Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands

21
Jan Nyssen, Jean Poesen, Sil Lanckriet, Miro Jacob, Jan Moeyersons,
Mitiku Haile, Nigussie Haregeweyn, R. Neil Munro,
Katrien Descheemaeker, Enyew Adgo, Amaury Frankl,
and Jozef Deckers

Abstract
The high soil erosion rates in the Ethiopian highlands find their causes in the combination of
erosive rains, steep slopes due to the rapid tectonic uplift during the Pliocene and Pleistocene,
and human impact by deforestation, overgrazing, agricultural systems where the open field
dominates, impoverishment of the farmers, and stagnation of agricultural techniques.
Travelling in the Ethiopian highlands, one can see many soil and water conservation
structures. Indigenous knowledge and farmers’ initiatives are integrated with these introduced
technologies at various degrees. This chapter addresses the status and drivers of land
degradation in northern Ethiopia, including changes over the last century.

Keywords
Desertification Soil erosion Slope processes Soil and water conservation

21.1 Introduction landsliding in the Ethiopian highlands find their causes in the
combination of erosive rainfall, steep slopes due to the rapid
The rugged landscapes of the Ethiopian highlands have been tectonic uplift during the Pliocene and Pleistocene, and
imprinted and partly degraded by agriculture since 3 mil- human impact by deforestation, overgrazing, agricultural
lennia at least (Nyssen et al. 2004b). This chapter particu- systems where the open field dominates, impoverishment of
larly addresses rainfall, runoff, and soil erosion processes. the farmers, and stagnation of agricultural techniques (Ståhl
The high soil erosion rates by water and tillage as well as by 1974; Girma and Jacob 1988; Ståhl 1990). In flat areas and
on stone-covered slopes (Nyssen et al. 2002b; Van de Wauw
et al. 2008), soil profiles have not yet been fully truncated by
J. Nyssen (&)
S. Lanckriet
M. Jacob
A. Frankl soil erosion that is concomitant to tilled agriculture. Agri-
Department of Geography, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
cultural practices are well adapted to the environment: the
mahrasha tillage tool (the traditional ‘ard’ plough) was
J. Poesen
R.N. Munro
J. Deckers
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, KU Leuven,
developed during the high-tech Axumite period; the crop-
Leuven, Belgium ping systems fit seamlessly to soil catenas (Nyssen et al.
J. Moeyersons
2008a); and the farming systems are well adapted to inter-
Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium annual variation in rainfall conditions (Pietsch and Machado
M. Haile
N. Haregeweyn
2014). Whereas, technically, under the traditional circum-
Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental stances, agricultural adaptation to soil and climate variability
Protection, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia is nearly optimal, land management has for long been
K. Descheemaeker hampered by unequal access to land and prevalent free
Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, grazing. Most reports from the first half of the twentieth
Wageningen, The Netherlands century (e.g. Giglioli 1938a, b; Joyce 1943) recognised the
E. Adgo soil erosion problem but did not consider that it was a major
College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Bahir Dar problem. Frankl et al. (2011) have shown that the gullies
University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

P. Billi (ed.), Landscapes and Landforms of Ethiopia, World Geomorphological Landscapes, 369
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-8026-1_21, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015
370 J. Nyssen et al.

currently visible in the landscape started to develop in the installed in central Tigray during one year (1975 and 2001,
1960s. This chapter addresses the status and causes of land respectively) indicate that 30–70 % of all rain events had an
degradation in northern Ethiopia over the last century. intensity >25 mm h−1 (Hunting Technical Services 1976;
Nyssen et al. 2005). Krauer (1988) obtained from the rainfall
data of six Soil Conservation Research Programme (SCRP)
21.2 Rainfall and Runoff as Driving stations mean annual universal soil loss equation (USLE)
Forces for Soil Erosion rainfall erosivity indices R between 166.6 (Afdeyu, Eritrea)
Processes and 543.7 J cm m−2 h−1 year−1 (Anjeni, Gojam). Hurni
(1979), in an analysis of rainfall erosivity in the Simien
The climates of Ethiopia are complex: ‘Within short hori- Mountains, insisted on two other particularities of Ethiopian
zontal distances, climates from tropical to sub-humid and mountains: erosivity due to hail (2.5 times more important
sub-tropical to arctic can occur’ (Krauer 1988). Precipitation than erosivity due to rain) and the influence of hillslope
and air temperature vary mainly with elevation, but slope aspect. A soil surface unit exposed to wind receives a greater
aspect also plays an important role. Furthermore, precipita- quantity of water than a surface unit with an opposite
tion decreases and seasonality increases with latitude. exposure.
Given that rainfall characteristics in tropical highlands are
21.2.1 Precipitation Patterns different from those of more temperate climates, it is difficult
to apply erosivity equations, such as those proposed in (R)
From the end of June onwards, the Intertropical Convergence USLE (Wischmeier and Smith 1978; Renard et al. 1997),
Zone (ITCZ) is situated at its most northerly position (16°N– which have been developed for North America, to rainfall on
20°N). The southern air masses, limited to the lower layers of the Ethiopian highlands. Based on drop size measurements,
the atmosphere, bypass the highlands and reach them from Nyssen et al. (2005) showed that for the same rainfall
the south-west, giving way to the main rainy season (Goebel intensity, rainfall erosivity is significantly higher in the
and Odenyo 1984). Generally, clouds are formed at the end of Ethiopian highlands compared to elsewhere in the world
the morning, as a result of evaporation and convective cloud because of larger raindrop sizes, also during low intensity
formation due to daytime heating of the soil, and cause rains rain events. Moreover, in the absence of a network of
in the afternoon. In Afdeyu station, on the Eritrean highlands, automatic rain gauges, maximum hourly rainfall intensities
80 % of daily precipitation takes place between 12 and 16 h could be measured only in a small number of research sta-
(Krauer 1988). (All mentioned localities are indicated on tions in Ethiopia.
Fig. 21.1). This convective nature of rainfall also explains Rainfall erosivity is a function of the depths and inten-
why individual showers have a very local distribution. At the sities of the individual rainstorms, and these are not closely
end of the summer, the ITCZ returns quickly to the south, related to annual precipitation. However, the United States
preventing the arrival of monsoon rain. This is the end of the data indicate that for a given annual precipitation, the range
rainy season in the highlands. of likely erosivity values can be somewhat narrowed by
Abebe and Apparao (1989) calculated from 241 stations in knowledge of the general climatic conditions in the partic-
Ethiopia a mean annual precipitation of 938(±83) mm year−1. ular geographic area (Wischmeier and Smith 1978). In East
For the highlands, annual precipitation varies between Africa (i.e. Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda), the relationship
450 mm year−1 in Tigray and more than 2,000 mm year−1 in between total precipitation and erosivity index improves if
the south-west of the country (Krauer 1988). The interaction rainfall stations are grouped by geographical area (Moore
of latitude and altitude controls total annual precipitation 1979). For Ethiopia, Hurni (1985) and Krauer (1988) elab-
(Troll 1970). At the regional scale, one should, however, also orated, from monthly data of 6 SCRP stations, correlations
take into account that during the rainy season winds come between USLE’s R-factor and mean annual rainfall and
essentially from the south-west, as well as orographic effects. Krauer (1988) presented an isoerodent (rain erosivity) map
Valleys are preferred flow paths for the penetration of humid of Ethiopia. More recently, several studies have reported rain
air masses into the highlands (Nyssen et al. 2005) and rainfall erosivity data for Ethiopian rain stations, as well as for other
distribution is highly erratic (Jacob et al. 2013). stations in Africa (e.g. Vrieling et al. 2010; Diodato et al.
2013).

21.2.2 Rainfall Erosivity in the Ethiopian

Highlands 21.2.3 Runoff and Infiltration

High rainfall erosivity is an important factor of soil erosion In Ethiopia, surface runoff production has been measured at
in the highlands. Data from two automatic rain gauges various temporal and spatial scales (from runoff plot to
21 Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands 371

Fig. 21.1 Map of Ethiopia and Eritrea, with indication of localities Sina, 12 Dogu’a Tembien; summits are represented by triangles: a Ras
mentioned in this chapter. Minor localities indicated with numbers: 1 Dejen, b Ankober, c Amba Alage; open dots represent lakes: B Lake
Adama/Nazret + Debre Zeit, 2 Afdeyu, 3 Anjeni, 4 Kelafo, 5 Mustahil, Besaka, K Koka reservoir, L Lake Langano
6 May Makden, 7 Adwa, 8 Ambo, 9 Dizi, 10 Hunde Lafto, 11 Debre

catchment). Runoff has been monitored in the SCRP (<1,000 m2) runoff plots are very variable (0–50 %) (Nyssen
catchments and data series of up to 12 years are available et al. 2004b), which is attributed to the variable experimental
(SCRP 2000). Generally, runoff coefficients (RC) from small conditions. Besides different slope gradients, local
372 J. Nyssen et al.

Fig. 21.2 Runoff coefficients 60

(RC) versus drainage area (A) for
catchments of the basins of the
Blue Nile, Tekeze, Wabe 50 Blue Nile
Shebele, Awash, and Rift Valley y = -4.1Ln(x) + 64.1
lakes (after Nyssen et al. 2004b) r2 = 0.34 n = 23 P < 0.01
40

RC (%)
30

20

Others
10 y = -3.83Ln(x) + 45.7
r2 = 0.75 n = 18 P < 0.001

0
100 1 000 10 000 100 000 1 000 000

A (km2)

Blue Nile Tekeze Wabe Shebele Awash and Rift Valley lakes

differences in soil texture, land use, vegetation cover, areas of the Blue Nile catchment along the border with
organic matter content, or rock fragment cover result in a Sudan, which reduces the overall runoff depth for the whole
wide range of infiltration rates obtained from runoff plots. catchment (Conway, personal communication 1999). In situ
Results on RC from runoff plots are therefore not repre- water harvesting and the construction of small reservoirs
sentative for RC of catchments. have both led to strongly decreasing RC at catchment scale,
For large catchments (A ≥ 100 km2), RC decreases with and to increased levels of the water tables (Nyssen et al.
increasing catchment area (Fig. 21.2). The already men- 2010; Berhane et al. 2013). However, significant differences
tioned conditions for high RC (presence of open field and in RC between the sub-catchments within the 5,000 km2
high rainfall) are mainly found in the Blue Nile basin. For Geba basin could not be demonstrated, most probably due to
this reason, two data series can be considered. The Tekeze, the overall implementation of soil and water conservation
Awash, and Wabe Shebele basins are mainly situated in dry (SWC) activities (Zenebe et al. 2013). Additional research
sub-humid to arid regions (Mersha 2000). In the Wabe on this topic is currently being conducted in Lake Tana basin
Shebele basin, Bauduin and Dubreuil (1973) explained a (Poppe et al. 2013; Dessie et al. 2014). Particularly, in cases
decreasing RC with an increasing catchment size by the fact of large-scale conversions of cropland and rangeland to
that small catchments are mostly situated in the headwaters forest, such as on the escarpment upslope from Alamata,
where nearly impervious, basalt-derived soils dominate, and effects are very clear, particularly in terms of decreased
also by a smaller mean annual basin precipitation in the downstream flooding and changes of hydrogeomorphology
larger catchments which include (semi)arid lowlands. The (i.e. river channel incision and narrowing) (Gebreyohannes
rainfall and runoff data for catchments in the Blue Nile basin et al. 2014).
suffer, according to its authors (USBR 1964), from the lack
of precision in delimiting drainage areas (A) for smaller
basins. Representative catchment precipitation data are also 21.3 Weathering and Soil Formation
difficult to obtain given poor station density and large spatial
variability of rainfall (Conway and Hulme 1993). Conway Few studies have been made on weathering of parent
(1997) pointed to short mean observation periods (i.e. material in the highlands. Hövermann (discussion in Bakker
1.5 years) and possible errors in rainfall data. Despite the 1967) studied the basal Precambrian granites in northern
wide scatter for the Blue Nile basin, it can be observed that Ethiopia where weathering mantles are up to 120 m
RC are larger than those for the other basins but that they deep. No studies exist for Mesozoic sedimentary rocks or for
still follow a parallel trend (Fig. 21.2). Decreasing RC values Tertiary volcanics, but the depth of weathering mantle is
with increasing A values in the Blue Nile basin are thought expected to be much less.
to be a result of (a) runoff transmission losses, due to Hurni (1983), through the study of soils developed on
evaporation and possibly lithological changes, and (b) less periglacial slope deposits, extrapolated soil formation rates
rainfall and larger potential evapotranspiration in the western for the different agroclimatological zones of Ethiopia.
21 Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands 373

Zonation in Ethiopia is based on altitude and more specifi-

cally on the corresponding local climate. These soil forma-
tion rates are mean rates, taking into account rainfall depth
and air temperature conditions, but not lithology. They are
intended to be compared with soil loss rates, but, to our
understanding, cannot be applied to the vast areas where the
soil mantle results from sediment deposition rather than from
pedogenesis.

21.4 Sheet and Rill Erosion

Most research on soil erosion in Ethiopia focused on sheet

and rill erosion (Fig. 21.3). Hurni (1975, 1978, 1979) studied
thoroughly the Jinbar valley (3,200–4,000 m a.s.l.) in the
Simien Mountains. Andosols occupy the whole valley,
which is partially under rangeland and degraded forest and
partially under barley. The depth of the A-horizon was
measured at some 300 sites in cropland and compared with
A-horizon depth in non-cultivated areas for similar slope
gradients. Mean total soil profile truncation depth from
cropland, occurring between the beginning of permanent
human occupation (500–200 years ago) and 1974, was
measured as 14.5 ± 2.1 cm, or 950 ± 200 t ha−1, or 2–
5 t ha−1 year−1. Due to elevation and to the proximity of the
climatic limit of barley cultivation, deforestation here has
started much later than in most other parts of the highlands
(Hurni 1982). The variability in soil loss depth is correlated
with slope aspect and probably with the age of deforestation
(Hurni 1975, 1978). Measurements of sheet and rill erosion Fig. 21.3 Rill erosion at a farmer’s field at Wonzima (Blue Nile
rates were conducted in the Ethiopian highlands (Hurni basin). Rills occur particularly on long and steep slopes without soil
1985, 1990; Kejela 1992; Herweg and Ludi 1999; SCRP conservation structures; here, the depth of the rill is controlled by the
2000; Nyssen et al. 2009c). tillage pan, on which plough marks of the ard are visible (Photograph
E. Monsieurs, August 2013)
Soil loss occurs mainly at the beginning of the main
summer rainy season (kiremt). In those regions where spring
rains (belg) are sufficient for cultivation, these crops have
been harvested and the land ploughed again before kiremt most rainfall infiltrates quickly in the dry, tilled farmlands
(Tesfaye 1988). In the northern highlands, spring rain is (Gebreegziabher et al. 2009; Zenebe et al. 2013). Further-
unreliable and the land is only sown at the beginning of the more, on Vertisols, which are well represented in Ethiopia
kiremt season, when rains are intensive and their onset more (Kanwar and Virmani 1986; Moeyersons et al. 2006), the
regular. The farmlands have then undergone at least two first rains are well absorbed, because of the deep shrinkage
tillage operations are bare and offer less resistance to splash cracks. After some time, with the closing of the cracks, these
and runoff erosion (Virgo and Munro 1978). Studies in soils become completely impervious and favour significant
southern Ethiopia, where deforestation is ongoing, show a runoff production (Bauduin and Dubreuil 1973; Ge-
tremendous increase in soil loss over the last few decades breegziabher et al. 2009; Oicha et al. 2010; Araya et al.
(Kassa et al. 2013). In the northern highlands, with the 2011). Moreda and Bauwens (1998) found the most signif-
advance of the rainy season, soil loss decreases as crop cover icant correlation between monthly precipitation and summer
increases (Tesfaye 1988). This pattern was also observed flow in the Awash headwaters to occur in August, at the
and similarly accounted for by Billi (2004) for the suspended beginning of the second half of the rainy season, when ‘there
sediment concentration in the Meki River, a main tributary is greater opportunity for flow generation (even for smaller
to Ziway Lake in the Rift Valley. However, substantial storms) since the catchment is already moist’. Sutcliffe and
runoff is produced more than one month after the beginning Parks (1999) estimated that ‘early rainfall is required to
of the kiremt rains. In the beginning of the rainy season, replenish the soil moisture storage after the dry season’.
374 J. Nyssen et al.

Table 21.1 The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)—adapted for field assessments in Ethiopia (Nyssen et al. 2009c)
Equation: annual soil loss rate A = R * K * S * L * C * P (Mg ha−1 year−1)
1. R: annual rainfall erosivity (MJ mm ha−1 h−1 year−1)
R = 5.5 Pr − 47
Pr = annual precipitation (mm)
2. K: soil erodibility (Mg h MJ−1 mm−1), including effects of rock fragment cover
K = [2.1 M1.14 (10−4)(12 − a) + 3.25 (b − 2) + 2.5 (c − 3)] * e−0.04 (d−10)
* 0.001317
M = particle size parameter = (% silt and very fine sand) * (100 − % clay)
a = percentage of organic matter
b = soil structure code, ranging between 1 (very fine granular) and 4 (blocky, platy, or massive), with default value 2
c = permeability class, ranging between 1 (rapid) and 6 (very slow), with default value 3
d = stone (rock fragment) cover (in %)
3. S: slope steepness factor (dimensionless)
S = −1.5 + 17/(1 + e(2.3−6.1 sinθ)
)
θ = slope angle (°)
4. L: slope length factor (dimensionless)
L = 0.232 λ0.48 (5 m ≤ λ ≤ 320 m)
λ = slope length (horizontal projection, in m)
5. C: cover-management factor (dimensionless)
Dense forest 0.001 Degraded rangeland (<50 % vegetation cover) 0.42 Badlands hard 0.05
Dryland forest; exclosure 0.004 Badlands soft 0.40
Dense grass 0.01 Degraded grass 0.05
Sorghum, maize 0.10 Tef (in high rainfall areas) 0.25 Fallow hard 0.05
Cereals, pulses 0.15 Tef (in semi-arid areas) 0.07 Fallow ploughed 0.60
6. P: supporting practices (dimensionless)
P = PC· PN· PM (on cropland); P = PN (on other land)
Ploughing and cropping practices PC Conservation structures PN In situ conservation PM
practices
Ploughing up and down 1 No conservation structures 1 Stubble grazing; no 1
mulching
Ploughing along the contour 0.9 Stone bund (average condition; smaller value for new s.b. and larger for older 0.3 Applying mulch 0.6
s.b.)
Strip cropping 0.8 Grass strip (1 m wide; slope ≤ 0.1 mm−1) 0.4 Zero grazing 0.8
Intercropping 0.8 Grass strip (1 m wide; slope > 0.2 mm−1) 0.8
Dense intercropping 0.7
Source Renard et al. (1997). Adaptations: R correlation by Hurni (1985); K adjustment for rock fragment cover by Poesen et al. (1994); L correlation by Hurni (1985); C values by
Hurni (1985) and Nyssen et al. (2009c); P model by Nyssen et al. (2009c); P values by Hurni (1985), Nyssen (2001), Gebremichael et al. (2005), Nyssen et al. (2007a, b, 2008b).
Limitations as mentioned in Sect. 21.4

From their research, Hurni (1985) and later Nyssen et al. average drop sizes in the Ethiopian highlands, should be
(2009c) adapted the Revised USLE (Renard et al. 1997) to carried out (Nyssen et al. 2005). Calculations of the slope
Ethiopian conditions for use by development agents in the steepness factor (S) and the slope length (L) factor are shown
field of SWC (Table 21.1). The soil erodibility factor K can in Table 21.1 (Sects. 21.3 and 21.4). The use of equations for
be assessed from soil textural data, organic matter content, L requires caution, since ‘slope length is the factor that
and rock fragment cover (Table 21.1, Sect. 21.2). We rec- involves the most judgement, and length determinations
ommend including the rock fragment cover, which is a made by users vary greatly’ (Renard et al. 1997). In Ethio-
widespread feature in the Ethiopian highlands, as a correc- pian highland conditions, this runoff length is generally
tion factor for the K-value, rather than in the management longer than one single farm plot and shorter than the whole
factor P (Nyssen et al. 2002b). slope, from ridge to foot. Cover-management C values
For the R-factor (rainfall erosivity), the Ethiopia-specific (Table 21.1, Sect. 21.5) have been reported by Nyssen et al.
equation (Table 21.1, Sect. 21.1) may be used, bearing in (2009c). The P factor (dimensionless) relates to supporting
mind that additional studies, taking into account the above practices and indicates reduced soil erosion potential due to
21 Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands 375

farming practices and conservation measures. Sub-factors considered to be the major cause of rapid gullying in many
yield one composite P-value (Foster and Highfill 1983) for a areas (Frankl et al. 2011). One should also stress the
conservation system (Table 21.1, Sect. 21.6): importance of cropland abandonment for gully initiation,
especially if it is converted into grazing land. The over-
P ¼ PC  PN  PM ð21:1Þ grazed soil surface has a higher runoff coefficient than reg-
ularly ploughed farmlands; SWC structures are no longer
where maintained, and bank gullying often starts at places where
PC = Sub-factor for ploughing and cropping practices; these structures collapse.
PN = Sub-factor for conservation structures; Brancaccio et al. (1997) explained the present-day pro-
PM = Sub-factor for in situ conservation practices. cesses of channel incision in northern Ethiopia by an
increasing erosional power of concentrated runoff due to a
21.5 Gullying decreasing sediment load (clear water effect), associated with
the advanced phase of soil erosion on the hillslopes where
Gullying (Fig. 21.4) is not restricted to the highlands of bedrock is now outcropping. Since the late nineteenth cen-
Ethiopia but is widespread at sub-continental scale in Africa tury, gullies were present and though they had become sta-
(Moeyersons 2000). In Tigray, the increase of runoff bilised by 1935, a strong incision phase started in the 1960s
response on many hillslopes has been attributed to an overall due to the above-mentioned factors (Frankl et al. 2011).
lowering of the infiltration capacity of the soils due to Gullies in Ethiopia can often be considered as discon-
removal of natural vegetation (Virgo and Munro 1978; tinuous ephemeral streams (Bull 1997) comprising a hill-
Machado et al. 1998). Buried soils indicate advanced slope gully, an alluvial–colluvial cone at the foot of the hill,
deforestation, which in the Ethiopian highlands might have and renewed incision with gully head formation further
started around 5,000 14C years BP (Machado et al. 1998; downslope in the valley Vertisol. Pediments dissected by
Nyssen et al. 2004b; Pietsch and Machado 2014). Since the gullies are a common feature in many areas (Riché and
twentieth century, however, vegetation removal has also Ségalen 1973; Berakhi and Brancaccio 1993; Berakhi et al.
affected shrub and small tree cover, as well as grass strips in 1997). In the valley bottoms, initial gully heads often coin-
between the farmlands and on steep slopes. This removal of cide with sinking polygonal structures in Vertisols (Nyssen
vegetation has further lowered the infiltration capacity of the et al. 2000b), where piping erosion is very active (Frankl
soils, favoured the occurrence of flash floods, and is et al. 2012).

Fig. 21.4 Gullies, like this one

in Harena (Dogu’a Tembien), do
not only result in soil loss, but
also drain out the landscape
(lowering of the water table) and
are major obstacles to
communication
376 J. Nyssen et al.

Active gullying induced by road building on pediments stone bund building. Possible effects of soil profile trunca-
was described by Berakhi and Brancaccio (1993). In a case tion on the values of these two parameters are outbalanced
study along the Mekele—Adwa road, built in 1994, Nyssen by increased infiltration rates, induced by stone bund
et al. (2002a), demonstrated how road building, through the building (Vancampenhout et al. 2006). The most common
enlargement of drainage areas and the concentration of soils in the Ethiopian highlands (i.e. Regosols, Vertic
runoff, induced an artificial exceedance of the critical Cambisols and Vertisols) have a quite homogenous com-
catchment area at which gully heads are formed for a given position with depth, which explains low soil fertility gradi-
slope gradient. ents in terraced lands.

21.6 Tillage Erosion 21.7 Wind Erosion

Soil translocation due to tillage by the ox-drawn ard plough In the Ethiopian highlands, wind erosion has not been
(Fig. 21.5) appears to be an important soil erosion process in measured and was rarely mentioned. Wind erosion mainly
the Ethiopian highlands. Assessments of tillage erosion rates occurs as ‘dust devils’ in areas with important trampling by
indicate that this process contributes on average to half of the humans or cattle, such as market places, footpaths, unme-
sediment deposited behind stone bunds (Nyssen et al. 2000c; talled roads, around cattle drinking places or on cropland
Gebremichael et al. 2005). Colluviation occurs in the lower where post-harvest grazing has taken place. On the numer-
part of the farmland and soil profiles are truncated in the ous isolated mountains or ‘inselbergs’, important wind ero-
upper part (Herweg and Ludi 1999; Nyssen et al. 2000c). sion, including the formation of dunes, occurs due to local
Soil sequences on progressive terraces overlying strongly aerodynamic situation (Uhlig and Uhlig 1989). More
weathered rock were analysed in the central highlands of research on wind erosion in the Ethiopian highlands seems
Ethiopia, in the Ankober area (Bono and Seiler 1986). At the necessary, as it may have been insufficiently studied.
upper part of the terrace, soils are shallow and water and Wind erosion is especially important in low-lying, dry
nutrient storage capacity low. However, in Dogu’a Tembien and hot regions, adjacent to the highlands, such as many
(Tigray), intra-parcel variability of soil fertility parameters is places in the Rift Valley. Desert pavements, created by wind
small. A larger content of soil moisture and of soil organic erosion, exist around Lake Turkana (Hemming and Trapnell
matter was even observed at the foot of the stone bunds, at 1957). Wind erosion and deposition contribute to the for-
the very place where the soil profile has been truncated after mation of dunes in the alluvial plains of the Wabe Shebele

Fig. 21.5 Soil tillage by

mahrasha ard plough, here in
Dogu’a Tembien, causes a
downslope movement of the
topsoil (tillage erosion)
(Photograph A Roelofs, April
2005)
21 Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands 377

and to overall deposition of aeolian sediments in that region deposited within the catchment (Nyssen et al. 2007b). Reuter
(Riché and Ségalen 1973). The Eritrean coastal plain is in (1991) and Descheemaeker et al. (2006b) stressed the
many places covered by stone mantles produced by deflation magnitude of sediment and organic carbon stored in collu-
as well as by loose sand occurring either as a mantle of vium on footslopes and reforested areas (exclosures sensu
variable depth or in the form of mobile dunes (Hemming Aerts et al. 2009). Sediment deposition in floodplains and
1961). Aeolian sediments in the coastal plains can be com- natural lakes is important, but the rates have not been studied
posed of eroded materials from nearby rocks or brought in systematically in Ethiopia.
by dust storms, which are quite common (Horowitz 1967).

21.10 Land Degradation

21.8 Mass Movements and Desertification

Due to steep topography, the presence of lithologies with a Although climatic conditions (0.05 < annual precipitation/
low shear strength, torrential rainfall, and in some cases the potential evapotranspiration < 0.65) in parts of the northern
occurrence of earthquakes, the Ethiopian highlands are also highlands and in the low-lying parts of the country would
affected by various types of mass movements (e.g. rock falls, justify the use of the term ‘desertification’ (UNEP 1994), the
debris flows, and slumps). Several studies have mapped term ‘land degradation’ will be used to indicate environ-
landslides in Ethiopia and have analysed their controlling mental degradation throughout the country. Two major
factors (e.g. Moeyersons et al. 2008; Van Den Eeckhaut factors inducing land degradation in the Ethiopian highlands
et al. 2009; Broothaerts et al. 2012). Although many mass are generally considered: drought and land use changes.
movements have been initiated by natural factors, human
activities (i.e. land use change, undercutting and overloading
during road construction, and improper slope drainage sys- 21.10.1 Rainfall Variations and Drought
tems) have often contributed to the reactivation of landslides.
In south Ethiopia, (Broothaerts et al. 2012) observed many Attention to famines in Ethiopia has created a popular view
recent landslides along river channels which were triggered of a drought-stricken country, with a tendency towards
by river channel incision due to increased peak flow dis- decreasing annual rainfall. The decline of rainfall in the
charges following deforestation in their catchments. Large Sahel observed since about 1965 was also seen to a lesser
landslides redistribute large volumes of sediments in the extent in the north-central Ethiopian highlands (Camberlin
highlands, hence affecting the spatial patterns of soil types 1994; Seleshi and Demarée 1995). However, unlike the
(Van de Wauw et al. 2008). Sahel, a comparison between two reference periods (1931–
1960 and 1961–1990) yields no significant changes in mean
precipitation over Ethiopia, but an increased inter-annual
21.9 Sediment Deposition variability (Hulme 1992). Analyses of long-term time series
of annual precipitation, both for Addis Ababa and the
On the back- and footslopes of cliffs, a ‘classic’ sorting of northern highlands, show that although the succession of dry
deposited sediment generally occurs, the coarse sediments years between the late 1970s and late 1980s produced the
(rock fragments) being deposited on the debris slope, and the driest decade of the last century in the Ethiopian highlands,
finer material on the footslope, as shown by Riché and there is no evidence for a long-term trend or change in the
Ségalen (1973) in the Wabe Shebele basin. Belay Tegene region’s annual rainfall regime (Conway 2000a; Conway
(1998) emphasised the importance of continuous deposition et al. 2004).
of colluvium on convergent footslopes which prevents the With respect to the inter-annual rainfall variability,
development of mature soil profiles. Hurni (1985) shows, for Conway (2000b) found a coefficient of variation below 20 %
a 116 ha catchment in Welo, that the rate of sediment for the wetter areas, but far above that for drier areas to the
accumulation (17 t ha−1 year−1) is more important than the north and at lower altitudes (see also Chap. 4, this volume).
rate of sediment export through the drainage system (Hoffmann 1987) also found annual rainfall variability
(7 t ha−1 year−1). In a well-vegetated catchment in south- strongly dependent on climatic region: <10 % in the area
western Ethiopia, sediment accumulation rates are around Jimma with a tropical rain climate and >45 % in
30 t ha−1 year−1 and sediment export rates through the river semi-desert areas. Dry years were observed in 1913–1914,
only 1.1 t ha−1 year−1. Here, most of sediment deposition 1937, 1941, 1953, 1957, 1965–1966, 1969, 1973–1974,
occurs in densely vegetated areas along riverbanks. A sedi- 1976, 1979, 1983–1984, and 1987 (Camberlin 1994). It is
ment budget for a 200 ha catchment in Tigray highlands evident that, in an already degraded environment, a dry year
indicates that 59 % of sediment produced by water erosion is has a very negative impact, not only on agricultural
378 J. Nyssen et al.

production, but also on the environment (i.e. overgrazing, bulk density, decreased soil organic matter content, soil
cracking of Vertisols, and groundwater depletion). RC in structure decay, and decreased hydraulic conductivity. All
such a year are higher (Casenave and Valentin 1992; Val- these factors contribute to decreased infiltration rates and
entin et al. 2005) and result in increased soil erosion. increased runoff volumes. Mwendera et al. (1997) carried
Besides yearly precipitation, its seasonal distribution out experiments on grazing land with slope gradients
must be considered as well. Unlike West Africa, according <0.08 mm−1 in an area between Ambo and Addis Ababa.
to Hulme (1992), the seasonality of rainfall over Ethiopia Comparing ungrazed, moderately, and heavily grazed land,
slightly decreased between 1931–1960 and 1961–1990. they found significant differences in runoff volumes for slope
However, evenly distributed rains mean also that a larger gradients in the range of 0.05–0.08 mm−1. Steady-state
percentage of precipitation falls outside the crop growth infiltration rates decreased significantly, even under light
season, or that there is a shift from one rainy season to grazing intensity, and showed the effect of animal trampling
another, particularly decreased summer (kiremt) and on soil compaction (Mwendera and Saleem 1997). On
increased spring (belg) rains in the northern Ethiopian cropland, stubble grazing (a widespread practice) dramati-
highlands (Camberlin 1994; Seleshi and Demarée 1995; cally decreases the infiltration capacity. Field observations
Seleshi and Demarée 1998). Differences between the tem- also indicate that topsoil degradation by cattle trampling
poral pattern of spring and summer rains are expected to significantly contributes to soil erosion and sediment deliv-
reflect different levels of influence from the Indian and ery to water reservoirs.
Atlantic oceans (Conway 2000b). Repeat photography has also revealed that in the late
nineteenth century, the landscapes were at least as barren as
they are nowadays (Nyssen et al. 2009b). In recent years,
21.10.2 Human Settlement and Changes since 1975, the tree cover has improved in 90 % of the
in Land Use and Land Cover analysed landscapes (Munro et al. 2008; Nyssen et al.
2008b). Exclosures (Aerts et al. 2009) have been established
Human settlement with concomitant agricultural exploitation in former communal grazing land with the aim of forest
induces significant changes in land use and land cover, restoration and land conservation. The establishment of ex-
which in turn alter infiltration and runoff conditions, as well closures was made possible by an important land tenure
as soil erosion processes (Olson 1981; Bunney 1990). change in the 1980s, in which large feudal agricultural lands
Detailed studies show that settlement decisions were made in the valley bottoms and other level areas were shared
on a clear ecological basis, especially from the beginning of among the local farmers and this decreased the need of poor
the pre-Axumite era (700 BCE). Preferred locations were at farmers to establish marginal farmlands on hillslopes. In
the margin between Vertisol areas and narrow alluvial valley these locations, exclosures could then be established after
bottoms which could be irrigated (Michels 1988). Human land reform (Rahmato 1994). Although centrally imposed,
activity expanded from such preferential places to the pres- the implementation of exclosures is rather a bottom-up
ent-day occupation of steep slopes for agriculture through a process. Participation is enhanced by the implementation of
number of stages, including forest clearing and removal of remunerated SWC activities and plantation works at the
remnant trees and shrubs. establishment of the exclosure. Location, area, local by-laws
In the Ethiopian highlands, livestock grazes on vast related to restrictions and management, instalment and
deforested areas, commonly called rangeland, as well as payment of guards are most often decided at the local
various types of climax grasslands: i.e. at high elevations, on community level (Muys et al. 2014). The villagers are
Vertisols and on dry places (Klötzli 1977). Much in the same overall convincingly participating in reforestation and other
way as in forests and woodlands, vegetation cover decreases conservation activities (Kumasi and Asenso-Okyere 2011).
in grass- and rangeland. Most of the above-quoted studies of However, the encroachment by eucalypts remains a bottle-
land use changes show, besides decreasing tree and shrub neck for biodiversity. The benefits of planting these trees are
cover, an increase of the area occupied by ‘bare land’, ‘no largely for individual farmers, whereas the negative effects
vegetation’, ‘open areas’, and the like. Overgrazing of of this water-demanding tree are borne by the communities
rangeland is a particular problem in the cereal zones of the (Muys et al. 2014).
highlands, where current stocking rates are well in excess of
estimated optimum rates (Hurni 1993). Livestock plays a
key role in the agricultural system of the highlands, pro- 21.10.3 Social and Historical Impulses
viding energy (traction, manure used as fuel), food, fertiliser, of Land Use and Cover Changes
insurance, and status (Kassa et al. 2002). Consequences of
overgrazing on the environment are decreased surface It appears that rainfall variability, apart from the catastrophic
roughness, compaction of fine textured soils, increased soil impact of dry years on the degraded environment, cannot be
21 Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands 379

Fig. 21.6 Plough marks on large

rock fragments and pedestal-
supported boulders indicate that
this 100–200-year-old Juniperus
forest at Kuskuam near Debre
Tabor has grown on previously
degraded farmland. Forest re-
growth has taken place, as also
evidenced by the well-branched
older tree in the centre of the
photograph that used to grow in
an open area (Photograph
J. Nyssen, July 2011)

invoked to explain the current land degradation. Causes are erosion (Ståhl 1974; Girma and Jacob 1988; Ståhl 1990).
to be found in changing land use and land cover, which are In short, in situations of poverty and social insecurity,
expressions of human impact (Reid et al. 2000; Feoli et al. short-term survival prevailed over medium- and long-term
2002). Though deforestation and removal of other vegetation conservation issues.
cover over the last 2,000–3,000 years have probably been a
cyclic rather than a linear process (Fig. 21.6), studies on land
use and land cover change show that, at present, there is a
tendency of increasing removal of vegetation cover. 21.11 Human Reaction to Land
At this stage, it appears necessary to briefly outline the Degradation
social and historical causes of this human impact. Under
feudalism (until 1974), agricultural techniques stagnated for 21.11.1 Agricultural Intensification
centuries (Crummey 2000). Until the 1940s, the Agricul- and Land Rehabilitation
tural Department’s only effective activity was collecting the
agricultural tax (Joyce 1943). Investment in agriculture Faced with a deteriorating environment, society reacts in
started only in 1950s and was in the beginning mostly order to maintain/improve agricultural production, often
oriented towards export crops such as coffee (Coffea leading to changes in the production system (Boserup 1981),
arabica L.), grown in southern Ethiopia. Therefore, there an innovative process in which modern science needs to be
was limited agricultural investment in the highlands, where involved (Blaikie and Brookfield 1987; Ståhl 1990). The
subsistence production dominated (Ståhl 1990; Mulugetta present-day rise in food production in Ethiopia (Fig. 21.7)
1992). Until the late 1970s, sharecropping prevented the can, besides re-established climatic conditions, also be
farmers from investing in their farmlands. Impoverishment attributed to a variety of human interventions at different
led them to prefer immediate returns, even if it induced levels (Nyssen et al. 2004a). Extension of cropped area and
environmental degradation (Taddesse 1995). On the other increased grazing pressure is still possible. However, limited
hand, recent land redistributions in order to allocate land- space is left for this and productivity decreases. Giglioli
less households had a positive impact on land productivity (1938a, b) and Joyce (1943) already reported the widespread
(Benin and Pender 2001). To increase agricultural pro- use of indigenous SWC technology since a long time. Such
duction, most trees and shrubs between the farmlands and indigenous technologies can be used as a starting point, but
on steep slopes were cleared during the nineteenth and need improvement in order to increase their ecological effi-
twentieth centuries, thereby increasing runoff and soil ciency (Hurni 1998; Nyssen et al. 2000a).
380 J. Nyssen et al.

250 25 gardening and minimum tillage (on self-mulching Vertisols)

Cereal yield

Total cereal production (10 6 t / y)

may be suggested (Astatke et al. 2002; Araya et al. 2012), as
Cereal production per inhabitant
Cereal yield (t / km²) and

200 20 well as an extension of the cropping period on Vertisols

production (kg / inhab.)

Total cereal production

(Tedla et al. 1999). Asnakew et al. (1994) obtained good
150 15 maize yields with rock fragment mulching and no-tillage.
Besides these conservation measures, Ethiopia strongly
100 10
invested in agricultural inputs, particularly fertilisers and
improved seeds. As a result, total food production is now
50 5
higher than ever; also food production per capita in 2005–
0 0
2010 was 160 % of that in 1985–1990 (Fig. 21.7).
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Fig. 21.7 Agricultural intensification in Ethiopia is evidenced by

cereal production trends (data retrieved from http://faostat.fao.org) 21.11.2 Soil and Water Conservation

The main agricultural intensification observed in Ethiopia is

Nowadays, changes in the agricultural system appear certainly the now widespread catchment management
such as haymaking (‘cut and carry’) (Hurni 1986), partially activities (Fig. 21.8). Throughout the Ethiopian highlands, it
from exclosures (i.e. land under strict conservation man- is apparent that many SWC structures, established during the
agement, often controlled by the community), which are 1980s, remain in place and are often maintained. Their
increasingly being organised in the most affected northern destruction is not as widespread as stated by Rahmato
highlands (Tekle et al. 1997; Shitarek et al. 2001; Aerts et al. (1994), often the farmers accept and adopt these structures.
2004, 2009; Descheemaeker et al. 2006b) and which lead to Many, probably most of the soil bunds throughout Welo,
sediment trapping and enhanced soil fertility status (Elias have evolved into full-grown lynchets. Even in the high
and Scoones 1999; Descheemaeker et al. 2006a; Mekuria rainfall Ankober area, soil bunds have often been ‘opened’
et al. 2007). to allow drainage, but are still in place over most of their
Different pathways of agricultural intensification are length.
possible in Ethiopia. Mineral fertilising should not be the Local knowledge and farmers’ initiatives are integrated
overall option, given scarce capital resources. Due to with these introduced technologies at various degrees
decreased landholdings, a shift in the soil tillage system to (Gaspart et al. 1997; Nyssen et al. 2000a, 2004a, 2008b,

Fig. 21.8 Catchment

rehabilitation in the sub-humid
May Zeg-zeg catchment (Tigray);
trenches behind the stone bunds
enhance infiltration and decrease
catchment runoff response
(Photograph K. Herweg, May
2005)
21 Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands 381

2009a; Haile et al. 2006; Gebresamuel et al. 2009). The SWC activities also enhance rain infiltration rates during
efficiency of particular techniques cannot be discussed in the short but heavy storms and improve the situation with
depth here; the reader is referred to specialised publications regard to flooding, soil erosion, and groundwater recharge
(Herweg and Ludi 1999; SCRP 2000; Nyssen et al. 2004c, (Nyssen et al. 2009a, 2010). The current land tenure system
2007a, 2009a, 2010; Gebremichael et al. 2005; Haregeweyn in which an equality of land holdings is attempted, favours
et al. 2006; Vancampenhout et al. 2006; Wondumagegnehu solidarity among the farmers to undertake communal
et al. 2007; Alemayehu et al. 2009; Reubens et al. 2009; catchment management activities (Kumasi and Asenso-Ok-
Gebreegziabher et al. 2009; Araya et al. 2011; Lanckriet yere 2011; Taye et al. 2013). Besides the need for collecting
et al. 2012; Muys et al. 2014; Gebreyohannes et al. 2014). a wide set of original data, conceptually, in all related
research, a good comprehension of the hydrological balance
is needed. Further, for nutrient, sediment, and water-related
21.12 Conclusions processes, it is important to understand the occurrence of
sinks and to keep the scale concept in mind. These principles
Ethiopia is on the map for research on land resources and are at the base of the successful implementation of catch-
implementation of sustainable land management (SLM) ment management activities in northern Ethiopia (Fig. 21.9).
(Haile et al. 2006). Future research priorities are identified. In this regard, the impacts of the May Zeg-zeg catchment
Cornerstones of SLM include forest development in critical management could be monitored in detail (Nyssen et al.
places (Descheemaeker et al. 2006b, 2009), over sufficiently 2009a, 2010; Walraevens et al. 2009) and future develop-
large areas, as demonstrated through the dramatic changes ment scenarios could be elaborated (Lanckriet et al. 2012).
that occurred on the Rift Valley escarpment near Alamata
(Gebreyohannes et al. 2014).
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