ABES ENGINEERING COLLEGE, GHAZIABAD

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS &

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIAL
Subject Name: DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
Subject Code: KEC -503
Branch/Semester: ECE / 5th
Session: 2022
2022-23(Odd-Semester)

Faculty Members
Dr. Devvrat Tyagi
Dr. Mangal Deep Gupta
EVALUATION - SCHEME, B.Tech-III YEAR (AKTU)
 KEC503
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

Contents as per syllabus:

UNIT-1 Syllabus

1. Realization of Digital Systems:

1.1 Introduction- basic building blocks to represent a digital system,
1.2 Recursive and non-recursive systems,
1.3 Basic structures of a digital system: Canonic and Non-Canonic
structures.

2. IIR Filter Realization:

2.1 Direct form,
2.2 Cascade realization,
2.3 Parallel form realization,
2.4 Ladder structures- continued fraction expansion of H (z),
2.5 Example of continued fraction,
2.6 Realization of a ladder structure, design examples.

3. FIR Filter Realization:

3.1 Direct form,
3.2 Cascade,
3.3 FIR Linear Phase Realization and design examples.
1. Realization of Digital Systems
Introduction:

Systems may be continuous-time systems or discrete-time systems. Discrete-time

systems may be FIR (Finite Impulse Response) systems or IIR (Infinite Impulse
Response) systems.FIR systems are the systems whose impulse response has finite
number of samples and IIR systems are systems whose impulse response has
infinite number of samples. Realization of a discrete-time system means obtaining
a network corresponding to the difference equation or transfer function of the
system. In this unit, various methods of realization of discrete time systems are
discussed.
Industrial Application: digital filters are extensively used in bio-medical signal
analysis & classifications, image processing, high precision application domain
etc.
The two important forms of expressing system leading to different realizations
of FIR & IIR filters are:

a) Difference equation form

b) Ration of polynomials

The following factors influence choice of a specific realization:

I. Computational complexity
II. Memory requirements
III. Finite-word-length
IV. Pipeline / parallel processing
 I. Computation Complexity

This is do with number of arithmetic operations i.e. multiplication, addition &

divisions. If the realization can have less of these then it will be less complex
computationally. In the recent processors the fetch time from memory &
number of times a comparison between two numbers is performed per output
sample is also considered and found to be important from the point of view of
computational complexity.

II. Memory requirements

This is number of memory locations required to store the system parameters,

past inputs, past outputs, and any intermediate computed values. Any realization
requiring less of these is preferred.

III. Finite-word-length effects

These effects refer to the quantization effects that are inherent in any digital
implementation of the system, either in hardware or in software. No computing
system has infinite precision. With finite precision there is bound to be errors.
These effects are to do with truncation & rounding-off of samples. The extent of
this effect varies with type of arithmetic used (fixed or floating). The serious
issue is that the effects have influence on system characteristics. A structure
which is less sensitive to this effect needs to be chosen.

IV. Pipeline / Parallel Processing

This is to do with suitability of the structure for pipelining & parallel

processing. The parallel processing can be in software or hardware. Longer
pipelining makes the system more efficient.
Realization of discrete-time systems

To realize a discrete-time system, the given difference equation in time domain

is to be converted into an algebraic equation in z-domain, and each term of that
equation is to be represented by a suitable element (a constant multiplier or a
delay element). Then using adders, all the elements representing various terms
of the equation are to be connected to obtain the output.

1.1 Basic Building Blocks to represent a Digital System:

The symbols of the basic elements used for constructing the block diagram of a
discrete-time system (adder, constant multiplier and unit delay element) are
shown in figure 1

Fig 1. (a) Adder (b) Constant Multiplier (c) Unit Delay Element

Adder: An adder is used to add two or more signals. The output of adder is
equal to the sum of all incoming signals.
Constant multiplier: A constant multiplier is used to multiply the signals by a
constant. The output of the multiplier is equal to the product of the input signal
and the constant of the multiplier.
Unit delay element: A unit delay element is used to delay the signal passing
through it by one sampling time.

1.2 Recursive and Non-Recursive systems

 A recursive system is a system in which current output depends on previous

output(s) and input(s) but in non-recursive system current output does not
depend on previous output(s).
 The system with memory is not necessarily a recursive system. For example
in FIR systems for input x[n] and output y[n] if we have
y[n] = 0.5(x[n]+x[n-1])
then the current output does not depend on previous output but depends on
current input and previous input.
 Buttorworth IIR systems, for eg. y[n] = y[n-1]+x[n],
Current output is depended on previous output as well as on current input
(generally current and previous inputs). So this is a recursive system
example.

1.3 Canonic and Non-Canonic structures:

Canonic structures are those structure where the order of the transfer function
matches the number of delay units in the filter.

Here is an example of a canonical, 2nd order filter:

 Fig 2 Canonical System

In the non-canonical version, the ssystem order is not equal to the

number of delays (4 delay units).

Here is an example of a non

non-canonical 2nd order filter:

Fig 3 Non-Canonical System

Notice that in the canonical system shown in fig 1.2, the system order (here: 2)
equals the number of delay units in the filter (2). In the non
non-canonical
canonical version as
show in fig 1.3, the system order is not equal to the number of delays (4 delay
units). Both filters perform the same task. The canonical version results in
smaller digital hardware, because it uses fewer delay units.

2. IIR Filter Realization:

• The causal IIR digital filters we are concerned with in this course are
characterized by a real rational transfer function of or, equivalently by a
constant coefficient difference equation
 • From the difference equation representation, it can be seen that the
realization of the causal IIR digital filters requires some form of feedback
• An N-th order IIR digital transfer function is characterized by 2N+1
unique coefficients, and in general, requires 2N+1 multipliers and 2N
two-input adders for implementation
• Direct form IIR filters: Filter structures in which the multiplier
coefficients are precisely the coefficients of the transfer function

2.1 Direct Form IIR Digital Filter Structures

• Consider for simplicity a 3rd-order IIR filter with a transfer function

P( z ) p0  p1z 1  p2 z  2  p3 z 3
H ( z)  
D( z ) 1  d1z 1  d 2 z  2  d 3 z 3

• We can implement H(z) as a cascade of two filter sections as shown next

W ( z)
X ( z) H1 ( z ) H 2 ( z) Y ( z)

where

W ( z)
H1( z )   P( z )  p0  p1z 1  p2 z 2  p3 z 3
X ( z)
Y ( z) 1 1
H 2 ( z)   
W ( z ) D( z ) 1  d1z 1  d 2 z 2  d3 z 3

• The filter section can be seen to be an FIR filter and can be realized as
shown below

w[ n ]  p0 x[ n]  p1x[ n  1]  p2 x[ n  2]  p3 x[ n  3]
 Fig 4 Structure of IIR

• The time-domain representation of H 2 (z ) is given by

y[n]  w[n]  d1 y[n  1]  d2 y[n  2]  d3 y[n  3]
Realization of above equation and is shown on the right

Fig 5 Direct form realization

• A cascade of the two structures realizing H1(z)and H 2 (z ) leads to the

realization of H 2 (z )shown below and is known as the direct form I
structure
 Fig 6 Direct form realization

• Note: The direct form I structure is non-canonic as it employs 6 delays to

realize a 3rd-order transfer function
• A transpose of the direct form I structure is shown on the right and is
called the direct form I structure

Fig 7 Direct form-II realization

• Note: The direct form I structure is non-canonic as it employs 6 delays to

realize a 3rdorder transfer function
• A transpose of the direct form I structure is shown on the right and is
called the direct form I structure
 Fig 8 Direct form-II realization

• Various other non-canonic direct form structures can be derived by

simple block diagram manipulations as shown below

• Observe in the direct form structure shown below, the signal variable at
nodes 1 and 1’ are the same, and hence the two top delays can be
shared
• Likewise, the signal variables at nodes 2 and 2’ are the same,
permitting the sharing of the middle two delays
• Following the same argument, the bottom two delays can be shared
• Sharing of all delays reduces the total number of delays to 3 resulting in a
canonic realization shown on the next slide along with its transpose
structure

• Direct form realizations of an N-th order IIR transfer function should be

evident
2.2 Cascade Form IIR Digital Filter Structures

• By expressing the numerator and the denominator polynomials of the

transfer function as a product of polynomials of lower degree, a digital
filter can be realized as a cascade of low-order filter sections
• Consider, for example, H(z) = P(z)/D(z) expressed as
P( z ) P1( z ) P2 ( z ) P2 ( z )
H ( z)  
D( z ) D1( z ) D2 ( z ) D3 ( z )
• Examples of cascade realizations obtained by different pole-zero pairings
are shown below

• Examples of cascade realizations obtained by different ordering of

sections are shown below

• There are altogether a total of 36 different cascade realizations of

 Based on pole-zero-pairings and ordering

• Due to finite word length effects, each such cascade realization behaves
differently from others
• Usually, the polynomials are factored into a product of 1st-order and 2nd-
order polynomials:

 1  1k z 1   2k z  2 
H ( z )  p0   1 2 

k  1  1k z   2k z 

• In the above, for a first-order factor

 2k   2 k  0

• Consider the 3rd-order transfer function

 1 11z 1  1 12 z 1   22 z  2 
H ( z )  p0  1 
 
•  111z  1  12 z 1   22 z 2 
• One possible realization is shown below

Example -Direct form II and cascade form realizations of are shown

0.44 z 1  0.362 z  2  0.02 z 3

H ( z) 
1 0.4 z 1  0.18 z  2  0.2 z 3

 0.44 0.362 z 1  0.02 z  2  z 1 

 1 2  1 
 1 0. 8 z  0. 5 z  1 0. 4 z 
 Direct form II

Fig 4 Cascade form

2.3 Parallel form realization

1
• A partial-fraction expansion of the transfer function in z leads to the
parallel form I structure
• Assuming simple poles, the transfer function H(z) can be expressed as

  0 k  1k z 1 
H ( z)   0    1 2 
k  1 1k z  2k z 

• In the above for a real pole 2 k   1k  0

• A direct partial-fraction expansion of the transfer function in z leads to
the parallel form II structure
• Assuming simple poles, the transfer function H(z) can be expressed as

  0 k z 1  2 k z 2 
H ( z)   0    1 2 
k  1  1k z  2 k z 

• In the above for a real pole 2 k   2k  0

• The two basic parallel realizations of a 3rd-order IIR transfer function are
shown below

Parallel form I
Parallel form II

• Example - A partial-fraction expansion of

0.44 z 1  0.362 z  2  0.02 z 3

H ( z) 
1 0.4 z 1  0.18 z  2  0.2 z 3

z 1 yields

0.6  0.5  0.2 z 1

H ( z )   0.1  1

1 0.4 z 1 0.8 z 1  0.5 z 2

• The corresponding parallel form I realization is shown below

• Likewise, a partial-fraction expansion of H(z) in z yields

0.24 z 1 0.2 z 1  0.25 z 1

H ( z)  
1 0.4 z 1 1 0.8 z 1  0.5 z  2
• The corresponding parallel form II realization is shown
2.4 Ladder structures- continued fraction expansion of H (z),

Filters realized using ladder structures have desirable coefficient sensitivity

properties. Small changes in the parameters have little effect on its performance.
Consider a filter represented by the transfer function

To calculate the values of αis and βis, from the Routh array.
The ladder structure parameters are given by,
α0= a N/ b N , β1=b N/c N-1, α1= c N-1/ d N-1and so on.
With continued fractional realisation of H(z), the resultant structure isshown in
figure.

2.5 Example of continued fraction expansion of H(z), realization of a ladder

structure, design examples

Example: Given the system function H(z) = (2+8z-1 +6z-2 )/(1+8z-1 +12z-2 ).
Realise using ladder structure.

Solution:
For the given system, obtain the Routh array
The ladder structure parameters are

α0=1/2, β1=3, α1=8/7, β2=49/5, α2=5/14

The ladder structure is shown in Figure

3. FIR Filter Realization:

Structures for FIR Filter for FIR filter, its transfer function does not contain
pole. That yields a FIR system:

while the corresponding difference equation is:

 3.1 Direct form

Comparing with H(Z) FIR realization correspond to the system impulse

response:

The direct form follows straight forwardly from the difference equation. The
implementation needs memory locations for storing M previous inputs of
x(n), (M+1) multiplications and M additions for computing each output
value of y(n).

Fig 5 Direct form realization-FIR

3.2 Cascade realization

Expressing H(z) as products of second-order polynomial system functions via

factorization:
where Mc = [(M+1)/2] is the largest integer contained in (M+1)/2 . Note that
when M is odd, one of the {β2k} will be zero. Assuming that M is even, this
implementation needs M storage elements, 3M/2 multiplications and M
additions, for computing each output value of y(n).

Fig Cascade form realization-FIR

And

Taking the Z transform of above equations we get

Example:

Fig H(z) implementation for cascade form

3.3 FIR Linear Phase Realization

Recall the various types of linear phase FIR filters, each having either
symmetric or anti-symmetric impulse response.

For example (Type I):

This symmetry can be exploited to reduce the number of multipliers.

 Fig Linear phase FIR system

Fig 9 Linear phase implementation of FIR system for even and odd value of M
University Questions Related to Unit-1

Two Mark Questions

Q-1. What are the main advantages of direct form Realization?

Q-2. Explain the difference between FIR filters and IIR filters.
Q-3. What are the advantages of representing the digital system in block
diagram form?
Q-4. Distinguish between recursive and non-recursive structures used for the
realization of digital system.
Q-5. Enlist the various features of Digital Signal Processor.
Q-6. For the given system function, H(z) =(l+ z-1)(1+3/4z-1+3/4z-2+z-3)
Obtain Cascade realization with minimum number of multipliers.

Q-7. Consider the causal linear-shift-invariant filter with the system function
(1 + 0.875z )
H(z) =
(1 − 𝟎. 𝟕z )(1 + 0.2z + 0.9z )

Obtain Following Realizations:

a) Direct Form II
b) Cascade Form
c) Parallel Form

Five Marks Questions

Q-8. Draw the block diagram for the following system with input x(n) and
output y(n)
w(n)=x(n) +1/2x(n-l) and y(n)+1/4y(n-1)= w(n)

Q-9. Obtain the Cascade form of Realization

y(n)=y(n-1)-1/2y(n-2)+1/4y(n-2)+x(n)-x(n-1)+x(n-2)

Q-10. What are the advantages of DSP as compare to ASP? Also explain some
applications of DSP.
Q-11. Obtain Direct Form I, Direct Form II and parallel form structures for the
following filter
y(h)=3/4y(h-1)+3/32y(h-2)+1/64y(h-3)+x(h)+3x(h-1)+2x(h-2)

Q-12. Obtain a Linear phase and Cascade Realization of the system

 H(z)=(1+0.5z-1+z-2)(1+0.5z-1+z-2)

Q-13. Given the system Function-

𝟐 + 𝟖𝒛 𝟏 + 𝟔𝒛 𝟐
𝟏 + 𝟖𝒛 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟐𝒛 𝟐
Realize using Ladder Structure.

Ten Marks Questions

Q-14. Draw the direct-form structures of the following system functions:

𝟏 𝟐𝒛 𝟏 𝒛 𝟐
(1) 𝑯𝟏 (𝒛) =
𝟏 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝒛 𝟏 𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒛 𝟐

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
(2) 𝑯𝟐 (𝒛) = 𝟏 + 𝟐. 𝟖𝟖𝒛 + 𝟑. 𝟒𝟎𝟒𝒛 + 𝟏. 𝟕𝟒𝟐𝒛 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝒛

Q-15. Obtain the Direct Form-I, Direct Form-II, Cascade, Parallel Form
realization for the following system:-

y(n)= -0.1y(n-1) + 0.2y(n-2) + 3x(n) + 3.6x(n-1) + 0.6x(n-2)

Q-16. Obtain the Cascade & Parallel realizations for the system function given
by:
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏+ 𝒛
𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝟏+ 𝒛 𝟏+ 𝒛 + 𝒛
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒

Q-17. Obtain the Cascade & Parallel realizations for the system function given
by:
𝒛 𝟓 𝟓 𝟏
+ + 𝒛 𝟏+ 𝒛 𝟐
𝟔 𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝟏− 𝒛 + 𝒛
𝟐 𝟒

Q-18. Draw the Cascade and parallel form network structure of the system with
 transfer function H(z)
𝟐(𝒛 + 𝟑)
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝒛 + 𝒛𝟐

Q-19. A system function is given as under: :

𝟏 + 𝟖𝒛 𝟏 + 𝟔𝒛 𝟐
𝟏 + 𝟖𝒛 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟐𝒛 𝟐

Realize the system function using ladder structure.

Q-20. Draw the ladder structure of the system with system function H(z)
𝟏 + 𝟑𝒛 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒛 𝟐 + 𝟓𝒛 𝟑
𝟏+𝒛 𝟏+𝒛 𝟐+𝒛 𝟑

Q-21. Determine and draw the cascade and parallel realizations for the system
described by the system function:

10 1 − z 1− z (1 − 2z )
H(z) =
1− z 1− z 1−z − z