Elements of Manufacturing Processes loxey Nagendra | endetsl Koh RK MittalELEMENTS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES B.S. NAGENDRA PARASHAR Pro Vice-Chancellor KL. University, Guntur Andhra Pradesh Formerly, Assistant Dean, Practice School Division & Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani R.K. MITTAL Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Director, Dubai Campus Birla Institute of Technology and Science Dubai International Academic City Dubai, UAE PHI Learning [iivcte Limited New Delhi-110001 2011ELEMENTS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES B.S. Nagendra Parashar and R.K. Mittal © 2003 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-1958-5 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Tenth Printing ea ea July, 2011 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Sareen Printing Press, Delhi-110042.Contents Preface xvii Acknowledgments xix 1. Manufacturing Concepts 1-14 Key Terms 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2. Manufacturing Processes 3 1.2.1 Casting 3 1.2.2. Machining 3 1.2.3. Forming 4 1.2.4 Powder metallurgy 5 1.2.5 Joining 5 1.3. Allied Activities 6 1.3.1 Measurement 6 1.3.2. Assembly 7 1.3.3. Property changing 7 14 Selection of Manufacturing Process 8 1.5 Types of Production 8 1.5.1 Job shop production 8 1.5.2. Batch production 8 1.5.3 Mass production 9 1.6 Professionalism and Ethics 9 1.7 Safety 9 1.7.1 Enforcing safety 10 1.7.2 General safety considerations 11 Review Questions 13 2. Engineering Materials 15-37 Key Terms 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Structure of Materials 17 2.2.1 Crystalline structures of metals 17 2.3 Properties of Materials 18Contents 24 2.5 2.6 27 28 2.9 Mechanical Properties 19 2.4.1 Types of stresses 19 2.4.2 Stress-strain relationship 21 2.4.3. Toughness 24 2.4.4 Hardness 25 2.4.5 Duetility 25 2.4.6 Brittleness 25 2.4.7 Malleability 25 2.4.8 Resilience 25 24.9 Stiffness 26 2.4.10 Poisson’s ratio 26 Modes of Fracture 27 2.5.1 Ductile fracture 27 2.5.2 Brittle fracture 28 2.5.3 Creep fracture 29 2.5.4 Fatigue fracture 29 Factor of Safety 30 Common Engineering Materials 31 2.7.1 Cast iron 31 2.7.2 Steel 31 2.7.3. Aluminium 32 2.7.4 Copper 32 2.7.5 Lead 33 2.7.6 Zine 33 2.7.7 Tin 33 Selection of Material 33 Solved Examples 34 Review Questions 36 3. Measurements and Quality in Manufacturing 38-55 Key Terms 38 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Introduction 38 Metrology 39 Inspection 40 Definition of Terms 40 3.4.1 Accuracy 40 3.4.2 Precision 41 3.4.3 Tolerance 41 3.4.4 Surface finish 41 3.4.5 Quality 42 3.4.6 Reliability 42 3.4.7 Interchangeability 43 Measuring and Inspection Instruments 43 3.5.1 Direct-measuring instruments 44Contents 3.5.2 Indirect-measuring instruments 44 3.5.3 Gauges 44 3.5.4 Inspection in mass production 46 3.6 Limits and Fits 46 3.7. Tolerance 47 3.8 Fits 49 3.8.1 Clearance fit 49 3.8.2 Interference fit 49 3.8.3. Transition fit 50 3.9 Quality Aspects 51 3.9.1 Quality control 51 3.9.2 Zero quality control 51 3.9.3 180 9000 52 3.10 Solved Examples 53 Review Questions 54 Theory of Metal Cutting 56-84 Key Terms 56 4.1 Introduction 56 42 Machine Tools 58 4.3 Cutting Tools 60 43.1 Mechanism of metal cutting 60 4.4 Tool Materials 61 4.4.1 Tool steel (TS) 61 44.2 High-speed steel (HSS) 62 44.3 Carbides 63 44.4 Abrasives 63 44.5 Diamond 63 4.4.6 Cubic boron nitride (CBN) 63 44.7 Ucon 64 44.8 Ceramics 64 44.9 Tipped tools 64 4.4.10 Coated tools 65 4.5 Types of Tools 65 4.5.1 Single point tools 65 4.5.2. Multipoint tools 65 4.6 Tool Geometry 65 4.6.1. Geometry of single-point turning tool 66 4.6.2 Cutting tool angles 67 4.7 Tool Signature 69 4.8 Left Hand and Right Hand Tools 69 4.9 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting 70 4.10. Types of Chips 71 4.11 Thermal Aspects in Machining 72Contents 4.12 Failure of Tool 73 4.12.1 Crater wear 73 4.12.2. Flank wear 74 4.13 Cutting Fluids 74 4.14. Operating Conditions in Metal Cutting 75 4.14.1 Cutting speed 75 4.14.2. Feed 75 4.14.3. Depth of cut 76 4.14.4 Material removal rate and machining time 76 4.15. Tool Life 77 4.16 Machinability 79 4.17 Solved Examples Review Questions 82 5. Turning Operations 85-113 Key Terms 85 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 The Lathe 86 5.3. Types of Lathes 88 5.4 Size of a Lathe 89 5.5 Work Holding on Lathe 89 5.5.1 Chucks 89 5.5.2 Centres 90 5.5.3 Faceplates 91 5.54 Rests 91 5.5.5 Mandrels 92 5.5.6 Lathe dogs 92 5.6 Operating Conditions in a Lathe 93 5.6.1 Cutting speed 93 5.6.2 Feed 93 5.6.3 Depth of cut 94 5.7 Material Removal Rate (MRR) 95 5.8 Operations on Lathe 95 5.8.1 Turning 96 5.8.2 Facing 96 5.8.3 Knurling 96 5.8.4 Grooving 98 5.8.5 Parting 98 5.8.6 Chamfering 99 5.8.7 Eccentric turning 99 5.8.8 Taper turning 100 5.8.9 Drilling 101 5.8.10 Thread cutting 103 5.9 Process Sequence 104Contents [i 5.10 Machining Time 105 5.11 Manufacturing Time 105 5.12 Solved Examples 105 Review Questions 110 Drilling and Allied Operations 114-129 Key Terms 114 6.1 Introduction 114 62 Drilling Machines 114 63 The Drilling Operation 115 64 The Drill 116 6.5 Operating Conditions in Drilling 117 6.6 Material Removal Rate 117 6.7 Machining Time in Drilling 118 68 Boring 118 69 Reaming 120 6.10 Tapping 121 6.11 Other Related Operations 122 6.11.1 Counterboring and spotfacing 122 6.11.2 Countersinking 122 6.12 Solved Examples 123 Review Questions 127 Shaping, Planing and Slotting Operations 130-144 Key Terms 130 Introduction 130 a The Shaper 131 7.3 Types of Shaping Machines 132 7.4 The Shaping Operation 133 7.4.1. Machining of inclined surfaces 134 7.5 Operating Conditions in a Shaping Machine 134 75.1 Cutting speed 134 75.2 Feed 135 7.5.3 Depth of cut 136 7.6 Machining Time 136 7.7 Material Removal Rate 136 7.8 The Planer 136 79 Types of Planing Machines 137 7.10 Planing Operation 138 7.11 Operating Conditions in Planers 138 711.1 Cutting speed 138 TAL2 Feed 138 7.113 Depth of cut 138 7.114 Material removal rate 138Mi Contents 7.12 713 74 TAS Size of Shapers and Planers 139 Differences between Shapers and Planers 139 Slotting Machine 139 Solved Examples 140 Review Questions 142 Milling Operations 145-168 Key Terms 145 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Introduction 145 The Milling Machine 146 8.2.1 Horizontal knee and column type milling machine 146 8.2.2 Vertical knee and column type milling machine 147 The Milling Process 148 83.1 Up milling 148 83.2 Down milling 149 Operating Conditions in Milling 150 8.4.1 Cutting speed 150 84.2 Feed 150 8.4.3 Depth of cut 151 8.4.4 Width of cut 151 Material Removal Rate 151 Machining Time 152 8.6.1 Length of cut 152 Different Types of Milling Operations 153 8.7.1 End-milling 154 8.7.2. Plain milling 154 8.7.3. Side-and-face milling 155 Solved Examples 155 Review Questions 166 ing Processes 169-182 Key Terms 169 91 9.2 9.3 9.4 Introduction 169 ‘Abrasive Machining 170 Abrasives 171 93.1 Natural abrasives 171 9.3.2 Synthetic abrasives 172 The Grinding Wheel 172 9.4.1 Construction of grinding wheel 172 9.4.2 Process of making a grinding wheel 173 9.4.3 Characteristics of a grinding wheel 174 9.4.4 Selection of a grinding wheel 17410. Contents [El 9.5 Grinding Machines 175 9.5.1 Surface grinding machine 175 9.6 Fine Finishing Operations 176 9.6.1 Lapping 176 9.6.2 Honing 178 9.6.3. Superfinishing 179 9.6.4 Polishing 179 9.6.5 Buffing 179 9.7 Surface Finish, Accuracy and Cost 179 9.8 Solved Examples 180 Review Questions 181 Phase Change Processes for Material Property Manipulation 183-202 Key Terms 183 10.1 Introduction 183 10.2 Phase Diagrams 184 10.3 Solid Solution 185 10.4 Cooling Curves 185 10.5 Equilibrium Diagram for two Metals Which are Completely Soluble in Both Liquid and Solid Phases 186 10.6 Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Equilibrium Diagram 188 10.7 Heat Treatment Processes 192 10.7.1 Annealing 193 10.7.2 Spheroidizing 193 10.7.3. Normalizing 193 10.7.4 Hardening 193 10.7.5 Case hardening 194 10.7.6 Nitriding 194 10.7.7. Tempering 195 10.8 Heat Treatment Procedure 195 10.9 Strain Hardening 196 10.10 Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth 196 10.10.1 Recovery 196 10.10.2 Recrystallization 197 10.10.3 Grain growth 198 10.11 Hot Working and Cold Working Processes 198 10.11.1 Hot working 198 10.11.2 Cold working 199 Review Questions 200EES Contents 11. Casting Processes 203-245 Key Terms 203 11.1 Introduction 203 11.2. The Casting Process 205 11.3. Pattern Making 206 11.3.1 Pattern materials 207 11.3.2. Types of patterns 208 11.3.3. Removable and disposable patterns 210 11.3.4 Pattern allowances 210 11.4 Moulding Sands 213 11.4.1. Types of moulding sand 213 11.4.2 Properties of moulding sand 214 11.5 Moulding 215 11.5.1. Types of moulds 215 11.5.2. Tools used in moulding 216 11.5.3 Procedure for making a mould 217 11.5.4 Moulding processes 219 11.5.5. Types of moulding operations 219 11.6 Cores 220 11.6.1 Properties of core 221 11.6.2. Core making 221 11.7 Gating System 221 11.8 Melting and Pouring of Metal 223 11.8.1 Cupola furnace 224 11.9 Directional Solidification 225 11.10 Solidification Time 226 11.11 Casting Yield 227 11.12 Defects in Sand Casting 227 11.12.1 Blowholes 227 11.12.2 Shrinkage defects 227 11.12.3 Hot tears 228 11.12.4 Misruns, cold shuts and pour short 228 11.12.5 Inclusions 228 11.13 Special Casting Processes 228 11.13.1 Plaster mould casting process 229 11.13.2 Shell moulding casting process 230 11.13.3 Permanent mould casting process 231 11.13.4 Die-casting process 232 11.13.5 Continuous casting process 234 11.13.6 Centrifugal casting process 235 11.14 Advantages and Limitations of the Casting Processes 235 11.15 Selection of Casting Process 236 11.16 Solved Examples 237 Review Questions 243Contents [EG 12. Metal Forming Processes 246-271 Key Terms 246 12.1 Introduction 246 12.2. Rolling Processes 248 12.2.1 Rolling operation 249 12.2.2 Terminology used in rolling 250 12.2.3 Rolling mills 251 12.2.4 Rolling parameters 253 12.3. Thread Rolling 255 12.4 Extrusion Process 255 12.4.1 Types of extrusion 256 12.4.2 Extrusion pressure in direct and indirect extrusion 258 12.5 Forging Processes 261 12.5.1 Forging materials 262 12.5.2. Classification of forging operations 263 12.5.3 Types of forging operations 264 12.5.4 Rotary swaging 266 12.6 Solved Examples 266 Review Questions 269 13. Sheet-metal Working 272-285 Key Terms 272 13.1 Introduction 272 13.2 Punches and Dies 273 13.3 Sheet-metal Working Operations 273 13.3.1. Piercing and punching 273 13.3.2. Blanking 274 13.3.3. Notching 274 13.3.4 Beading 274 13.3.5 Flanging 275 13.3.6 Hemming 275 13.3.7. Seaming 275 13.3.8 Perforating 276 13.3.9 Slitting 276 13.3.10 Lancing 276 13.4 Mechanism of Blanking 277 13.5 Drawing 278 13.5.1 Drawing or shearing force 279 13.6 Coining 279 13.7 Embossing 280 13.8 Wire Drawing 281 13.9 Metal Spinning 282 13.10 Solved Examples 282 Review Questions 284EGR Contents 14, Powder Metallurgy 286-293 Key Terms 286 14.1 Introduction 286 14.2, Powder Metallurgy Manufacturing Process 287 14.2.1 Production of metal powders 287 14.2.2. Mixing of powders 288 14.2.3 Compaction 289 14.2.4 Sintering 290 14.2.5 Secondary operations 290 14.3. Advantages of Powder Metallurgy 291 14.4 Limitations of Powder Metallurgy 292 Review Questions 292 15. Mechanical Joining Processes 294-318 Key Terms 294 15.1 Introduction 294 15.2. Classification of Joining Processes 296 15.3 Welding Process 297 15.3.1 Types of welding processes 298 15.3.2 Pre-welding requirements 298 15.3.3 Types of welding joints 298 15.3.4 Edge preparations for welding 299 15.3.5 Welding technique 299 15.4 Are Welding 300 15.4.1 Electron theory of are column 300 15.4.2 Are welding process 301 15.4.3. Weld penetration 302 15.5 Gas Welding 303 15.5.1 Gas welding process 304 15.5.2 Types of flames 305 15.5.3. Fluxes 305 15.5.4 Filler material 305 15.6 Resistance Welding 306 15.6.1 Spot welding 306 15.6.2 Seam welding 306 15.6.3. Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding 307 15.7, Soldering and Brazing 308 15.7.1 Soldering 309 15.7.2 Brazing 310 15.8 Mechanical Fasteners 311 15.8.1 Threaded fasteners 312 15.8.2 Non-threaded fasteners 315 Review Questions 317Contents [EG 16. Processing of Plastics 319-325 Key Terms 319 16.1 Introduction 319 16.2. Types of Plastics 321 16.2.1 Thermosetting plastics 321 16.2.2. Thermoplastic plastics 322 16.3. Forms of Raw Plastic Material 322 16.3.1 Powder form 322 16.3.2 Laminated sheets and rods 323 16.3.3. Fibres 323 16.3.4 Resin 323 16.4 Methods of Processing Plastics 323 16.4.1 Compression moulding 324 16.4.2 Injection moulding 324 Review Questions 325 17. Non-conventional Resources in Manufacturing 326-342 Key Terms 326 17.1 Introduction 326 17.2, Why Non-conventional Machining? 328 17.3. Classification of Non-conventional Machining Processes 329 174 Non-conventional Machining Processes 330 17.4.1 Water jet machining (WJM) process 330 17.4.2. Chemical machining (CM) process 333 17.4.3 Electrochemical machining (ECM) process 335 17.4.4 Electrical discharge machining (EDM) process 336 17.5 Non-conventional Forming Processes 338 17.5.1 Explosive forming process 338 17.6 Non-conventional Joining Process 340 17.6.1 Laser beam welding process 340 17.7 Non-conventional Process Selection 341 Review Questions 341 18. Computer Controlled Manufacturing Processes 343-363 Key Words 343 18.1 Introduction 343 18.2. Numerical Control (NC) 346 18.2.1 Advantages of NC system 347 18.2.2. Disadvantages of NC system 348 18.2.3 Comparison between conventional machines and NC machines 348 18.2.4 CNC retrofitting 349Contents 19. 20. 18.3 Coordinate Systems and Program Zero Point 349 18.4. Classification of Numerical Control Machines 351 18.4.1 Type of motion 351 18.4.2 Programming method 352 18.4.3 Control system 352 18.5 Direct Numerical Control 354 18.6 Adaptive Control Systems 355 18.7. Robotics 356 18.7.1, Structure of a robot 356 18.7.2, What robots can do? 357 18.7.3 Applications of robots in manufacturing 358 18.7.4 Robotics scenario in India 360 18.8 Advantages and Limitations of Computer Controlled Manufacturing Processes 360 18.8.1 Advantages of automation and computer controlled machines 360 18.8.2. Limitations of automation and computer controlled machines 361 18.9 Solved Examples 361 Review Questions 362 Economics of Manufacturing 364-377 Key Terms 364 19.1 Introduction 364 19.2. Cost in Manufacturing 365 19.3, Break-even Analysis 366 19.4 Break-even Analysis of a Single Product 367 19.5 Profit-volume Chart 369 19.6 Economics of New Design 370 19.7 Preferred Numbers 371 19.8 Solved Examples 372 Review Questions 375 Production Management 378-385 Key Terms 378 20.1 Introduction 378 20.2 Plant Layout 379 20.2.1 Product layout 379 20.2.2. Process layout 380 20.2.3 Fixed layout 381 20.3 Scheduling 381 20.4 Inventory Control 382 Review Questions 384Contents 21. Power Transmission in Machine Tools 386-409 Key Terms 386 21.1 Introduction 386 21.2 Belt Drives 387 21.2.1 Types of belt drives 388 21.2.2 Velocity ratio of belt drives 388 21.2.3 Compound belt drive and velocity ratio of a compound belt drive 389 21.2.4 Length of belt 390 21.2.5 Power transmitted by belt drive 391 21.2.6 Stepped (Cone) pulley drives 392 21.3. Rope Drives 393 21.4 Chain Drives 393 21.5 Gear Drives 394 21.5.1 Types of gears 394 21.5.2 Gear tooth terminology 396 21.5.3 Velocity ratio of gear drive 397 21.5.4 Gear trains 398 21.6 Change Gear Calculations for Thread Cutting ona Lathe 402 21.7 Solved Examples 403 Review Questions 407 Appendices 411-431 A—Code of Ethics 411 B—Safety in Workshop 413 C—System of International Units (the SI System) 420 D—Mechanical Properties of Materials 423 E—Formulae 424 Objective Type Questions 433-462 A—Multiple-choice Questions 433 B—True or False 456 Bibliography 463-465 Index 467-475Preface The modern society has around it a physical world of products that are designed to bring comfort to humanity. A society’s ability to develop and use these products is a measure of both its technical sophistication and its technological future. The concepts of manufacturing processes, therefore, are essential for the engineers, and technocrats to familiarize themselves with the modern manufacturing technologies and allied activities. Many textbooks on Manufacturing Engineering, Production Technology or similar titles are available, which cover topics mainly for courses in mechanical engineering, giving extensive coverage and a greater depth of treatment. But there is a dearth of textbooks which have an elementary approach that is applicable for students of all engineering and science degrees. This comprehensive text fulfils the need for such a book. The text first introduces the manufacturing concepts (in Ch. 1) and includes separate chapters (Chs. 2 and 3) on engineering materials, measurement and quality in manufacturing that are essential at every step of manufacturing, before dwelling on the details of different manufacturing processes. The issues of safety and engineering ethics are also discussed in detail. The manufacturing processes start with machining processes. The topic of machining is discussed over six chapters (Chs. 4-9): Theory of Metal Cutting, Turning Operations, Drilling and Allied Operations, Shaping, Planing and Slotting Operations, Milling Operations, and Finishing Processes. Phase change processes for material property manipulation and casting processes, where desired shape is given to the material by melting it, are the topics discussed in Chapters 10 and 11 respectively. Chapters 12 and 13, entitled Metal Forming Processes and Sheet-metal Working, describe the processes where desired shape and size are obtained by deforming the material. Powder metallurgy is a different technology used for manufacturing specialized products. Powder metallurgy based manufacturing process details are given in Chapter 14. This is followed by mechanical joining processes such as welding, brazing, soldering and fastening. xviiPreface The next five chapters deal with important topics in manufacturing and can be grouped into two broad categories: special manufacturing processes and manufacturing processes management. The special manu- facturing processes include processing of plastics, use of non-conventional resources in manufacturing resulting in newer manufacturing technologies, and computer controlled manufacturing systems, which are introduced in Chapters 16, 17 and 18 respectively. Economics of Manufacturing and Manufacturing Management are the two chapters that focus on topics of economy and management of production in the manufacturing processes. The last chapter, i.e. Chapter 21 named Power Transmission in Machine Tools presents an introductory level discussion of the topic that is essential for knowing how motion and power are transmitted in different machine tools and machines. The topics are dealt in conceptual manner and examples from our surroundings are used wherever possible. The text is interspersed with solved numerical examples and at the end of every chapter, review questions are included. To keep pace with the advancing technology, use of non-conventional resources, application of computers and use of robots in manufacturing are also included. A question bank consisting of more than 100 objective type questions is provided to measure the comprehension of the topics. The Appendices provide much of the supplementary material such as code of ethics, the important aspects of safety, the international system of units and mechanical properties of materials. A compilation of all the formulae discussed in the text is also provided in Appendix E. The textbook is intended for an elementary one- or two-semester course in manufacturing processes for undergraduate students from all engineering, science and professional disciplines. A minimal background of 10+2 level in mathematics, physics and chemistry is assumed. The course(s) must run in parallel with practical training in the laboratory, which should include study of different machines and machine tools in the workshop, learning their operations and working on them to make experimental jobs. We hope, this textbook will be admirably suited to the students who need to develop an understanding of the concepts, procedures and technology of various manufacturing processes. B.S. Nagendra Parashar R.K. MittalAcknowledgments We will fail in our duty if we do not thank all those who contributed directly or indirectly in making this project a success. We thank Prof. S. Venkateshwaran, Director, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India, the Deputy Directors, the Deans, the Unit Chiefs and the Group Leaders at BITS for providing the inspiration, opportunity and all the help needed to write this textbook. We thank Prof. R.K. Patnaik, Dean, Instruction Division and Faculty Division I, Prof. G. Raghurama, Dean, Faculty Division II and Unit Chief Admissions and Placement and Prof. G.P. Srivastava, Dean, Education Development Division and Faculty Division III for their help and encouragement while writing the textbook. We thank Prof. M. Ramachandran, Dean, BITS, Pilani, Dubai centre, Prof. Ravi Prakash, Dean Research and Consultancy Division and Prof. B.J.C. Babu for their valuable suggestions. We express our sincere gratitude to our colleagues at BITS, Mr.S. Santhosh, Mr. Calvin Sophistus, Mr. R.K. Mishra, Mr. B.K. Rout, Mr. Akhilendra Singh, and Mr. Pawan Kumar Kankar who reviewed the preliminary drafts of the manuscript. Our students who have studied the course have been our best critics and source of motivation in this project. We value their precious suggestions and continuous feedback. We are also indebted to the students who read early drafts of the manuscript and helped in revising the same through their questions, comments and suggestions. We would like to specifically thank M. Ajay kumar, Gururaj, Tirumala Rao Koka, S. Baokar, Pavan Gajjela, G. Srivatsan, S. Prasanna, V. Srinivasan, K.S.K. Karuppiah for drawing the diagrams. Ms. Baati Mittal and Ms. Divya Varadarajan deserve special thanks for going through the draft manuscript. We also thank Mr. Santosh Kumar Saini for his cooperation in giving final shape to this textbook. Finally, we would like to thank Prentice-Hall of India for their untiring effort and support in bringing out this volume. ‘Any useful comments or suggestions to improve the contents will be warmly appreciated. B.S. Nagendra Parashar RK. Mittal xixManufacturing Concepts KEY TERMS ‘Assembly Grinding Mould Batch production Inspection Powder metallurgy Brazing Job shop production Product Casting Joining Production Component Lathe Property changing Cutting tool Lot size Quality Drawing Machine Raw material Drilling Machine tool Rolling Economics Machining Safety End product Manufacture Scrap Ethics Manufacturing Soldering Extrusion Mass production Special purpose Fabrication Material Turning Forging Measurement Welding Forming Metal cutting General purpose Milling 1.1 Introduction Just have a look at different objects around you. Some of these are made of wood, others are made of plastics or steel, or some other materials. The material used to make these objects is not found in nature in the form it is used to make these objects. We rarely use materials in their raw form, that is, as they are found in nature. Objects are made by transforming the material available in nature into useful material with desired properties, converting it into desired shaped parts, and assembling the parts to get the objects. The material as found in nature is called raw material. Have you ever thought how a pen, which you use everyday, is manufactured? How the other commodities we use in our day-to-day life are manufactured? Any object made by us for any specific purpose is called a product. The process of making a component product is called manufacturing and the process is called manufacturing process. 1EB Elements of Manufacturing Processes Manufacturing, in the broadest sense, is the process of converting raw materials into products. In other words, manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and services available to satisfy human needs and wants. Manufacturing implies creating value by applying useful mental and/or physical labour. With civilization, the needs of human beings have also grown. Several components are required for producing the items, which we use in our daily life. The word ‘manufacturing’ is derived from the Latin words manu factus, meaning, ‘made by hand’. But, in the modern context, manufacturing involves making products from raw materials by using various processes, by making use of tools, machines and even computers. The word ‘production’ is often used interchangeably with the word ‘manufacturing’. The term manufacturing engineering is used widely to describe this area of industrial activity; the equivalent term in Europe and Japan is production engineering. Manufacturing is the backbone of any industrialized nation. Its importance is emphasized by the fact that, as an economic activity, it comprises approximately 20-30% of the value of all goods and services produced in industrialized nations. The level of manufacturing activity is directly related to the economic health of a country. Generally, the higher the level of manufacturing activity in a country, the higher is the standard of living of its people. Having learnt what a manufacturing process is, it is essential to know what we require for carrying out the manufacturing activity. We require 5 Ms, viz. 1. Material 2. Methods 3. Machinery 4, Men 5. Money. Figure 1.1 illustrates the manufacturing process and its interaction with the five Ms. Men Methods + Machinery | Manufacturing — process Material -| Money Figure 1.1 The manufacturing process and the 5 Ms.Manufacturing Concepts [Ei Every product requires material (often referred as the raw material) from which the product is made. Every product, parts, assembly or material requires a method to convert raw material into the desired product. We need machines to convert the material to get the desired shape, size, properties, and so on. To convert the raw material into the product using machines and methods, we require men to operate the machines and apply the methods. Money is the essential input required for purchasing raw material, machines, manpower, etc. 1.2 Manufacturing Processes How can a given component or the end product be produced? A moment’s thought will make it clear that there are several processes or techniques available to manufacture the components. These can be broadly classified into five groups: 1. Casting 2. Machining 3. Forming 4, Powder metallurgy 5. Joining. The basics of these processes are described here to introduce the concepts of different methods of manufacturing, machines and tools used, and some terminologies involved. An elaborate discussion of the manufacturing processes will be done in the subsequent chapters. 1.2.1. Casting In the casting process, the material is given the desired shape by melting it. The molten material is poured into a cavity of the desired shape and size of the product to be produced, allowing it to solidify. The cavity is made in a suitable material held in a box called mould. After solidification, the end product is extracted from the mould. Using this process, very intricate shapes can be manufactured. In addition, the range of size of the products that can be manufactured by the casting process is unlimited. Figure 1.2 shows a metal casting process in which the cavity in sand is filled with the molten metal. Typical examples of the products that are manufactured by the casting process are frying pans, machine bases, automobile engines, carburetors, and gun barrels. Casting processes are dealt in detail in Chapter 11. 1.2.2 Machining The process of removing the unwanted material from a given workpiece to give it the required shape is known as machining. In this process, material is removed from the unwanted regions of the raw material to get the required size and shape. The removal of unwanted material mayElements of Manufacturing Processes Cavity produced by pattern Sand Figure 1.2 The casting process. be done by a manual process or by using a machine called machine tool, and using tools called cutting tools. Using the machining process, it is possible to manufacture components with very close dimensional tolerances, which cannot be obtained by the other methods of manufacturing. Typical examples of the products made by machining process include gears, automobile parts, and nuts and bolts. When machining is used for cutting metals, it is commonly referred to as metal cutting process. Some examples of metal cutting process are drilling, turning, milling and grinding. Lot of material is wasted as scrap in the machining process. Figure 1.3 shows a metal cutting operation on a lathe. Chapters 4 to 9 describes machining processes in detail Rotation of chuck Workpiece Machined surface ‘Chuck to hold workpiece Chip Motion of tool Tool Figure 1.3 Metal cutting operation on a lathe—the turning operation. 1.2.3 Forming Forming process encompasses a wide variety of techniques, which make use of suitable force, pressure or stresses like compression, tension, shearManufacturing Concepts [EM or their combinations to cause a permanent deformation of the material to give it the required shape. Unlike machining techniques, in this process, no material is removed and wasted, but is only displaced and deformed. Examples of the metal forming process include rolling, forging, drawing, extrusion etc. The rolling operation is illustrated in Fig. 1.4. Some examples of the products manufactured by the forming process include kitchen utensils, wires, cold drink bottle caps, collapsible tubes, rails, etc. Metal forming processes are dealt in Chapters 12 and 13. Upper roll Direction of travel Original unrolled Rolled metal metal Lower roll Figure 1.4 A typical metal forming operation—the rolling of metal. 1.2.4 Powder metallurgy In powder metallurgy, fine powdered materials are blended, pressed into a desired shape in a die and then heated in a controlled atmosphere to bond the contacting surfaces of the particles and get the desired properties. The products made from powder metallurgy are gears, tungsten wires for electric bulbs, cutting tools, ete. The size of the product that can be made by this process ranges from tiny balls for ballpoint pen tips to parts weighing up to 50 kg. The products manufactured by this process have good dimensional accuracy and finish. The products usually do not require any further processing. Powder metallurgy is discussed in Chapter 14. 1.2.5 Joining The last category of manufacturing processes is joining. In this process, two or more pieces are joined together to produce the required shape and/or size of the product. Before joining, the components may be manufactured by any of the processes discussed earlier. Different methods are used for joining two or more parts together. The joint can be permanent, semi-permanent or temporary. The permanent joining can be done by fusing the metals together. For this kind of joining, metal is locally heated or melted and filler material may be used. Examples of permanent joining process include welding, brazing and soldering.EB Elements of Manufacturing Processes The temporary joining of the components can be done using nuts, bolts, screws, ete. Adhesives are also used to make temporary joints. Joining processes are widely used in fabrication. Figure 1.5 illustrates joint made by the different joining methods. Joining processes are dealt in Chapter 15. pty , i ZG} tl i t Y Joint made with rivett Joint made by welding Joint made with a screw Figure 1.5 Examples of joints made by different joining processes. The details of the different manufacturing processes will be discussed in the following chapters. First, the machining processes will be taken up, starting with metal cutting fundamentals followed by description of different metal cutting processes. This will be followed by description of manufacturing processes under casting, forming, joining and powder metallurgy. Towards the end, recent technologies of manufacturing like non-conventional manufacturing processes and computer controlled manufacturing systems are discussed. 1.3 Allied Activities To manufacture a part we need materials. It is, therefore, important to know the characteristics of the available materials. The properties of materials are dealt in detail in Chapter 2. The manufacturing activity, in addition, requires some allied activities to produce the finished product. The three important activities are: 1. Measurement 2. Assembly 3. Property changing. 1.3.1. Measurement We want to produce a product to perform a desired function, say, a pencil for writing smoothly. The pencil must have a specified diameter, length, and surface smoothness for it to perform its intended function. That is, each product must have a defined size, shape and other characteristics as per the design specifications. To manufacture the product to the specified size, the size must be measured and checked during and after the manufacturing process. This involves measuring the size, smoothness and other features, in addition to their checking. These are called measurement and inspection, respectively. Different aspects of measurements in manufacturing are discussed in Chapter 3.Manufacturing Concepts [EM 1.3.2 Assembly Many products, that we see around or use in our day-to-day life, are made by putting many parts together. For example, the ball pen that we use consists of a body, refill, barrel, cap, and refill operating mechanism. All these parts are put together to form the product, the pen. More than 20,000 parts are put together to make a car and a machine tool may have more than 25,000 parts. Figure 1.6 shows a car with its major parts. Body (Chesis, frame, coo doors, etc.) Wind shied Carburettor Exhaust (Manifold, silencer, etc.) Engine Bumper * /Materials used jetalsialoys of iron, zine, silver + Copper, nickel, lead, tungsten + Plastics, fibre reinforced plastics + Glass, fabric, paper, rubber Wheels (Axle brakes, rim, Head fonts tube, tyre, ete) Radiator Figure 1.6 Car with major parts. The process of putting the parts together to form the product, which performs the desired function, is called assembly (An assemblage © f parts may require some parts to be joined together but assembly should not be confused with the joining process). Most of the products cannot be manufactured as single unit; they are manufactured as different components using one or more of the above manufacturing processes, and these components are assembled to get the desired product. 1.3.3 Property changing Sometimes materials used to manufacture a product, dictates which manufacturing process or processes are to be used to give it the desired shape. When it is possible to use more than one manufacturing process, one that is ‘best’ must be used. It is therefore important to know what materials are available, what are their characteristics like strength, hardness, availability and costs, and how they can be processed economically to get the desired product. All these aspects are discussed first in the chapter on Engineering materials. In many situations during manufacturing, we require to change the properties of the material being used. A hard material is difficult toEEE Elements of Manufacturing Processes shape by cutting, forming, etc. If we can soften it before shaping and re-harden after the desired shape and size is obtained, the manufacturing becomes easy. It is possible to alter the properties of some material such as hardness by subjecting material to a specific process. Steel and other ferrous metals are the best examples of such materials. The property manipulation concepts and processes are described in Chapter 10. 1.4 Selection of Manufacturing Process From the preceding discussion, we can visualize that a component or product can be manufactured by more than one process. We, therefore, have alternatives of several processes for the manufacture of a given component. How to select the manufacturing process suitable for the component we are planning to make? The selection of a suitable process is based on the following considerations: 1. Volume of production 2. Expected quality and properties of the components 3. Technical viability of the process 4, Economy. The detailed discussion on this will be made in Chapter 19. 1.5 Types of Production Based on the quantity of product, manufacturing activity can be classified under the following three categories: 1. Job shop production 2. Batch production 3. Mass production. 1.5.1. Job shop production Low volume of production and variety of work characterize job shop production. Job shop production is commonly used to meet specific customer orders requiring one or very few numbers of the product having a very specific design and specifications. Examples of the products made from job shop production include a space vehicle, a special tool, an easy chair of one’s comfort, ete. 1.5.2 Batch production Batch production involves the manufacture of medium quantity of an item or product. This is called lot size. The orders for the product may be repetitive or non-repetitive. Typical examples of the products made inManufacturing Concepts [EE batch production include textbooks, furniture, and so on. 1.5.3 Mass production Mass production is characterized by the manufacture of identical products in bulk quantities. In mass production environment, the entire organization is dedicated for the manufacture of a particular type of product. Examples of mass production are pens, refills, screws, cars, and scooters. Since the machines and equipment are involved in the manufacture of single type of product, it must be for special purpose rather than for general purpose and hence the investment required for machine tools and equipment is high. 1.6 Professionalism and Ethics Society has reposed trust on the scientists, engineers and technologists responsible for manufacturing products, since some products may have the potential to do great harm to the mankind if they are not manufactured and used properly or they do not perform properly during use. For this reason, engineers, scientists, and technologists are expected to adhere to high ethical standards. Various international and national societies and institutions have developed codes of ethics to address the fundamental issues. The code of ethics of the Institution of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has the worldwide acceptance. The IEEE code of Ethics is given in Appendix A. Engineers, scientists and technologists are expected to practise their profession in adherence to these ethical cannons and enjoy high respect in the society. 1.7 Safety Another very important aspect of manufacturing is safety of all—human beings as well as equipment—involved in the manufacturing process. Safety can not be studied and forgotten, it must be practised. The importance of safety and safe working habits must be inculcated from very first day and their importance must not be ignored. In this section, we introduce the safety practices that are general in nature. Study the safety rules very carefully and be alert to apply them. We must cultivate the ‘safety-first’ habit. The power-driven machines, parts or tools, rotating or reciprocating at the high speed, sharp cutting edges, high temperatures, explosive gases, electric sparks, etc. are required in the manufacturing processes. All these are potential sources of causing injury to human beings or damage to equipment. An accident may occur due to worker’s own fault, due to unsafe equipment or due to unsafe working conditions. Statistics on industrial accidents, in general, show that two out of three accidents are caused by the human error. In high speed manufacturing processes,Elements of Manufacturing Processes a fraction of a second may make the difference between safety and a serious consequence. Human beings are creative and intuitive. While mankind have invented equipment that are safe to use, ways of making safe use of equipment and procedures and guidelines for safety have also been laid down. Human beings are inquisitive too and some are keen to invent ways to circumvent the safety features and experiment dangerously with the equipment. To carry out manufacturing activities different equipments—machines, tools and machine tools are used. It is essential for us to know the basic rules of safety and procedures for safe use of the equipment to prevent any accidents. Improper handling of equipment can damage the equipment itself. A careful operator familiar with the equipment and its safe use procedure may take risk, become overconfident or negligent. This might result in severe accidents. Safety is also linked to the equipment. No equipment is completely safe, no matter how carefully it is designed, constructed, and used. Safety is ensured only when the equipment is properly maintained, operated, and used under stated conditions. Machines and tools are designed with many safety features. Any moving parts, which are deemed to be dangerous, are provided with some type of guards. These guards must be in place while operating the machine. More sophisticated safety devices include safety stops, microswitches and sensors, which do not allow the machine to operate if any safety procedure is violated. Safety of workers while working in any shop of the workshop, whether in an educational institution or on the shopfloor of an industry, is of utmost importance. The hazards associated with each shopwork require different safety considerations and the potential hazards for personal injury are numerous. The safety guidelines for different types of operations are detailed in Appendix B. Some common shopfloor hazards and their sources are tabulated in Table 1.1. 1.7.1. Enforcing safety Governments are also concerned with the safety of human workers and exert every means to keep the industrial accidents as low as possible. The Factory Acts and Industrial Safety Acts contain elaborate provisions for preventing accidents. The equipment used for manufacturing activities is subjected to careful scrutiny by appropriate authorities; from time-to- time, and certified to be safe. Various standards also lay down elaborate procedures and measures to be taken for ensuring safety for all. Government also enacts laws, which are deterrent for the employer to be negligent. For example, as per the Employees State Insurance (ESI) Act, 1942, “A personal injury or occupation disease caused to a worker by accident arising out of and in the course of his employment for which compensation is recoverable by a workman from his employer under the workmen compensation act”. These government rules, regulations, andManufacturing Concepts Table 1.1 Common Shopfloor Hazards and their Sources Potential hazards Hazard sources Explosion or Fire ‘© Welding equipment. Oxygen, acetylene and other gases. Hot metal parts. Hot, freshly produced chips. Hot metal parts. Molten metal. Sparks. Burn injuries Industrial deafness Noise from manufacturing processes like riveting, forging, sheet-metal work, machining, foundry process. Body injury Spillage of oil, grease, ete. Falling heavy parts or tools. Sharp tools, chips, ete. Sharp edges of workpiece. Wearing loose clothes, necktie, jewellery, etc. Wrong use of tools. Careless clamping of tool or workpiece. Power-driven machines. Moving machine parts. Ultraviolet radiation from are welding. Flying chips and sparks Damage to eye Electrical shock ‘© Damaged electrical equipment. + Frayed electric wires. Breathing problem | + Toxic gases, fumes, and chemicals. Cleaning solvents, degreasers, etc. Dust. company policies alone cannot prevent accidents. It should be clearly understood that safety is everyone’s responsibility. It is not possible to detail all the risks involved with the shopwork. However, it is possible to foresee many hazards by carefully planning each job. To prevent accidents, utilize your knowledge and common sense, evaluate potential sources of injury, and attempt to eliminate any hazards. 1.7.2 General safety considerations Your safety, safety of equipment, and safety of others around is in your hands and is of utmost importance. You must follow the SAFETY FIRST rule. In order to ensure safety on the shopfloor some general principles and guidelines must be followed. These are described briefly here. 1. What you wear while working is very important. Loose and flapping clothing may get entangled in a moving part of a machine and lead to injuries or fatal accidents. Overalls with noElements of Manufacturing Processes 10. loose ends and properly buttoned are recommended as dress code for working on the shopfloor to minimize the risk of accidents. Shoes must be worn to reduce the injury to feet in case a workpiece, tool or any other sharp or heavy object falls over them. . Always protect your eyes. Take no chances and always wear safety glasses. . It is foolish to operate a machine or use a tool without first learning about it or receiving proper instructions. The first thing to learn to operate a powered-machine is to find out the quickest and safest way to stop the machine. A fraction of a second may cause a serious difference. . Careless use of tools may cause serious accidents. For example, a badly fitted screwdriver or spanner may slip causing a bad injury to knuckles. A loose handle of hammer or file can injure your feet or hand. . For working on the piece of material (the workpiece), to give it the desired shape, material is often clamped in a suitable workholding device. If the clamping is done carelessly the workpiece may move or fly off when rotated or reciprocated at high speed or under the force applied to shape or cut it. The flying object is not only a danger to the worker working with it but can also injure people near or far away from the workplace. Often we may imagine that work can be done by light clamping or even holding by hand, but sooner or later we shall regret it. Similar situation can occur if the tool is not properly clamped in the tool holder. . A rotating workpiece, tool or any other moving part of a machine is a danger spot. Never reach near it or try to touch it or work on it without proper training and safety precautions. . A freshly cut or machined surface of metal is generally rather rough and may have microsharp edges sufficient to cause cuts on the skin or pickup the rag or waste. . The waste material cut from the workpiece should be handled carefully. It may cause injuries if not handled properly. For example, the chips produced by cutting mild steel on a lathe have sharp edges, which can cause deep and painful cuts. . Cutting tools have very sharp cutting edges, they cut hard metals and our skin is very soft. The cutting tools must be handled very carefully. Powered-machines operate at high speed and are provided with guards and other safety devices to prevent accidents. Never try to overreach beyond the guard shields or temper with the safety devices. Do not operate machines until the guards are in place.Manufacturing Concepts 11. Many equipment used in the manufacturing are powered by electrical energy. One main difference between electric shock and any other form of accident is that the former is sudden and just knocks you out without warning. The electrically powered equipment should be handled with utmost respect and never be tampered with. Never use electrical equipment whilst standing on the damp floor. If electric wires are loose, frayed or exposed, do not use the equipment. 12. Get prompt medical attention for any injury, cut or scratch, no matter how minor the injury might appear. Report all the injuries to your instructor/foreman. 13. Tiredness, more output demand, bad lighting, poor working environment, and strained worker-management relations, are all known to increase the probability of accidents. Before closing the chapter, we urge the reader to inculcate good ‘safety-first’ habits not only for self but also persuade other co-workers to do the same. Everyone should realize the importance of safety instructions and guidelines and act on the advices contained for the personal safety, safety of others, and safety of the equipment. If one takes simple and elementary safety precautions, it is unlikely that anything very serious will happen. 7. 9% 10. 11. REVIEW QUESTIONS What is the difference between machining, fabrication, and forming? List any three components that we use in our day-to-day life made by joining, metal forming and casting processes, other than the examples mentioned in the text. Describe the five categories of manufacturing processes. What is powder metallurgy? How is it different from casting? How does the manufacturing activity play its role in standard of living in a country? Discuss. What do you understand by the allied activities of manufacturing processes? Explain the importance of these processes in manufacturing. What are the 5 Ms of manufacturing? Briefly explain. How is casting process different from machining process? Why there is no material wastage in forming process? In your opinion, the wastage of material in casting process is more or less than that in machining process. Justify your answer. Make a list of products in your room. For each product identify the material or materials used, manufacturing process used and allied process used to make the product.Elements of Manufacturing Processes 12. 13. 14, For the list of products made in question 11, find out how many different parts have been used to make each product. Identify each of these parts and determine the method(s) used to assemble these parts to make the product. For the products identified in question 11, identify the function of each product. Do you think that the product is performing the intended function properly? Justify your answer. What improvements can be made in the products, say, in design or in manufacturing, to improve the functionality or quality of these products? Do you agree with the statement, “Safety is not the responsibility of Safety Officer alone?” Discuss.Engineering Materials KEY TERMS Breaking strength Hardness Stress Brittle Malleability Stress-strain curve Compressive strength Mild steel Tensile stress Compressive stress Modulus of elasticity Tensile strength Creep Plastic deformation Toughness Design stress Poisson’s ratio Ultimate stress Ductility Proportional limit Ultimate tensile Elastic deformation Resilience strength Elastic limit Safety factor Yield point Elasticity Shear strain Yield stress Factor of safety Shear stress Yield strength Failure Space lattice Young’s modulus Fatigue Stiffness Fracture Strain 2.1 Introduction Materials lie at the base of all technological advances. Every individual is vitally concerned with the materials available to him. Whether the product is a bridge, a microchip, a computer, a space vehicle or an automobile, one must have a thorough knowledge of the property and behavioural characteristics of the materials available for use. The advancement in the diverse fields such as computers, transportation, telecommunication, energy, space and so on, in the last century is due to mastering the synthesis and processing of materials. Travel by jet aircraft would have been impossible without the materials that were developed specifically for the jet engine. Let us consider another example of an automobile say a car. Assembly of about 20,000 parts, ranging from microscrews to large bumpers, makes a car. These parts are made from different materials because each part is intended for a different function, and different materials possess different properties. For example, the body of the car is made from steel because steel is strong and can be easily shaped; bumpers are made from reinforced plastics; dash boards 15EER Elemenis of Manufacturing Processes and seats are made from plastics because they are light in weight, low cost, available in wide range of colours and can be easily moulded into different shapes. Similarly, glass is chosen for windows because it is transparent, easy to clean, hard and resistant to abrasion. Everything we use is composed of materials, from semiconductor chips to concrete skyscrapers, from plastic bags to smart materials for artificial hip joint. The millions of manufacturing jobs depend on the availability of high-quality specialized materials. Materials are the building blocks of technology. Materials and processing methods are necessary for the enhancement of a nation’s quality of life, security, industrial productivity, and economic growth. Materials lie at the core of all branches of engineering. In making the choice of material for any application, the engineer must take into account the properties of materials for the intended application, for example, hardness and strength for mechanical application, conductivity for electrical application, etc. Further, the engineer is also concerned with the behaviour of the material during manufacturing and the effect which it has on the environment. Materials may be classified into five major classes: 1. Metals 2. Ceramics 3. Polymers 4, Composites 5. Semiconductors. Metals with which we are familiar include iron, copper, aluminium, silver, and gold. Common ceramics are sand, bricks, glass, and graphite. Some common polymers are nylon, teflon, and polyethylene. Composites are mixtures of materials such as carbon fibres in epoxy matrix. It is used in tennis rackets. Common semiconductors are silicon and germanium used in electronic components like transistors and integrated circuits. To make intelligent materials’ choices, it is important to know their properties. There is an intimate link between the structure of the material and their mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, and magnetic properties. Therefore, to understand the properties of materials, it is essential to know about the structure of materials. In this chapter, we will concentrate only on the mechanical properties of the materials from the point of view of manufacturing or processing of material to make the desired objects. Hence, discussing electrical and other properties in detail is beyond the scope of this book. An important concept is that while the properties of the material are related to its structure, the way in which a material is processed affects the structure and hence the properties. As an example of this important concept, consider the dramatic effect that thermal processing can have on the properties of steel. If slowly cooled from a specific highEngineering Materials temperature, steel will be relatively soft and have low strength. If the same steel is quenched (i.e. rapidly cooled) from the same temperature, it will be extremely hard and highly brittle. This aspect of processing of materials to get a structure change and hence changes in properties will be discussed in Chapter 10. We start our discussion in this chapter with structure of materials. 2.2 Structure of Materials We use and work with different materials in our day-to-day life. Some of them are hard, some of them are soft, and few of them can withstand high temperatures, while others can’t. Do you know why some metals are hard and others are soft? Why some metals can be easily shaped into different shapes, while for others, it is not possible to do the same? Why are acids stored in glass bottles and not in metal jars? To answer these questions, one needs to know about the structure of materials. The structure of materials greatly influences the materials’ behaviour and its properties. Knowledge of structures guides us in controlling and predicting the behaviour and performance of materials during manufacturing processes and in use. We start our discussion with the crystal structure of materials, about which you have read some details in your Chemistry course. For simplicity, we will discuss only metals here. 2.2.1 Crystalline structures of metals When metals solidify from molten state, the atoms arrange themselves into specific positions in 3-D space to form crystals. If we join up the centres of the atoms in a crystal, the lines joining form a 3-D geometrical shape called space lattice. The smallest volume of this space lattice, which properly represents the position of the atoms with respect to each other, is known as a unit cell. Unit cell is the building block of a crystal and a single crystal has many unit cells. It is very much similar to a brick in a wall, which consists of an orderly arrangement of many bricks. The unit cells of most metals are either cubic or hexagonal in shape and hence we confine our discussion to these lattice structures only. The three most common crystal lattice structures are shown in Fig. 2.1 and are briefly described here. a (a) Foc (b) BCC {c) HOP Figure 2.1 Common crystal structures of metals.Elements of Manufacturing Processes 1. Face centred cubic (FCC) crystals. In this structure, the unit cell is a cube with one atom at each corner of the cube and one on each face, as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). Metals like copper, gold, nickel, aluminium, and alloys of these metals are typical examples of FCC structure. A notable feature of FCC metals is good ductility and good electrical conductivity. 2. Body centred cubic (BCC) crystals. In this structure, the unit cell consists of atoms at each corner of a cube and an atom at the centre of the cube. This is shown in Fig. 2.1(b). Common examples of BCC metals are iron, sodium, vanadium, molybdenum, etc. BCC metals have more tendency to deform plastically. 3. Hexagonal closely packed (HCP) crystals. In this structure, atoms are at each corner of a hexagonal prism, one atom in the centre of top and bottom faces, and three atoms in the midplane. This is shown in Fig. 2.1(c). Common examples of HCP metals are zinc, cadmium, cobalt, and titanium. HCP metals have good ductility and can be easily deformed. In all, there are 14 different valid 3-D lattices and all crystals belong to one lattice type. The lattice may change with temperature. A material that changes the lattice type with temperature is called polymorphic. X-ray diffraction is a powerful technique for investigating atomic structures of materials. Using X-ray diffraction, we can determine the crystal structure of materials and the precise position of the atoms in the unit cell. Some materials do not have their atoms arranged on a lattice. Such metals are called non-crystalline or amorphous. Thermoset plastics, transparent polymers, rubber, and metallic glasses are some examples of the non-crystalline materials. 2.3 Properties of Materials Having understood the common crystalline structures, let us discuss about the important properties of the materials. The properties of materials include physical, chemical, mechanical, electrical, and other properties. The selection of a particular material for a typical application depends on its physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. For example, we use plastics for manufacturing a pen because it is light in weight; and copper for electrical wiring because it is a good conductor of electricity. Such properties are known as physical properties of material. Certain materials react chemically with acids and other chemical solutions while others do not. For example, iron gets corroded when it reacts with water. These types of properties of material are known as chemical properties. Electrical properties are essentially related to the conductivity of materials. Conductivity of a metal reduces by adding impurities but inEngineering Materials [i the case of materials like silicon, adding small quantity of phosphorus increases the conductivity many times. Mechanical properties describe the behaviour of a material subjected to mechanical forces or external load. Strength, hardness, and ductility are the few examples of mechanical properties. Selection of manufacturing process for a given material is influenced by its mechanical properties. For example, cast iron cannot be subjected to a metal forming process because it is brittle and lacks the property of ductility. Now, we will have a discussion on mechanical properties of materials. 2.4 Mechanical Properties The first characteristic of a material that comes to mind, particularly in connection with making an object from a material, say, a tablespoon or a bridge, is its strength. Some other mechanical properties like elasticity, ductility, hardness, and toughness are associated with the ability of the material to resist deformation or deform under the application of mechanical forces. Many a time, we do not want the materials to resist all deformation, while at other times we want that it should not be deformed completely. A spring, for example, is intended to deform under load but should not have any permanent deformation after the load is removed. On the other hand, the material used for body of an automobile must be permanently deformed to the desired shape during the moulding process. To provide a basis for making comparisons between mechanical properties and the effects of in-service behaviour on those properties, we shall first define some of the more commonly used engineering terms like types of load, shear stress, and shear strain. The mechanical properties are defined in such a way that they are independent of the size and geometry of the material specimen. 2.4.1. Types of stresses A solid body can be subjected to mechanical forces or loads in different ways. When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting to pull the body, the body tends to elongate and is said to be in tension and the type of load applied is called as tensile load, as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). The second type of load is shown in Fig. 2.2(b). Here, a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting to push into the body, the body tends to get shortened. The body is said to be under compression and the type of load is called as compressive load. In the third type of loading, the body is subjected to two opposite forces acting radially across the cross-section of the body, as shown in Fig. 2.2(c). The body is said to be under shear and the type of load applied is known as shear load.ELE Elements of Manufacturing Processes (a) Tensile loading (b) Compressive loading Pin subjected to shear Z|, (©) Shear loading Figure 2.2 Three types of stresses/loading. When any solid body is subjected to external load, resisting forces are set-up within the body. These internal resistances are called stresses. Stress is defined as the force per unit area and is expressed in Newton per square metre (N/m?) in SI units. Appendix C gives the International System of Units (Systéme international d’unités). Depending upon the type of load applied, the stress developed in the material may be tensile, compressive or shear (also known as transverse) stress. For a body subjected to tensile load, as in Fig. 2.2(a), the body is under tension; the corresponding resistance set-up in the body is known as tensile stress. When a material is subjected to a compressive load [Fig. 2.2(b)], and the body is under compression, the corresponding stress is known as compressive stress. When a section is subjected to the shear loading as in Fig. 2.2(c) and the body is in a state of shear, the corresponding stress is known as shear stress. Strain is the measure of deformation of a material. When a solid body is subjected to an external load, it deforms and its dimensions change. Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to original dimension. It is a dimensionless quantity, can be expressed in mm/mm. Figure 2.3 shows a cylindrical specimen with original diameter Do (Area, Ay = 2/4 x D2) and original length Ly subjected to an axial force F. The stress and the strain, as defined earlier, are given by Stress 5 (21) ly ~ ly Lo (2.2) Straine = “4 2 The elongation of the specimen due to the external tensile force F increases the length from Ly to Ly, as shown in Fig. 2.3. This isEngineering Materials Dy ——4 Ap Li <> t Se + : Figure 2.3 The deformation of a cylinder under tensile loading. accompanied by a contraction in the perpendicular direction, that is, the diameter decreases from Dy to D;. This means every direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its direction and an opposite kind of strain at right angles to it. The strain in the direction of the applied load is known as linear strain or axial strain and the strain in the perpendicular direction is known as lateral strain or perpendicular strain. The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain is known as Poisson’s ratio. Further, if the applied force F is removed (assuming it was within some limiting value), the cylinder comes back to its original shape and size. Poisson’s ratio is discussed in detail in section 2.4.10. The stress and strain induced in a body are also related to each other in a specific manner. This more specific relationship is studied now. 2.4.2 Stress-strain relationship Let us assume that a cylindrical rod, made of a ductile material of some specific length (original length), is subjected to the continuously increasing tensile load of sufficiently high magnitude. The rod will go on elongating until it breaks, as shown in Fig. 2.4. This is identical to the behaviour of a rubber band, which elongates on stretching and finally breaks. If the elongation of the specimen is measured at different loads until the specimen breaks, the stress and strain at each load value can be calculated using Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2). A graphical plot of the calculated stress and strain values is shown in Fig. 2.5. This graph is known as stress-strain curve for the material. From Fig. 2.5(a) we can notice that the left-hand portion of the graph is a straight line, from the origin to point P. The line then starts to curve and reaches a maximum height at point T. From point T, the curve falls to point R, at which the bar breaks or ruptures.EER Elements of Manufacturing Processes Load Original gauge Final gauge length length Fracture point Load Figure 2.4 A ductile material specimen subjected to tensile loading. | Ultimate tensile | strength (UTS) | Yield strength (Y) | \ | 5 | | Fracture 1 yf | |F Stress (Nim?) // uniform —__|_ Necking_ | / elongation l i | V; L 0.2% Strain (m/m) ————» (a) Stress-strain curve for brass. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) (Tensile strength) Breaking Proportional limit point Elastic limit / R i i | | I Strain _ (b) Stress-strain curve for mild steel Figure 2.5 Stress-strain curve for ductile material.Engineering Materials If a bar has a stress applied that is less than that of point P, it will elongate but will return to its original length when the stress is released. Metals and other materials will stretch and rebound in the same manner as a rubber band that has been stretched, if the applied stress is less than elastic limit. When the applied stress exceeds a critical value called elastic limit of the material, say, at the point Q, the material will be permanently stretched (deformed) and will never return to its original length. The part of the curve, up to point P is, therefore, called, the elastic region of the curve. The maximum stress from which the bar can return to its original length is the material’s elastic limit, also called as proportional limit. The rest of the curve, to the right of the elastic limit, is the plastic region. The stress-strain relation is linear in the elastic region and the ratio of stress to strain, in the linear elastic region, is called Young’s modulus, E, which is a constant and indicative property of the material. Basically, it is the slope of the linear portion of the curve. Mathematically, the modulus of elasticity is represented as Stress _ 0 Strain € ey Substituting Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) in Eq. (2.3), we get o Fi Fl ga = Fit, (2.4) € AL/Iy AgAL From Eq. (2.4), we obtain the expression for AL as Fl AL = —2 AgE (2.5) A factor on which the design of any part depends is the stiffness or rigidity of the material, that is, how much the material will stretch when a load is applied. The physical significance of the Young’s modulus, also known as the elastic modulus, is that it is a measure of the interatomic bonding forces and, therefore, the stiffness of the material. A stiff material exhibits small deformation under large applied load. Yield point is defined as the first stress in the material at which an increase in strain occurs without an increase in stress. This is more clearly visible in the stress-strain curve in Fig. 2.5(b). This behaviour is known as yielding. Yield strength is defined as the stress at which a material exhibits specified limiting deviation from the proportionality of stress to strain. The maximum stress that a bar will withstand before failing is the measure of its tensile strength, or ultimate tensile strength, and is shown as point T on the curve. The stress at which the bar breaks is its breaking strength or rupture strength, which is represented as point R in Fig. 2.5(a).EE Elements of Manufacturing Processes Figure 2.5(b) shows stress-strain curve for a ductile material like mild steel. As we can see from the figure, the stress-strain curve after elastic limit is highly nonlinear. In these types of stress-strain diagrams, yield point can be easily located. However, the stress-strain diagram in Fig. 2.5(a) does not exhibit a clear deviation point after elastic limit and hence yield point cannot be exactly identified. Ductile materials like aluminium and bronze show this type of stress-strain curve where yield point cannot be easily located. In such cases, the practice for locating yield point is to locate 0.2% strain on X-axis (industrially accepted strain value), and from this point draw a line parallel to the line of proportional limit. The point where this line intersects the stress-strain curve will be the yield point. This is shown by the dotted line in Fig. 2.5(a). In some materials, the maximum stress that the material can withstand is also the breaking strength. That is, the tensile strength and the breaking strength are the same. Such materials are considered to have no yield point. These materials are known as brittle materials. Cast iron and glass are examples of brittle materials. These materials will have a stress-strain curve as shown in Fig. 2.6. Breaking point Stress Strain. ——— Figure 2.6 Stress-strain curve for a brittle material. Appendix D shows the values of Young’s modulus, yield point, ultimate strength, and breaking strength for commonly used engineering materials. 2.4.3 Toughness Toughness is the ability of a material to withstand a suddenly applied load and thus to absorb a certain amount of energy without failure. It depends upon both the strength and ductility. Alloy steels with good toughness are used for manufacturing cutting tools like milling cutters, and gears that are subjected to impact loads. Toughness is measured by the total area under the stress-strain curve up to the point of fracture.Engineering Materials 2.4.4 Hardness Hardness is normally defined in engineering as the resistance of the material to mechanical indentation. Hardness is the general indication of strength of the material, as well as its resistance to wear and scratching. Hardness plays an important role in manufacturing. Diamond is the hardest known material. In the chapters to come you will understand why we select only hard materials for the manufacture of tools, and machine tool structures and how difficult it is to shape hard materials. 2.4.5 Ductility Ductility is defined as the extent to which a material can sustain plastic deformation before rupture. It indicates the ability of a material to undergo considerable permanent strain or deformation before breaking. Materials with high ductility are known as ductile materials. Gold is the most ductile of all metals. It is so pliable that 28.35 g of gold can be drawn into 80 km of thin wire. Ductility is an important property of the materials, which are to be shaped by forming and bending, for example, automobile body, cartridge case, etc. Materials that fracture with no or little accompanying plastic deformation are brittle. 2.4.6 Brittleness A material that undergoes very little plastic deformation before rupture is called brittle. A brittle material exhibits no yielding and does not exhibit necking phenomenon. It ruptures suddenly and without warning at the ultimate strength. Brittle materials are weak and unreliable in tension. Cast iron, glass, and ceramics are the few examples of brittle materials. 2.4.7 Malleability Malleability of a material is its ability to be flattened (deformed) into thin sheets without cracking. You are advised not to confuse malleability with ductility. Ductility is a tensile quality (ability to deform under tensile stress) whereas malleability is a compressive quality (ability to deform under compressive stress). Some materials may be malleable but they are not ductile. For example, lead can be easily hammered into thin sheets but cannot be drawn into wires, that is, lead is malleable, but not ductile; but silver is both malleable and ductile. Materials like aluminium, lead, copper, and tin have good malleability. 2.4.8 Resilience Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy elastically. On removal of the load, the energy stored is given off exactly as in spring when the load is removed.EES Elemenis of Manufacturing Processes Resilience is measured by the triangular area under the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve (Fig. 2.5). A material with greater resilience is capable of absorbing greater impact energy without any plastic deformation. Resilience should be considered when material is subjected to shock or impact loading. This property of material is important in the manufacture of shock absorbers, springs and so on. 2.4.9 Stiffness Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist deformation. A material with high value of Young’s modulus Z is stiffer than the material with the lower value of Young’s modulus. For example, modulus of elasticity for aluminium and steel are 70 GPa and 210 GPa, respectively. This means steel is three times stiffer than aluminium. For an aluminium rod of the same cross-sectional area and subjected to the same stress, the deformation is three times that of steel rod of the same cross-sectional area. 2.4.10 Poisson’s ratio When a bar is subjected to an axial tensile load, it gets elongated in the direction of the applied load; at the same time, its transverse dimension decreases as shown in Fig. 2.7(a). Similarly, if an axial compressive load is applied to the bar, the bar contracts along the axial direction while its transverse dimension increases as shown in Fig. 2.7(b). Deformed Undeformed Undeformed Deformed pol aed (a) Tensile load (b) Compressive load Figure 2.7. Bar subjected to an axial load. Experimental results show that the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain is constant for a given material within the proportionality limit and this ratio is known as Poisson’s ratio. If the undeformed bar length is L and diameter is 6, the change in length is 5 and diameter is 4, after deformation, then Axial strain ¢, = 5/LEngineering Materials Transverse strain € = 6,/b (2.6) Poisson’s ratio v = -€;/e, Poisson’s ratio is a distinct material constant. Poisson's ratio for some common materials is given in Appendix D. 2.5 Modes of Fracture Having studied about various mechanical properties of the materials, it is essential that one should understand: 1. How a material fails? 2, What are the different modes in which a material can fail? There are different modes (or mechanisms) of fracture (or failure) of materials. The actual mode of fracture is determined by a number of factors, which include the crystal structure of the material, its purity, its thermal and mechanical properties, its temperature, the state of stress, the type of stress, the rate of loading, and by the environmental conditions under which it is loaded. In general, fracture mechanisms can be divided into four classes: 1. Ductile 2. Brittle 3. Creep 4, Fatigue. 2.5.1 Ductile fracture If a material is subjected to load above the yield point and the process of deformation continues, fracture eventually occurs, as shown in Fig. 2.8. In the initial stages of loading in plastic region, high concentration of stresses is formed, as depicted in Fig. 2.8(b). When these concentrated stresses become equal to the cohesive strength of the material, it leads to cracking and ultimately to fracture. The different stages of ductile fractures are illustrated in Fig. 2.8(b-f). Small pores are formed as the metal is pulled away from the weak interface and as necking (reduction of cross-section area) proceeds, adjacent pores join up and it is preceded by severe localized deformation in the necking region. When many of these pores have joined they form a large internal cavity, the rim of which fails by shear at 45° to the applied tensile load axis. Ductile fractures require a considerable amount of energy to plastically deform the material in the necking region. Ductile fractures are very important in metal working operations, such as deep drawing, forging, ete. which we are going to discuss in metal working processes in later chapters.EES Elemenis of Manufacturing Processes — - - _ (a) Original test piece — . = _— (b) Starting of ductile fracture — -69 _— (c) Formation of small pores — = Ci = _— (d) Necking proceeds, adjacent pores join up — = 2 - _— (©) Large internal cavity _-— 5 - (f) Rim fails by shear 45° to axis, Figure 2.8 Schematic development of ductile fracture. 2.5.2 Brittle fracture In the ductile fracture, plastic deformation is necessary for the spread of initial crack, while in brittle fracture, plastic deformation is not necessary, although it may occur, during the spread of a crack. Because of this, brittle metals are weak, since they offer little resistance to crack propagation, that is, they fracture rather than deform plastically. Ductile metals, on the other hand, are said to be tough because they offer a high resistance to fracture, that is, they deform rather than allow cracks to be propagated through them. If the load that caused a crack to propagate is removed, the crack stops. Brittle fractures may occur at stresses far below the yield strength, in the case of materials subjected to impact and shock loads and usually occur without warning. This presents a serious practical problem because it often leads to a catastrophic failure. Brittle fractures are most likely to occur on large-sized components or structures as a result of shock loading.Engineering Materials [EQ 2.5.3 Creep fracture In some situations like aggressive environments or at elevated temperatures, both the stress-strain behaviour and fracture of materials become time dependent. Continuous loading or corrosive environments are common situations where loading becomes important in determining failure possibilities. In many applications, materials are required to sustain steady loads for long periods of time, e.g. the beams on the roof of a building and lead sheaths in telephone cables. Under such prolonged loading conditions, the material may continue to deform (say elongate) with time until its usefulness is seriously impaired. This deformation may be almost imperceptible, but over the lifetime of a structure, it can grow large and result in a fracture without any increase in load. If, under any condition deformation continues when the load is held constant, this growing deformation is known as creep. In creep, the load is applied continuously for many months to many years. Creep can be defined as the plastic and inelastic distortion of a material subject to the long time loading or a continuing change in the deformation or deflection of a stressed member. The amount of creep depends on the elasticity of the material, its yield strength, the stress applied, and temperature. In some cases, creep takes place at the temperature less than room temperature or slightly above room temperature, for example, in lead and aluminium; or at a very high temperature, as for alloy steel. In some materials, such as concrete and wood, temperature is not an important factor although it may indirectly contribute to creep. Creep fractures are critical in the design of steam turbines, boilers, steam power plants, aircrafts, etc. For example, in jet engine, turbine blades reach a local temperature of 1200°C, so creep is of primary concern in selecting the suitable material for the blades. 2.5.4 Fatigue fracture Fatigue fracture is one of the most baffling of all material failure phenomena. It always comes suddenly, unexpectedly, and with catastrophic results. It appears to be inherent in most engineering materials. For example, when you bend a wire back and forth several times at the same point, the wire eventually breaks. You can perform this experiment with a paper clip. This failure of a material due to cyclic or repeated stresses is known as fatigue fracture. In simple terms, we can define fatigue fracture as the failure of material when subjected to cyclic loading. The term fatigue would convey clearer meaning to the layman if it were described as progressive fracture. Fatigue fractures occur at stresses well below the yield stresses, which the part can withstand under static conditions. That is, to cause a material to fractureEES Elements of Manufacturing Processes by fatigue, the yield point of the material need not be exceeded. Hence, fatigue failures are important to be considered when we are selecting a material for a component, which is supposed to withstand alternate loads. The fracture mechanism for the fatigue fracture is complex involving strain hardening and formation of microcracks, which may be due to crystal structure imperfections or surface finish imperfections that grow in size to cause failure. 2.6 Factor of Safety Alll design work is based on certain assumptions. For example, we assume a material to be homogeneous in specifying its strength. However, practically it is not true. It is also essential that we have to take into consideration the uncertainties that a material may undergo during its service period or there is also a possibility that the raw material itself may be defective and may contain cracks or blowholes in it. In such cases, these materials are more prone to failures. To avoid the failure of a part, it is essential that the design stress be kept well within the yield stress or ultimate stress, as the case may be. This is done by using a factor of safety also known as safety factor. It is a simple number, which varies with application, loss due to failure and on the experience of designer with material failures for which clear explanation is not available. Let us suppose the engineer designs a part so that the maximum stress the part will ever undergo under given design criteria, is, say, 500 N/m? and the yield strength of material is, say, 1000 N/m. The factor of safety used by the designer is 2. This factor of 2 takes into account all the uncertainties like variation in metal properties, effect of wear, effect of surface finish, inaccuracies of manufacturing process, ete. The factor of safety varies with application. For a material subjected to fatigue load, factor of safety should be high, because chances of failures are more due to the fatigue load. Designs of airplane parts, satellites, ete. require higher factor of safety as compared to other applications, because these applications involve a risk to the lives of human beings. In choosing an appropriate value for the factor of safety, we need to consider the following: 1. Variation in the mechanical properties due to non-uniformity/ non-homogeneity of the material 2. Uncertainty in the method of analysis and method of manufacture 3. Environmental conditions 4, Type of application. For ductile materials, failure stress is the yield stress or yield strength. Hence, for ductile materialsEngineering Materials Factor of safety = -etd stress en sign stress For brittle materials, failure stress is the ultimate stress or ultimate strength. Hence, for brittle materials Ultimate stress Factor of safety = Utimate stress ee eS” Design stress (28) 2.7 Common Engineering Materials In engineering applications, metals are seldom used in their pure state. Engineering materials are generally alloys of metals. In this section, we will discuss some commonly used engineering materials and their properties. 2.7.1 Cast iron Cast iron is a ferrous metal, an alloy of iron with 2.1 to 4.5% carbon and 3.5% silicon. Cast iron is a hard and brittle material. Graphite (carbon) is present in cast iron in free form and it adds self-lubricating properties to cast iron. Cast iron has excellent vibration damping property. It is, therefore, extensively used for making machine beds and frames. Cast iron has good compressive strength but is weak in tension. Different types of cast irons are used in engineering applications. A few of them are gray cast iron, malleable cast iron and spheroidal-graphite cast iron, each having different composition and percentage of alloying elements. Gray cast iron has good wear resistance and is used for castings of machine tool guideways, where continuous lubrication is not always possible. Malleable cast iron has more tensile, impact, and fatigue strength than the gray cast iron. Applications of malleable cast iron include parts for agricultural and textile machinery. Spheroidal-graphite (SG) cast iron achieves the strength, toughness, and ductility of steel. SG cast iron is widely used in the manufacturing of crankshafts, connecting rods, and gearbox housings. 2.7.2 Steel Steel is the most common engineering material used for a wide range of applications from utensils to machine parts to cutting tools. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. In addition, it may contain other alloying elements such as manganese, silicon, chromium, and copper. Steel is classified, on the basis of the percentage of carbon present, into three groups, viz. 1. Low carbon steel or mild steel (0.05 to 0.3%C)Elements of Manufacturing Processes 2. Medium carbon steel (0.3 to 0.7%C) 3. High carbon steel (0.7 to 1.5%C). Table 2.1 gives typical applications of carbon steels depending on its carbon content. Table 2.1 Applications of Carbon Steels Common Carbon % Applications name content Low carbon steel 0.05-0.125 Thin sheets, tubes, wire. 0.15-0.3 Structural sections, boilers, general purpose applications. Medium carbon steel 0.3-0.5 Agriculture implements, wheel axles, tubes and wires. 0.5-0.7 Hammers and other hand tools, wheel rims, springs, dies. High carbon steel 0.7-0.9 Cutting blades, chisels, dies. 0.9-1.1 Wood working tools, dies, chisels, cutting tools. 11-415 Metal cutting tools, razor blades, files, drills, gauges. One important feature of steel is that its properties can be easily controlled and manipulated. It can be made softer and ductile or it can be made more hard and brittle, using simple processes, depending on the end use for which steel is required. These processes are known as heat treatment processes and are discussed in Chapter 10. Effects of alloying elements on steel for its use as a cutting tool material are discussed in Chapter 4. 2.7.3 Aluminium Aluminium is a non-ferrous material, which is also widely used. It is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor and has very good resistance to corrosion. Aluminium weighs about one third of steel and possesses very good ductility. Applications of aluminium are in packaging, consumer durables, utensils, electrical appliances, etc. On an average 75-85% of the components used in airplanes and jet engines are made from aluminium. 2.7.4 Copper Copper is another non-ferrous metal. It is also an excellent conductor of heat and electricity and has good corrosion resistance. It is soft, tough, easy to mould, and is suitable for working in both hot and cold conditions. In the pure form, it is used primarily for its excellent thermal andEngineering Materials electrical properties. Alloys of copper are made by alloying it with zinc, tin, and lead and these find wide range of applications. Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, finds applications in utensils, household fittings, decorative objects, ete. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and possesses very good corrosion resistance. It is used in making valves and bearings. Brass and bronze can be machined at high speeds to fine surface finish. 2.7.5 Lead Lead is a very durable and versatile material. It has properties of high density and easy workability. It has very good resistance to corrosion and many acids have no chemical action on it. The lead pipes installed by the Romans in the public baths in Bath, England, nearly 2000 years ago are still in use. In the soldering process, an alloy of lead and tin is most widely used as a solder material for joining metals. 2.7.6 Zinc Zine and zinc alloys have low melting point. With regard to industrial applications, zinc is the fourth most utilized metal after iron, aluminium, and copper. Typical examples of the products made by zinc alloys include carburetors, fuel pumps, automobile parts, and so on. 2.7.7 Tin Tin is a soft and ductile material. It possesses very good malleability. Tin does not corrode in wet and dry conditions making it useful as a protective coating material for iron and steel. Tin-base white metals are used to make bearings that are subjected to high pressure and load. Because of its high malleability, it finds application in tin cans for storing food. 2.8 Selection of Material In Section 2.4, we have studied about mechanical properties of materials. When we want to select a material for a particular application, we have to take into consideration various physical and mechanical properties of the material. Selection of material for a manufacturing process is an important decision. In many instances, the selection of a specific material can even dictate the manufacturing process to be used. The selection of material also has an influence on the final cost of the product. You must be surprised to note that the material cost accounts to approximately 50% of the manufacturing cost. Hence, selection of manufacturing process for a material must be made with the great care. The stepwise approach for the selection of material is as follows:Elements of Manufacturing Processes Step 1. Define material requirements. Material requirement can be defined by keeping in view overall objectives of the part for which the selection of material is made. These objectives can be referred with reference to cost, durability, life, etc. Step 2. Find the possible material(s). The material requirements identified may be met by a number of materials. For example, low specific weight requirement is met by aluminium and also by nylon. Make a list of all such materials that meet all or most of the requirements. Step 3. Make a choice. In case when more than one material appears to be suitable, the final choice should be determined by considering influencing factors and restrictions like availability of raw material, cost, inhibitions of aesthetics, and so on. For example, when we want to select a material for manufacturing coins, the requirements are: the material should possess good ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high plasticity, and should be light in weight. The list of materials that satisfy these requirements is large including gold, silver, copper, and their alloys. Final selection may be made taking into consideration cost and availability. As another example, we use stainless steel for manufacturing shaving razor blades because the material selected should have good malleability (ability to be hammered into thin sheets), corrosion resistance, more abrasive resistance, and economical. The edge may be alloyed to make it hard and retain sharpness. 2.9 Solved Examples Example 2.1 A steel rod having 10 mm diameter and 1.5 m length is subjected to an axial pull of 1 KN. Find (a) stress, (b) strain, and (c) elongation. Assume modulus of elasticity Z = 205 x 10° kN/m?. Solution: Given D=10mm, L=15m, F=1KkN, E = 205 x 10° kN/m? Then, nD® __ (10x10)? lOx107y Cross-sectional area A = —— = 7 = 7.85 x 10% m? 3 (a) Stress = © =1 x —— = 127x107 Nim? Ans. A 7.85 x 10 7 (b) Strain = Sess _ 127 x 10° _ 691 x 105 mim ‘Ans. E 205 x 10° (©) Elongation = Strain x L = 6.21 x 10° x 1.5 = 9.32 x 105m Ans. Example 2.2 The following data were obtained during the tensile test of a steel specimen having 30-mm diameter and 200-mm length.Engineering Materials [EQ Extension at a load of 50 kN = 0.1 mm Load at elastic limit = 230 kN Maximum load = 300 kN Total extension = 50 mm Diameter of rod at failure = 20 mm Calculate (a) Young’s modulus, (b) percentage elongation, and (c) percentage decrease in area. Solution: Given D=30mm, F=50x10°N, L=200mm, AL=0.1mm, d=20mm Then, 2 2. Area = aD = 4x a = 706.86 mm? = 706.86 x 10-° m? 3 Stress = aa =50 x —— = 7.07 x 107 N/m? A 706.86 x 10 strain = 44 - 91 ~ 9.0005 L200 (a) Young’s modulus E = Stress/Strain = 14.14 x 10° N/m? Ans. (eee in nett) a (b) Percentage elongation aie Original length = 50 x 100=25% Ans. 200 (c) Percentage decrease = Decreased area , i99 in area Original area 2 ge = 73+ x 100 2 _ 992 = ee x 100 = 55.55% Ans. Example 2.3 A short timber post of rectangular cross-section has one side of section twice the other. When the timber post is subjected to compressive load of 10 kN, it contracts by 0.0521 mm for 1 m length. If the modulus of elasticity of timber is 12 GPa, calculate the dimensions of the post. Solution: Given F = 10 x 10° N, AL = 0.0521 x 10° m, E = 12x 10° Nim’, Ly=1m From Eq. (2.5), AL = F x LoA x E) or 0.0521 x 10-* = 10 x 10° x 1A x 12 x 10°)EES Elemenis of Manufacturing Processes Solving, we get A = 0.015994 m? Let one side of rectangular cross-section is b Therefore, the other side of rectangular cross-section is d = 2b Hence, A = b xd = b x 2b = 0.016 m? or 1. 3. 5. 6. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15. b = 0.089 m and d= 0.178 m Ans. REVIEW QUESTIONS Why is it necessary to understand crystal structure of materials? Explain the difference between unit cell and a single crystal. The material iron is said to have both BCC and FCC structure. Why? What is the difference between elasticity and plasticity? What are the standard units of measuring stress, strain and modulus of elasticity in MKS and SI units? Why is the ultimate tensile strength of a material more important than the breaking strength? Why is the yield strength of a material considered in mechanical engineering design? Explain. What is an alloy? How the alloys are formed? Discuss any three practical situations where you have to consider fatigue. Give three practical examples of failure of material by creep. The nib of a fountain pen fails after long use. What is the type of failure? Explain your answer. Do you agree with the statement “fatigue is more dangerous than static or impact load?” Justify your answer. How stiffness is different from strength? Give at least two applications of the following materials other than those given in the text. (a) Lead (b) Copper (©) Zine. State the material properties discussed in this chapter that are important for manufacturing (a) Shaving blades (b) Coins (c) Paper clips16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Engineering Materials (d) Beverage cans (e) Door hinges (f) Body of automobiles. A company is considering making automobile bumpers from aluminium instead of steel. List some of the factors it would have to consider in carrying its decision. Discuss how environmental conditions affect factor of safety. For the following applications, suggest suitable material. Support your answer with at least two specific reasons. (a) Cassette box (b) Airplane body (c) Kitchen utensils (a) Car body (e) Body of ball pen (f) Keyboard of computer. Do you think it is wise to manufacture beverage cans using stainless steel? Discuss with respect to performance and cost. A 20 mm diameter and 200 mm length brass rod was subjected to a tensile load of 40 KN. The extension of the brass rod was found to be 0.254 mm. Find the Young’s modulus of the bar. (Ans. E = 100.25 GPa] A wooden block, 50 mm wide, 100 mm thick and 2 m long is subjected to an axial pull of 50 KN. The stretch of the member is found to be 0.65 mm. Find the Young’s modulus of the material. [Ans. E = 3.07 x 10" N/m?)Measurements and Quality in Manufacturing KEY TERMS Accuracy Inspection Quality Allowance Interchangeability Quality control Basic size Interference Reliability Bilateral tolerance Interference fit Sampling Clearance ISO 9000 Surface finish Clearance fit Limits and fits Testing Deviation Limits of size Tolerance Fit Measurement Transition fit Gap analysis Metrology Unilateral tolerance Gauge Nominal size Zero quality control Gauging Poka yoke Zero line GO-NOGO gauge _Precision 3.1 Introduction Measurement has been important to people ever since they began to organize into societies. As business and trade increased, measurements were developed in order to determine the quantities of a commodity. For example, ownership of land required measurements to define the boundaries of the land. Some of the early units of measurement were: the palm was the amount of grain one could scoop up with the hands with the fingers and thumb closed; the inch was the length of three barleycorns placed end to end; foot was the heel-to-toe length; and the yard was the length from the tip of one's fingers to the nose. These early units were non-standard and measurements using these units varied from person to person. Many standard systems of measurement have evolved and, today, measurements are made to the accuracy of 107"? mm or even less in many cases. To manufacture a part, it is essential that one should know how correct measurements are made. Before we know about measuring principles and standards, it becomes necessary that we know why we must measure dimensions of parts accurately and inspect them? The answer to this question is very 38Measurements and Quality in Manufacturing [EEN simple. We must measure the dimensions and other geometrical features of a part to make sure that the component is manufactured as per the requirements, consistently and within the specified range of dimensional accuracy. The majority of the parts manufactured are components of a product, and they must fit and be assembled properly with other parts so that the product performs its intended function during its service life. Quality control is as old as manufacturing itself. From the time man began to manufacture, he is being interested in producing a better product which refers to the quality of the product produced. In the present competitive world, the aspect of quality is gaining more importance. Every organization is concerned about quality of the product that it produces to survive in the market because customers’ satisfaction is derived by providing them good quality products and services. Quality involves many aspects from design to the final product usage. Until and unless one pays attention to all quality aspects, it will not be possible to manufacture the product to its expected level of quality. Dimensional accuracy is an important measure of quality of a product. In this chapter, the basic principles of measurement are discussed first, followed by discussion on different quality aspects involved. 3.2 Metrology The science of measurement is known as metrology. In manufacturing, most of the time it is a linear or angular dimension that needs to be measured or inspected. Let us now attempt to answer the following questions: 1. What is measurement? 2. What is inspection? 3. How is measurement different from inspection? Measurement is the act of determining the measurable properties of some object. Measurable properties could be diameter, length, hardness, weight, volume, and even it can be electrical voltage and current. Inspection is the examination of a part to determine whether or not it meets the specifications of the designer. Does it have the correct size, shape, weight, etc? The answer can be obviously found by measurement. Hence, the important thing to be understood here is that inspection involves measurements. It is also possible to do inspection without actual measurement. If a part dimension is specified with its maximum and minimum value, it can be inspected to find whether the manufactured dimension is within limits or not without actually finding the measurement of dimension. The process of determining whether the dimension is within specified limits or not is known as gauging.EGE Elements of Manufacturing Processes Another related term is testing. Testing is the process to know the performance of the product. Materials are tested to determine their tensile strengths, hardness, and other properties. Finished products are tested to determine whether they will perform to the design specifications or not. 3.3. Inspection Inspection of a part can be made either after the part has been produced or during the production of the part. Accordingly, inspection processes are classified as post-process inspection and on-line inspection. Inspection process carried out, while the part is being produced on the machine, is known as on-line inspection. This is also known as in-process or real- time inspection. During the process of manufacturing a part on a given machine tool, dimensional variations occur on the part produced due to variations in properties of materials, thermal effects on machine tools, wear of cutting tools and machine tool. This necessitates monitoring of dimensions during production using on-line inspection. The advantage of on-line inspection is that it can reduce wastage as compared to post- process inspection. Instruments used for on-line inspection depends upon the type of measurements to be made. Automated inspection can be used for on-line as well as for post-process inspection. But it is obvious that automated inspection is more suitable for on-line inspection. 3.4 Definition of Terms Before we go further to discuss about these topics, it is important to understand a few of the concepts and terminology associated with measurements. 3.4.1 Accuracy Accuracy is associated with measurement as well as manufacturing. Accuracy of measurement is defined as capability to get accurate measure of a dimension. As an example, consider measuring a dimension using a scale and a micrometer. The reading from scale is, say, 15 mm and from micrometer is 15.31 mm. The second measurement is more accurate as compared to the first. Today, the manufacturing industry requires to make measurements accurate to one millionth of a metre or a micron (0.000001 m). Accuracy of manufacturing is how closely a measurement of a manufactured part comes to the true or specified value. For example, consider a part whose specified dimension is 15.25 mm. One of the manufactured part measures 15.52 mm and the other measures 15.38 mm. The second part is more accurately manufactured when compared to the first.