CHAPTER 8 Chartwork SYMBOLS USED IN CHARTWORK Charework must be clearly intelligible to all who practise it: thus. standard symbois should be used for al! forms of chartwork, including both the planning and passage phases. blind as well as visual Positions and position lines Fig. 8-1 set? out the standard symbols used in the Roval Navy to display positions and position lines. Arrowheads on position lines (Fig. 6-1) A position line obtained from a bearing of a terrestrial object. visually or by means of a navigational aid (e.g, DF bearing), is distinguished by a single arrow at the outer end. A position line obtained from an astronomical observation or from the range of a terrestrial object is distinguished by a single arrow at bath ends. A position line that is transferred (see Chapter 9) is distinguished by a double arrow at the outer end for a terrestrial object and at both ends for an astronomical observation. Positions (Fig. 8-1) The fix is shown on the chart as a-dot surrounded by a circle, with the time alongside. and the position lines, if appropriate, passing through the position of the fix. A suffix may be added to the fix co indicate it has been obtained by a method other than by visual bearings. The Deed Reckoning (DR) position is shown on the chart as a small line across the course being steered, with the time alongside. A small cross may be used to originate the DR if a fix or Estimated Position is not available. The Estimated Position (EP) is shown on the chart as a dot surrounded by a small triangle, with the time alongside, the estimated track of the ship over the ground (the ground track) passing through the dot. The Position Probability Area (PPA, see page 181) may be shown on the chart as an ellipse with a major and a minor axis.. ° 4 174 i CHAPTER 8-CHARTWORK - (Arrowhead away from object) ce ~ (Vista Bearing es ly - Position Line Asvonomica| Observation gOS Visual Beoring 693 ly ___Famstored Position Line Astronomical Observation <¢__O815 s,s, Range (Radar or Vertical ee tion Lis x Poston Line Sextant Angie) ooooN\Y (Besrings) Arrowheads away Fix Song rom abjects) 54 43 . 1000 saz pa 02% 06 1100 a] eS Major Axis Position Probability Area (PPA) Eye . Minor Axis Radio Aid Fixes mK 0845 {D) — Decea Suffixes should be inserted (0) — Omega where ambiguity exists ~ thy = Loran (Mj ~ MFDF (S) — Satnav Fixes transferred from plotting sheets or other charts are shown thus:~ Radar (R) 6 Semav iS) Obs Omega (0) ¢ MFDF IM) >) HSA 1235 O ogo © gers O st02 © ve20 © ¢620 Fig. i. Positions and position lines — symbois in use in the Royai NavDEFINING AND PLOTTING POSITION nc DEFINING AND PLOTTING A POSITION Plotting 4 position . A position may be expressed ‘gy is latitude and longitude, of as a range and beating from a specific object. It may be plotted on the chart using a parallel rule, dividers, and the scale of latitude and longitude appropriate co the chart itself. The detailed techniques of plotting are given in BR 454, Noles on Navigation, which is available on sale to the general public. Transferring a position When transferring a position from one chart to another, it is best to use bearing and distance from a distinguishing feature common to both charts, such as a point of land or light. This should then be checked by latitude and longitude to ensure no error has occurred (see page 195). Position by observation The position fine The navigator finds his position using landmarks, heavenly bodies or radio aids and. from his observations, obtains what are known as position lines. A position line is any line. drawn on the chart. on which the ship’s position is known to lie. It may be straight or curved. The methods of obtaining a position line are described in the next chapter. The simplest form of position line is the Sine of hearing obtained from a terrestrial object of known posicion. ‘Suppose, for example. that a lighthouse (L in Fig. 8-2) is seem to bear 065° at 1030. A line drawn in the direction 065° passing through L is the position line. In chartwork, it is only necessary to draw the position line in the vicinivy of the ship’s position, the arrowhead being placed ac the ower end. This arrowhead indicates the direction in which the observer must lie from the observed object. | Fig. 8-2. The terrestrial position line16 CHAPTER #-CHARTWORK, The fix If two or more position lines can be obtained at the same moment, the position of the ship must be at their point of incersection. The position thus obtained is known as a fix. The position lines, as discussed in Chapter 9, may be obtained from a variety of sources: visual bearings, horizome) sextant angles, radio navigation aids. radar, astronomical observations and so on, and the fx is usually given a suffix (D), (O), (L}, (M), (S). Obs, HSA. ere. 10 indicate it has been obtained by a method other than by visual bearings or radar ranges (Fig. £1}. Position lines obtained from different sources may often be combined for the purposes of fixing the ship. The observed position Iv is desirable 10 distinguish between the position obtained by observation of terrestrial objects and that obtained by observations of heavenly bodies. For this reason. the position decided by the point of intersection of two position lines derived from astronomical observations. or derived from a number of such position lines, 3s known as an observed postcian and is marked ‘Obs (Fig, 81 CALCULATING THE POSITION When it is not possible to obtain the ship's actual position by fising. 2 position mav be worked up based upon the most recent fix, Dead Reckoning (DR) Dead Reckoning is the expression used to describe that position obtained fram the true course sicered by the ship and her speed Hrowgh che water, and from nn other factors. : The DR position” is thus only approximate for. while the speed thrauetr de water will allow for the amount by which the ship's speed is reduced or increased by wind and sea. there is no allowance for leeway. tidal stream. currem, or surface drift True course steered through the water may be obtained from the plotting table or course recorder if either is available. If not it can only be determined by the, Officer of the Watch by very clase observation of the course being steered peed through the water may be obtained from the log. provided the jatter is reliable and the error known and allowed for. If the Jog is unreliable or not available, then the average engine revolutions over the hour musi be used These revolutions may be converted into speed through the water having regard to i. The graph’ of engine revolutions/speed {power percentage/speed for + Jn practice. the term Dead Reckoning is occasionally used 1 describe the Estimated Position. Such & practice is incorrect and should be avoided. + Many merchant ships have the data provided in the form of @ revolution/speed/percemiact ip tabie usually ranging bewween Oe and 15%. Experience will be the best guide in establishing wat is the apparent percentage slip for various situations: this will vary according to the draught, trim, state of the ship's underwater hull and so on. It should be possible to establish the various dips with a considerable degree of accuracy during the frst eighteen months of service The percentage slip tr be used should be based upan recent ship periormance in simile? conditions: for example. a ship operating in topical waters will usualls suffer much create! fouline than in colder waters.— GALCULATING THE POSITION 7 controllabie-pitch-propelier-driven ships} for time out of dock, as obtained from the Navigatiorial Data Book (page 169). 2, The wind and sea reducing or increasing the ship's speed through the water. Such data should be recorded in the Navigational Data Book and subse- quently analysed. so that a quick and accurate assessment of this effect may be made in any given situation. It is rare for a stern sea to increase ship’s speed by any appreciable amount because yawing, which usually accom- panies this situation. tends 10 reduce ship's speed through the water. A head wind and sea, hhowever. will invariably reduce the speed of a ship. In full gale conditions. the reduction can be as much as 30% even in large ships Estimated Position (EP) This position is the most accurate that the navigator can obtain by calculation and estimation only. It is derived from the DR position adjusted for the estimated effects of leeway. tidal stream. current and surface drift. The EP must always remain an approximate position, because these four variable factors are difficult to determine exactly. although experience goes a long way «© resolving them. It is essential for the navigator to estimate the effects as accurately as possible: cach is now described Leewer Leeway is che effect of wind in moving a vessel hodily to leeward ac right angles co the course steered. The effect of wind in reducing or increasing the ship's speed chrough che water has already been described under Dead Reckoning. The effect of wind varies with every type of ship. The navigator should collect as much information as possible concerning the effects of the force and direction‘ of the wind on the behaviour of his own ship and record such data in the Navigational Data Book. Leeway depends upon a number of factors: 1, Own ship speed: the higher the speed. the less che leeway 2. Wind speed: the higher the component of wind speed at right angies to the course. the greater the leeway, 3. Longitudinal area: the greater che ratio of fore and aft area above the waterline to that below. the greater the leeway. +. The depth of water: the: shallower.the depth of water in relation to the draught, the less the leeway Leeway is thus a complex relationship and, whilst attempts have been made to quantify it in mathematical terms, it is probably best for the navigator to rely _on his own experience and on the data in the Navigational Data Book. ‘As a rough guide. in modern warships, which have a high ratio of longitudinal area above the waterline to that below. one would normally expect leeway to vary between about # knot in a 10 knot beam wind at 10 knots speed, and up (0 3 knots in a 30 knot beam wind while lying stopped, as shown in Table 81. Exact leeway will vary with ship class. * The system of naming the dieéction of the wind is exagtly the opposite to that of naming tidal streams and currents. aortherly wind, for example. blows from the north, while a northerly or orth-going current sets (0 the norch,198 CHAPTER &—CHARTWORK ‘ Table & 1: An approximate guide to leeway’ in HM Ships BEAM WIND, 10 RNOTS 30 KNOTS seen . HP LEEWAY ste Stopped Vino 3 knots 10 knots 3 knot 4 knot 20 knows Less than + knot 0.1 knot In ships not fitted with an automatic pilot, an inexperienced or careless helmsman is likely co steer @ course two or three degrees off that ordered. usually windward as most ships tend w “fly” into the wind. This may compensate for the effect of leeway. and may be gauged’ hy comparing the course ordered with that registered on the plotting table or the course recorder. or by close observation over 2 period of time. This “boring to windward" is particularly noticeable in light craft running with the wind and sca on the quarter ‘As HM Ships are frequently proceeding ar a whole range of different speeds. iv is usual to quantify leeway in terms of a leeway vecior i¢-g. 12082 knot. In merchant ships, which mormatly proceed at a sei servige specd. leeway is normally quantified in verms of feewar angie — the angular difference berween the ship's course and her irack through the water (eater rach. Tidal streams ‘A tidal stream is the periodical horizontal ‘movement of the sea surface caused by the tide-raising forces of the sun and moon. Information concerning tidal streams is given on Admiralty charts. in the Aadmtiralty Sailing Directions. in tidal stream publications and in special tidal stream atlases. The various methods of estimating the direction and strength of the stream are described in Chapter 11." Tidal stream datz must always be used with caution, particularly at springs and around the calculated time of change-over from ebb to flood and vice-versa. It will often be found thar the tidal stream experienced is different from that calculated. Currents A current is the non-tidal horizontal movement of the sea due mainly 10 meteorological. oceanographica) or topographical causes. In some areas this ‘movement may be nearly constant in rate and direction (e.g. the Gulf Strcam) * The direction of a current or tidal stream js aiways riven as the direction in which ale water is moxine. If, for example. i is said 1 set 150° 2 knots. 2 ship that experiences such a stream for 5 hours will be set 6 miles in « direction 15(°CALCULATING THE POSITION vs while in others it may vary seasonally or fluctuate with changes in meteorological conditions (e.g. the Arabian Sea). Information concerning currents is given on Admiralty charts, in the Sailing Directions. on the Routeing charts, in Ocean Passages for the World (NP 136), in The Mariner's Handbook (NP 100), in Meteorology for Mariners (NP 407), in current atlases such as the Straits of Gibraltar: Surface and Sub-surface Water Movements (NP 629). and Volume II of this manual. The main cause of most surface currents in the open sea is the direct action of the wind on the surface of the sea, A current formed in this way is known as a drift current, and a clear correlation exists between the directions of the prevailing drift currents and che prevailing winds. Surface drift Sometimes, however, there may be no recorded data on wind currents. or the wind itself may be in a contrary direction to that normally prevailing. It may therefore become necessary to make an estimate for surface drift which may or may not. depending on the circumstances met with at the dime. be in addition to that already made for currents. Surface drift_can only he estimated from experience and with a knowledge of the meteorological conditions in the area through which che ship is steaming. The matter i a complex one and studied more fully in Volume II, but some guidelines are set our here The maximum raie of surface drift approximates co ab of the wind speed. However, the strength of the surface drift depends on how tong the wind has been blowing and upon the ferch* of the wind. The build-up of suriace drift in response w wind is slow and a steady state takes some time co become established. With light winds the slight current resulting may"take only about 6 hours to develop. but with strong winds about 48 hours is needed for the current to reach its full speed. Hurricane force winds may give rise to a current in excess of 2 knaxs. but ic is rare for such winds co persist for more chan a few hours without a change in direction. The piling up of water caused by a storm near a coastline may lead to particularly strong currents parallel to chat coast. The effect of the roration of the Earth (Coriolis force) is to deflect water. movement to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southera Hemisphere. This produces a direction of the surface flow inclined at some 20° to 45° to the right of the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. If, for example, che wind has been blowing steadily from the north-east at 20 knots for several days, the rale and direction of the surface drift in the Northern Hemisphere may be expected to be of the order of} knot in a direction between 245 and 270°. : Plotting the track Plotting the Estimated Position (EP) from a known position is carried out in two steps (Fig. 8-3). vi : 1 ath is ehe extent oF open water over which the wig has been blowing hefoce it reaches the observer.180 ' CHAPTER6~CHARTWORK, }. Plot the course steered and the speed through the water, thus arriving at the Dead Reckoning (DR) position Plot on from the Dead Reckoning position the effect off (a) leeway: (6) tidal stream: (c) current; (@) surface drift: thus arriving at the Estimated Position (EP). n Fig. 3. Plotting the Estimated Position (EP) Fig. 83 also displays the navigational terms used. Those that have not already been described are defined in Tabie 82. In the figure the effects of leeway, rida) stream. current and surface drift have been purposely exageer- ated for the sake of clarity. Arrowheads on tracks (Fig. 8-3) A single arrow denotes course steered. ‘water track. Jeeway vector. A doubie arrow denotes ship's ground track A treble arrow denotes tidal stream. current, surface drift and drift, Quantification of set and drift Set and drift result from the combined effects of tidal stream, current and surface drift. They are quantified in terms of direction and distance, e.g. 103° 3.5 miles. Drift may also be given a rate measured in knots: e.g. if the time over which the drift of 3'.5 has been determined is 2 hours. the rate would be 1.75 knots. Thus. set and drift would be defined as set 103°, drift 3'.5. rate 1,75 knots.CALCULATING THE POSITION : tal Table 8-2 TERM DEFINITION Track The path followed or to be followed. between one position and another. This path may be that over the ground (ground track) or through the water (water track). When radar plotting (Chapter 17), this path may also be a relative track or a true track. . ‘Track angle ‘The direction of a track. Track made goed | The mean ground track actually achieved over a given period. Set The resultant direction towards which current. dal stream and surface drift fiow. Deift The distance covered in a given time due solely to the movement of current, tidal stream and surface drift, Drift angle | The angular difference between the ground track and water track. Sea position ‘The point at the termination of the water track. Position Probability Area (PPA) The Position Probability Area (PPA) is the area derived from a combination of appropriate position lines obtained from available navigational aids (including log and compass). after applying the relevant statistical error correction to each position fine in curn. Ik may be shown on the chart in the form of aa ellipse with 4 major and a minor axis (Fig, 81). Within the PPA. the Navigating Officer determines his .Most Probable Position (MPP) which. dependent on the quality of the input. he should treat as a fix. an EP ora DR. Allowing for wind, tidal stream, current and surface drift Most of the examples which follow are given for tidal stream only; the same method of solution applies to problems associated with leeway, current or surface drift. . To shape a course to ster allowing for a tidal stream When the navigator knows the direction of the place he wishes (o reach and the direction and strength of the tidal stream he will experience on passage, he must then find the course to steer. EXAMPLE . What course must a ship steer, when steaming at 12 knots, to make good a track 090° if it is estimated that the tidal stream is setting 040° at 3 knots? Lay off the course 10 be made good (4B in Fig. 8-4). From A fay off the direction of the tidal stream AG. Along AC mark off the distance the tidal stream runs in any convenient interval on a chosen scale. In Fig. +a | hour interval* has been allowed: thus, AD will be 3 miles. + The dimensions of the triangie used are to a large/extent concrolted by the scale of the chart. On a large-seate chart 2.4 tour interval may suffice, while on a smailer scale it may be necessary to use 3 3 or even a3 hour interval*” GHAPTER&-CRARTWORK 182 Ground Track 030° Fig. 84. To shape a course allowing for tidal stream (drawing not to scale) With centre D and radius equal to the distance the ship runs in the same interval (12 miles), and on the same scale, cur 4B at E. Then DE (101°) is the course to steer. AE (13.7 miles) is the distance made good in an 090° direction in ] hour To reach a position at a definite time. allowing for 0 ndal stream EXAMPLE What course must a ship steer, and af what speed must she steam. to proceed from: 3 tua position B am If hours. allowing for a tidal sireom setting 150° ai 3 knuts? Join AB. as shown in Fig. 8-5. This determines the course and distance w be made good in 14 hours: 090° 15 miles: chus. the speed to be made good is 10 knots. Mark a position 2) along 4H using @ convenient time imerval depending on the scale of the chart. say | hour: in this case AD vill be 10 mies From A lay off C using the direction and rate of the tidal stream for ihe same interval: 150° 3 miles. Join CD. CD will give the course (073°) t steer and the speed (8.9 knots) at which to proceed. . 090° 10 Knots Ae 2 8 150° 073° is) @3) c Fig. &5. To reach a position at a definite time, allowing for a tidal sircamCALCULATING THE POSITION 183 To clear a point by a given distance and find the time when an object will be abeam. allowing for a tidal stream EXAMPLE A ship at A (Fig. 8-6) sters soas to clear a lighthouse L by 2 miles, allowing for a tidal stream setting 545°, When will the lighthouse L be abeam? ~. E ~~ Fig. 86. To clear a point by a given distance From L draw the arc of a circle, radius 2’. From the ship’s present position draw a tangent to the arc. This is the course to be made good. 4D Find the course to steer BC by the method explained above. The iight is abeam when it bears 90° from the course steered. that is to say. when the ship is at E and not when she is in position D (the point ar which she passes closest to the lighthouse). The time elapsed will be the time taken to cover the distance AE ata speed represented by AC. the speed made good To find the direction and rate of the tidal stream experienced between two fixes EXAMPLE A ship is at A at 0100, as shown in Fig. 8-7, and steering 110° at 10 knots. At 0300 she fixes herself at B. What is the direction and rate of the tidal stream from 0100 to 0300? Plot the ship's course 110° for a distance of 20’ from A. The difference betweer the Dead Reckoning position C and the observed position B at 0300 gives the direction of the tidal stream CB (025°) and the distance it has displaced the ship in 2 hours (7.6 miles). From these data the tidal stream may be calculated as setting 025° at 3.8 knots. 0100 . 0300 Fig. 8&7. Finding the direction and rate of the tidal stream . +184 “” CHAPTERS-CHARTWORK ; i To determine the Estimated Position (EP) allowing for leeway, tidal stream. current and surface arift* EXAMPLE The ship’s position is fixed at 0700, course and speed ordered are 090°, revolutions for 15 knots. Al the end of I hour, course steered as recorded by the plotting table is 0904°. speed through the water as recorded by the log, allowing for the error in the instrument. is 14.7 knots. Estimated tidal stream (tidal stream tables) is 295° 1.5 knots. Estimated current (current charts) is 060° 0.75 knots. - The wind has been blowing steadily in the area from the south at about 20 knots aver the past 23 days. Leeway as deduced from the data in the Navigational Data Book is # knot. Plot the Estimated Pasition after 1 hour, and deduce the estimated course and speed made good. and the set and drift from the combined effects of tidal stream. current and surface drift. The ship is in the Northern Hemisphere. From a study of the area and the data available itis estimated that surface drift will be in addition to the predicted current. The leeway vector will be at right angles to the course steered: thus. in this case it will be 0004° 3 knot. (The leeway angle is 3°.) Estimated surface drift will be 020° to 045° 4 knot; allow for 030°. Plot the DR position B at 0800 from the course steered 0904° at the speed through the water 14.7 knots—AB in Fig. 8-8 (lay the parallel ruler through 091° and 270° on the compass rose to achieve 0903°}. Plot the leeway. BC. 004° 0.75 knot (parallel ruler through 000°/181° on the compass rose). Plot the tidal stream CD. 29: ° 1.5 knots. Plot the current DE. 060° 0.75 knot. Plot the surface drift EF. 030° 0.5 knox. As ‘ ‘Course and Speed through the Water 080%", 14.7 Knowt Tease aba Fig. 8-8. Determining the Estimated Position Fis the Estimated Position at 0800, AF is the estimated ground track (course and speed made good over the ground) and CF is the estimated set and drift. The estimated course and speed made good is 082° 14.4 knots: the set and drift are estimated to be 343° 1.5 miles, rate 1.5 knots. * The example shows the resolution of all four factors, although frequently only one or twa at a time will be met with in practice.CALCULATING THE POSITION 185 Allowing for the turning circle When a group of warships is manoeuvring, alterations of course are frequently so numerous, and the distance run on each course so short, that the curves described by the ship while making zhe various turns form a large proportion of the plot, and it is therefore essential that allowances should be made for the turning circle and the loss of speed while turning, if the reckoning is to be accurate. At any time during manotuvres, it may be necessary for the ship to shape a course for a particular position, so it is essential that the reckoning should be kept in such a way that her position at any moment may’ be plotted on the chart with the least possible delay. When the ships form part of a group within easy visual touch of the Guide, and are unlikely’ to be detached during the manoeuvres it is advisable that they should aiso plot the Guide's track, for the following reasons: 1. The Guide's less frequent alcerations of course and steadier speeds reduce the chance of errors. 2. ‘The times recorded in the signal log give @ valuable check on the times raken for the plot. 3. If the ship is detached unexpectedly, a range and bearing of the Guide should at once give the ship's position. 4. The alterations of course can often be plotted before it is necessary for the Navigating Officer to devote his attention solely to the handling of his own ship. When HM Ships are engaged in manocuvres or exercises, it is usual to establish the DR by obtaining the course steered and distance run through the water from the plotting table at reguidr intervals. adjusting for gyro and log errors as appropriate. If. however. the plotting table is not available. the turning circles will have to be plotted on the chart or plotting sheet by hand The turning circle must always be allowed for in pilotage waters (Chapter 13), also in coastal waters (Chapter 12), where the turning circle of the ship and the scale of the chart are such that the turning circle forms a measurable part of the estimated track. Further offshore, when the scale of the chart is small, and if . the alterations of course are few, it may be possible to disregard the turning circle, whilst remaining within.the Bounds of the required accuracy. Before the various methods of allowing for the curning circle are considered, it is necessary to define the terms which are used, and these are illustrated in Figs 8-9 and 8-10 (pp.186, 187). - The advance is the distance that the compass platform of a ship has advanced in the direction of the original course on completion of a turn (the steadying point). It is measured from the point where the wheel was put over. AD= the advance The transfer is the distance that the compass platform_of a ship is transferred in a direction at right angles to the original course. . DB= the transfer #186 “CHAPTER8=CHARTWORK ¢ f th tt 1 4 I | ~ LO gene traneter =. i Ar itt an Eyl ait Be : Zs I ii} aly | | he it i if 14 mo it tt YY va over Fig. 8-9. The turning circle — terms used The distance to new course is the distance from the position of the compass platform when the wheel was put over to the point of intersection of the original course produced and the new course laid back. AC = the distance to new course The perpendicular distance between the ship's original course and her position when she has turned 180°, is called the Jactical diameter.* BD = the tactical diameter The final diameter is the diameter of the approximately circular path which a ship describes if the wheel is kept over. EF = the approximate final diameter * Tactical diameter will vary with both speed and rudder angle.CALCULATING THE POSITION 187 Fig. 8-10. Tactical and final diameter The length of the arc is the distance from point to point along the path actualiy described by the ship when turning. All the above data for a ship can be obtained from Turning Trials (see Volume TW of this manual and BR 67(3), Admiralty Manual of Seamanship, Volume 1] for details) Either the advance and transfer method or the distance to new course method should be used when plotting the track by hand (Fig. 811}. In coastal and pilotage waters. an allowance for the tidal stream may also have to be made and this is discussed in lacer chapters Method 1. Advance and transfer + In Fig. 8-11, a ship is steering a course 000°, If the wheel is put over to alter course to 120° when in position A (at 0900}, she will follow the curve AEB and will be steady on her new course 120° at the point B. * With data obtained from the Turning Trials, the point B can be plotted and ithe time taken to travel from A to B along the arc can be found. During the turn from A to B, the ship will lose speed so that, when steady on the new course, she will be moving at less than her original speed. It will not be correct, therefore, to continue plotting from the point 2, unless some allowance is made for this loss of speed. ‘The"additional distance which must be cravelled at the original speed to regain each knot of speed lost may be becween 15 and 60 yards in an HM Ship. Such data are normally recorded in the Navigational Data Book and known as the speed factor. Suppose that a warship (in Fig. 8-11), with an original speed of 15 knots.and a speed factor of 60 yards per knot, loses 3 knots on the turn, She will then be moving at 12 knots when she steadies on the new course at B, and will have to regain 3 knots. This can be allowed for by making her cover an additional 3 x 60 = 180 yards, at 15 knots; i.e. she may be' plotted on af /5 knots from a position188 * CHAPTERS-CHARTWORK Fig. @-1). Plowing a cur 180 yards 300” from B. Her position on the plot will then be correct when she has regained her speed of 15 knots. To obviate the additional plotting, a sime corzection is provided which takes this additional distance into consideration. Ir consists of the time taken to turn plus the time taken to cover the additional distance at the original speed, and should be added to the time of ‘wheel over’ to give a time of arrival ac 2 which will enable the ship to be plotted on from B at ber original speed. All subsequent positions can now be laid off along the new course and worked from the point B, the time interval being calculated from che corrected time. A table may be constructed from the turning data to give the advance and wansfer and cme correction for any alteration of course, for different speeds and rudder angies.CALCULATING THE POSITION 189 Table 8-3 is an exainple of such a table, constructed for a warship steaming at 13 knots. using 20° of rudder Table 8-3. Advance and transfer AMOUNT OF apvance | rransrer | time ALTERATION connection degrees yards yards F min s 20 332 26 0 42 40 S16 110 1 2 60 640 233 | 1 41 80 719 45 12 2 100 735, 6r2 i2 2 120 | os 803 3 12 140 546, | \3 41 160 366 i4 os 180 int 4 38 1 If this table is used. point B may be plotted from A using an advance of 674 yards and a transfer of 803 yards. and a corrected time of arrival at B of 0903} (odd seconds being ignored} Method 2. Distance to new course If this method is used for the turn shown in Fig. 8-I1) the ship plots her new course from the point C. where the new course laid back cuts the original course produced. although in fact she puts her wheel over at a. as before. and steadies on the new course at B. If the time taken to travel the distance CB at the original speed is subtracted from the time correction-previously described. then the time of arrival ac the imaginary point C is obtained. This calculation is incorporated in another time correction, which is again added to the time of ‘wheel over’ so that the ship in this case may be plotted on from C at her original speed although it is clear that the ship does not in fact pass through the point C at all “Table 8+ is an example of a ‘distance'to new course’ table constructed for the same warship, speed 15 knots, using 20° of rudder. Table &4. Distance to new course ALTERATION DISTANCE TO TIME, OF COURSE NEW COURSE ‘coRRECTION degrees yards mins 20 261 0 33 40 385 0 32 0 305 1 09 80 646 pa 22 100 843 : 1 28 120 1138 i 22190 “7 ~~" “CHAPTER 8-CHARTWORK, If this table is used, the point «Cin Fig. 8-11 is plotted 1138 yards along the original course 000°. and the time of arrival at this imaginary point is 09014 (odd seconds being ignored). This method involves only two simple corrections: 1. A distance to be plotted along the original course. 2. A time correction to be added at the time of ‘wheel over" in order to obtain the corrected time at the point C. Its disadvantage is that it cannot be used for alterations of course over 120° or so, because beyond this point the distance to new course becomes excessive. Correction for change of speed The gain or loss of distance when speed is altered while on a scraight course must also be allowed for when plotting by hand. The actual correction for any ship is found during acceleration and deceleration trials and recorded in the Navigational Data Book (see Volume 1V of this manual and BR 67(3), Admiralty Manual of Seamanship, Volume 111). CHARTWORK PLANNING Ar the planning stage, the following symbols should be used for charework (Fig 8-12). Blind pilotage symbols are to be found in Chapter 14. (a} Planned track. Draw the planned track boldly, writing the course along the track with the course to steer in brackets alongside and the speed in a bos. north orientated, underneath. The figures for course and speed should be sufficiently far away from the track to permit the necessary chartwork. (b) Tidal stream. Indicate the expected tidal stream, showing the direction by a three-headed arrow, the strength in a box. and the time at which ic is effective. This symbol can also be used for ocean currents and surface drift although the following symbol is often used instead: is 03 Dangers, Emphasise dangers near the track by outlining chem boldly in pencil (or coloured ink if the chart is to be used often). In pilotage waters, the safe depth sounding line should be drawn in to show the limits of the navigable channel. Remember that this will vary with the height of the {) (a) Clearing bearings (se Chapter 12), Draw in clearing bearings boldly, using solid arrowlieads pointing towards the object. NLT. . . (not less than ... .) or NMT , .. (not more than .. .) should be written along the arrow line. A clearing bearing should be drawn sufficiently clear of the danger so that the ship is still safe even if the bridge is on the bearing line but turning away from danger. Allow for the bridge being on the line with the stem or stern on the dangerous side of it, whichever is the greater distance. (e) Distance 40 run, Indicate the distance to run to the destination, rendezvous, exc. Numbers should be‘upright. (/) Planned position and time, Indicate the time it is intended to be at particular positions at regular intervals, using ‘bubbles’ close to but clear of the track.CHARTWORK PLANNING 191 } 8. Planned Track i b, Tidal Stream — & coma sage | | on | on sowmeoren |. Parrot oT T — ce i Swe oe 1g. Sunrise and Sunset |, Peainon and Time of ‘Wheat Over? |. Change of Chars Fig. 212. Charrwork planking symbols192 me i Jt is suggested that ocean passages be marked every 12 hours (000) and 1200 oF O89C and. 1800,, coastal passages more frequently. every 2 or 4 hours. : (g) Sunrise and sunset. Indicate the umes of sunrise and sunset ai the expected positions of the ship at those times. (h} Visual limits of lights, Indicate the arcs of the visual limits of lights that may be raised or dipped—the rising/dipping range. Position anc time cf whet! over’. Show position end planned time of wheel ~ over" for alterations of course." The amount of wheel can be stipulated if this differs from standard. Change of chart. The positions of changes of chari should be indicated by double parailel lines, either vertical or horizontal “CHAPTER t= CHARTWORK a = CHARTWORK ON PASSAGE. Fixing The various methods of fixing the ship are described in Chapter 9. The visual fix is the foundation of all coastal navigation, once a sound plan has been made. Fixes are vital. vei their observation and plotting takes the eve of the Navigating Officer or Officer of the Watch away from other vital tasks of lookour. Plotting the ship’s position 2 The DR from the iast fix must always be maintained for some distance ahead of the ship and an EP must be derived from all available information of tidal stream. current, etc. As soon as a new fix is obtained, the fix position must be compared with the DR and EP to ensure that there has been no mistake in identifving features ashore, and also to obtain an estimate of the strength and direction of any stream or current since the last fix. It is particularly imporcant to generate a DR or EP after an alteration of course. Use of a DK may be acceptable when wind, tidal stream and current are negligible but. when these are significant. the EP must be generated. This should happen in any case once an appropriate course has been desermined. te make good 2 wack allowing for these factors. Frequency of fixing Frequency of fixing should depend on the distance from navigational hazards and the ume the ship would take to run into danger before the next fix. This depends mainly on the ship's speed. For example. at passage speeds. say 10 10 15 knots. a fix every 10 to 15 minutes on a !:75,000 coastal chart gives a position every 2 10 3 inches on that chart: this is normally sufficient. At higher speeds or on @ larger scale chart, the time incerval will need 10 be much less and may require a fixing team. I: is recommended that fixes should be taken at times coinciding with DR or EP times on the chart. This practice will make immediately apparent the effects of leeway. tidal stream. etc. and whether or not the effects experienced are the same as those expected A 6 minute interval between fixes is convenient for converting ‘distance 1++ —- CHART WORK ON PASSAGE. 193 speed made good because the multiplier is 10: €.g. 1.35 miles in 6 minutes equals 1.35 10 or 13.5 knots. Useful fixing intervals for casy conversion of distance to speed are shown in the foliowing table. The multipliers are all whole numbers. Interval (minutes) Fst +] 5] 6) wf] 2} 15] Multiplier oo [as | 63 For example. if the distance run in + minutes is 0’ 82, the speed made good is 13 x 0',82 = 12.3 knoss. At speeds of about 15 knots, a useful rule of chumb is to fix every 20 minutes (3 miles approx.) when navigating offshore an the 1:150,000 coastal chart: every 10 minutes (24 miles approx.) when coasting closer inshore on the larger 1:75,000 chart: and every + minutes (I mile approx.) when approaching a port using a 1:20,000 chart. On entering the pilotage scage of the passage. a different fixing technique is required and this is described in Chapter 13. Speed The speed ordered (rung on} is normally shown in a box north orientated alongside the track, It should be remembered that the speed made good along the water track (sea speed) or along the ground wack (ground speed) is not usually shown against the track worked up on the chart. Ground speed may be deduced from the distance run between successive fixes, or it may be estimated from the expected effects on the speed ordered of wind, sea, tidal stream, current and surface drift. Actual or estimated ground speed should always be used when projecting the EP ahead. Ground speed is liable to fluctuace when any sea is running, also when the strength or direczion of che tidal stream is changing Time taken to fix The time taken co note the bearings and che time, plot the Gx on the chart, check che DR and lay off furcher DR, verify time to ‘wheel over’ (if applicable) and return to lockout. should not be more than 2 minutes. A practised navigator should be able to complete the task within 60 seconds. If it is essential co reduce the fixing time firther, an assistant or a team should be used. Using an assistant, the time can be reduced to less chan 30 seconds. Keeping the record - - ‘A complete record, showing navigational information in sufficient detail for the track of the ship at any time to be reconstructed accurately, is to be kept in the Navigational Record Book ($3034). An example is given in Fig. 8-13."The following symbols may be employed: <~— left-hand edge ‘of land, etc.) ——>} right-hand edge (of land, etc.) aL Port (5c) abeam 10 port (5 cables} A Sed 11'.2) abeam to starboard (1.2 miles)194 “CHAPTERB=CHARTWORK, Further information on the record is given in Chapter 12. Date waren FoRENoOW cow aco me co | sp | pears . oso | 18 | { Formesessii, 080%" osrHer) cena One a2 : foewemvss — sunngar ymo 2° LOW osc ces © fer Non Can ti, — 385° +2" : ~ oats 279°G 42° 0837 1 Fig. 8-13. The Navigational Record Book+ CHARTWORK ON-PASSAGE 195 Establishing the track A fix must always be taken immediately after altering course and a further fix taken shorely after {see page 192). From them che following conclusions may be drawn: \. Whether the ship is on track or not. 2. The course and speed being made good, and hence the effect of wind, tidal stream and cucrent. : From this information the following questions arise: 1, (s the actual track che same as thac intended and is it safe? Should the course be adjusted now to regain the intended track? Can the divergence (if any) from the intended crack be accepted untii the next alteration of course? +. When is the next alteration of course? ‘Time of arrival During the final stages of a passage, show the exact times at which it is intended to pass through regular positions so that speed,may be quickly adjusted to achieve the correct time of arrival (Fig. 8-4). é i Fig. &14. Time of arrival jote Book’ pilotage fie. t0 ._ Plan when to change from regular chart fixing co keeping on a predetermined track). General points on chartwork 1. Always show the time of the next alteration of course as a four-figure time at the appropriate position on the ship's crack. This should be done as early'as possible. 2. Transfer positions from one chart to another by bearing and distance from a point common to both charts, and check by latitude and longitude. This is most necessary as a check against mistakes, as che graduations on the two charts may differ. However, it must be remembered that the charts may be based on different geographic datums, and small differences in position between the two transfer methods may arise. Always obtain a fix as soon as possible after the ship's position has been transferred from one chart to another.196 ine CHAPTER S= CHARTWORK 4, Always aise the nearest compass rose, because: (a) There will be less effect of distortion, and the correct variation will be used. (} An error will be avoided if the chart used is drawn on the modified poiyconic (gnomonic) projection. 5, Remember the changes of variation printed on each compass rose. 6, Keep only one chart on the chart tabi¢, to avoid the error of measuring distances-off the-scale of-a chart underneath the one in use . Make certain whether the units denoting sounding: on the chart are fathoms, feet or metres. 8. When measuring distance by the latitude scale, measure as far as possible the same amount on cach side of the mean latitude of the wack being measured... 9: The surface Of the chari can béSt be preserved—and plotting will be most clear—if 2 2B pencil and a soft rubber are used. In wet or hot and bumid weather, i is a good plan to place a towel along the front of the chart table when working on the charts, and to remove dripping headgear. SUMMARY The necessity for developing the DR and the EP has been emphasised in this chapter. Despite the world-wide availability of a whole range of sophisticated and accurate navigational aids, it is nevertheless true that a high proportion of groundings stili result from a failure to work up a proper DR/EP. An accurate DRVEP over which the Navigating Officer has taken care will often prevent 2 potentially dangerous grounding situation from developing in the first place