JJ Chimwaza 2019 2/22/2023

Topic 3
LESSON 1: CONTINUITY; CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
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Outline
• Terms and definitions:
Mass flow rate, Discharge
• Continuity equation (conservation of mass)
• Bernoulli’s equation (conservation of energy)
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Fluid Dynamics
• As one of the other branches to Fluid Mechanics; Fluid Dynamics
looks at the study of fluids that are in motion.
• what are the forces in play when a fluid is not static..
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Teaser
• Water sits in a large open jug at a height of 0.2m above the spigot. With what velocity
will the water leave the spigot when the spigot/valve is opened?
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Terms and Definitions
1. Mass flow rate
• A very simple way of measuring the rate at which water is flowing
along a pipe is to catch all the water coming out of the pipe in a
bucket over a fixed time period. [𝑘𝑔/𝑠]
• Measuring the mass of the water in the bucket and dividing this by
the time taken to collect this water gives a rate of accumulation of
mass. This is know as the mass flow rate.
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Terms contd
2. Volume flow rate - Discharge
• This is more commonly know as discharge. (It is also commonly, but
inaccurately, simply called flow rate).
• The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.
• The discharge is the volume of fluid flowing per unit time. [𝑚3 /𝑠]
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3. Discharge and mean velocity

• If we know the size of a pipe, and we know the discharge, we can
deduce the mean velocity
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Discharge in a pipe
• If the area of cross section of the pipe at point X is A, and the mean
velocity here is um. During a time t, a cylinder of fluid will pass
point X with a volume A. (umt). The volume per unit time (the
discharge) will thus be

So if the cross-section area, A, is 1.2 x 10-3 m2 and the discharge, Q is

24 l/s, then the mean velocity, um, of the fluid is ……?
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Mean velocity
• The term used in the previous explanation is that of mean velocity.
• This is because the velocity in the pipe is not constant across the
cross section. Crossing the centreline of the pipe, the velocity is
zero at the walls increasing to a maximum at the centre then
decreasing symmetrically to the other wall. This variation across
the section is known as the velocity profile or distribution. A
typical one is shown in the figure below
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4. Continuity
• Matter cannot be created or destroyed - (it is simply changed in to
a different form of matter). This principle is know as the
conservation of mass and we use it in the analysis of flowing fluids.
• The principle is applied to fixed volumes, known as control
volumes (or surfaces).
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• For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says

Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time + Increase
of mass in the control volume per unit time
∂𝑚ሶ
𝑚ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 +
𝜕𝑡
• For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the control
volume, so
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time
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𝑚ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
• This can be applied to a streamtube such as that shown on the next
slide. No fluid flows across the boundary made by the streamlines
so mass only enters and leaves through the two ends of this
streamtube section.
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Continuity
• Following the continuity of mass; we may write
• Mass of fluid entering section 1 per unit time= mass of fluid
leaving section 2 per unit time
𝜌1 𝜕𝐴1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝜕𝐴2 𝑢2
For steady flow;
𝜌1 𝜕𝐴1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝜕𝐴2 𝑢2 = 𝑚(constant)
ሶ

• This is the equation of continuity.

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• The flow of fluid through a real pipe (or any other vessel) will vary
due to the presence of a wall - in this case we can use the mean
velocity
• When the fluid can be considered incompressible, i.e. the density
does not change, 1 = 2 = , therefore;
𝐴1 𝑢1 = 𝐴2 𝑢2 = 𝑄
This is the form of the continuity equation most often used
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Application examples
• Divergent pipe (Diffuser) • Convergent pipe (nozzle)
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Continuity contd.
• Another example of the use of the continuity principle is to
determine the velocities in pipes coming from/ to a junction

• Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the
junction; 1Q1 = 2Q2 + 3Q3
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• When the flow is incompressible (e.g. if it is water) 1 = 2 = 

• Therefore;
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
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Bernoulli’s Equation
• Bernoulli’s equation summarizes this principle of conservation of
energy.
• It states the relationship between pressure, velocity and elevation
for steady flow of a frictionless fluid of constant density. For an
incompressible liquid in motion, there are three forms of energy to
be considered; Pressure energy (fluid head), Kinetic energy
(velocity) and Potential energy (elevation)
Pressure Energy
Now pressure is force per unit area
𝐹
𝑃 = , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
𝐴
Work done is force X distance, 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠
Therefore 𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴 × 𝑠
𝐴𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑉
Therefore work done by a fluid changing
volume is;
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑣[Nm]
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Pressure energy
• Hence , the energy possessed by that unit mass of liquid is:
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑣
𝑊 𝑃𝑣 𝑃
= = [J/kg]
𝑚 𝑚 𝜌
Pressure energy per unit weight;
𝑃𝑣 𝑃 𝑃 𝐽
= = [ 𝑜𝑟 𝑚]
𝑚𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑤 𝑁
This is known as the pressure head
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Potential Energy
• Described as the energy due to the position of a fluid above a
certain datum.
• Given by: 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧
therefore; the potential energy per unit mass and weight will be
given by
𝑃𝐸 𝐽 𝑃𝐸 𝐽
= 𝑔𝑧 [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑧 [𝑚 𝑜𝑟 ]
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑁
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Kinetic Energy
• Described as the energy of a fluid due to its motion (flow)
𝑚𝑣 2
• Kinetic energy is expressed as KE =
2

Therefore kinetic energy per unit mass and weight may be written as
KE 𝑣 2 𝐽
= [ ];
m 2 𝑘𝑔
KE 𝑣 2
= [m](known as the velocity head)
m𝑔 2𝑔
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Bernoulli’s Equation
• Bernoulli’s equation states that for a liquid in motion, the
summation of the energies is constant.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃 𝑣2
+ + 𝑔𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠]
𝜌 2
𝑃 𝑣2
+ + 𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡]
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
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Bernoulli’s equation per unit volume
𝜌𝑣12 𝜌𝑣22
𝑃1 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑃2 + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2
2 2
• Where 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒;
𝜌𝑣 2
= 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒;
2
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
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Bernoulli’s equation shows that a loss or reduction in one term is

always balanced by an increase in one or both of the other energy
terms.
However, it is only valid for when
a. The flow is steady
b. There is no loss of energy by friction or leakage
c. The motion is not turbulent or fluctuating
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29 Brain Teaser
A1-m diameter cylindrical tank
initially contains liquid fuel and
has a 2-cm rubber plug at the
bottom, as shown. If the plug is
removed, how long will it take
to empty the tank. The initial
height of liquid in the tank is 1.5
m. Bernoulli’s equation is
required.
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End of Lesson
Next lesson on measurement of discharge, conservation of momentum