test, ask: ‘So what?’ Often you will find that the story does not go
far enough in saying what happens next. Remember that the reader needs to know precisely
what is happening.

As a sub, always check when you rewrite that you haven’t introduced new errors into the copy.
And be careful when you write news headlines to fit. If your first effort is the wrong length, you
will try to substitute one word for another. But a synonym must be exact or it may change the
meaning of the headline. Always ask yourself finally: ‘Does the headline tell the story?’ If the
answer is ‘No’, it will need further rewriting.

Also, be careful with verbs where the active and passive take the same form:

PEER OWED £20,000

This is ambiguous: was he owed the money or did he owe it?

Poise

Poise is the essence of style: it gives writing balance, ease of manner and lack of strain.
Individual words should fit the context. Sentences should be a pleasure to read because they
are balanced and rhythmical. Paragraphs should be written to convey the writer’s meaning and
leave the reader in no doubt that they have grasped it.
With the best prose the reader remains unconscious of technique: they simply enjoy reading
the passage. The hard work should all be done by the writer (with a bit of polish by the sub).

Study the section on stylistic devices that follows. Practice using them where appropriate. But,
above all, look for good models in journalism and writing generally. If a piece of prose excites
you, study it, analyse it — even imitate it. Do not be too proud to copy other writers’ tricks.

Stylistic devices

Most of the stylistic devices that follow are called tropes or figures of speech. There is no
reason why you should learn the names of the more obscure ones, such as synecdoche or
metonymy. We take both of these for granted. What could be more natural than to say ‘All
hands on deck’ (synecdoche) or ‘He is a lover of the bottle’ (metonymy)? But it is worth
remembering that they are figures of speech.

Alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of an initial sound in words that follow each other:

Sing a song of sixpence

Use in light-hearted stories, particularly in headlines. Do not use in serious stories.

Assonance

Assonance is the repetition of a vowel sound in words that follow each other:

The cat sat on my lap.

Use in light-hearted stories, particularly in headlines. Do not use in serious stories.

Graveyard (also black, gallows, sick) humour

This is making jokes about such things as injury, disease, disability and death. It is an
understandable reaction by journalists (also police officers, soldiers, doctors, nurses and others)
to the hard facts of life and death.

Enjoy the jokes but do not let them get into print. The headline ‘Hot under the cholera’ once
appeared over a story about an epidemic. This is also an example of the compulsive pun.

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is extravagant and obvious exaggeration:

a million thanks

Of all figures of speech, hyperbole is the most used — and abused — by journalists. Handle with
care.

Irony

Irony is either making a point in words that mean literally the opposite or a condition in which a
person seems mocked by fate or the facts.

A story about a woman who survives a car crash, borrows a mobile phone and telephones her
husband to report her survival — only to be knocked down and killed a moment later — is an
example of irony.

In this example telling the story is enough: we do not need to be reminded that it is irony.

Use the word ‘irony’ sparingly. In particular, avoid the adverb ‘ironically’, which is usually a lazy
way of trying to make a surprise sound more significant than it is.

Litotes

Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole. It is understatement, especially assertion by negation of

the contrary. Instead of ‘Rome is a great city’:

Rome is no mean city.

Metaphor

Metaphor is calling something by the name of what it resembles:

To suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune …

Frequent repetition of metaphors turns them into clichés. Careless use of metaphors can lead
to the mixed metaphor, an expression in which two or more metaphors are confused:

to take arms against a sea of troubles

(you wouldn’t use weapons to fight the waves)

The fact that Shakespeare did it is no defence: Hamlet was mad. So avoid the mixed metaphor
at all costs since it has the opposite effect of that intended. Instead of making your prose vivid
it produces the effect of absurdity.

Metonymy
Metonymy is replacing the name of something by the name of a related thing:

He is a lover of the bottle [instead of drink].

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is using words whose sound helps to suggest the meaning:

He has a hacking cough.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is combining contradictory terms to form an expressive phrase:

He shows cruel kindness.

Pun

A pun is a play on words alike or nearly alike in sound but different in meaning:

ALL THE FAX ABOUT NEW TECHNOLOGY

The pun is overused by headline-writers who can’t break the habit. Never use a pun over a
serious story.

A subtler form of word play recycles an old meaning:

ARE YOU A VIRGIN ABOUT OLIVE OIL?

Repetition

Repetition on purpose emphasises:

O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?

In general, prefer repetition to variation.

Rhetoric

Rhetoric is a general term for the art of using language to persuade or impress others. Note
particularly the rhetorical question that journalists address to their readers:

Have you ever been to China?

Use in chatty features, but rarely elsewhere.

Simile

Simile is likening something to something else:

My love is like a red, red rose …

Frequent repetition of similes turns them into clichés.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is using the part for the whole or the whole for the part:

All hands on deck.

Variation

Variation is using a different word or phrase to describe something in order to avoid repetition
and/or to add colour to the copy. When done to impress it is called ‘elegant variation’:

Instead of talking about a spade I shall from now on refer to a horticultural implement.

This kind of variation is a bad idea because what results is at least strained and sometimes
ludicrous.

More common is the variation that tries to avoid repetition:

Northern Ireland has a higher rate of unemployment than at any other time in the province’s
history.

Before using this kind of variation ask yourself the following questions:

1 Would a pronoun do as well? In the example above ‘its’ could easily replace ‘the province’s’.

2 Is the variation word/phrase an exact equivalent? (Here the province of Ulster has three
counties in the Irish Republic.)

3 Is the variation necessary or could you avoid it by rewriting the sentence?

4 Would repetition have as much impact as variation?

The need to repeat or vary words is often a clue to bad structure. For example, where an intro
doubles back on itself, it should be rewritten. Where you are tempted to use ‘however’ because
you have just used ‘but’, you are making the reader work too hard.