HIGH-LEVEL PROGRAMMING I
Intro to Algorithms by Prasanna Ghali
Outline
2
What is an Algorithm?
Algorithm characteristics
Elements of an algorithm
Expressing algorithms
Pseudocode
Flowcharting
Examples
What is an Algorithm?
3
Step-by-step method for solving a problem
Similar in concept to a cook’s recipe
Algorithm Example: Recipe for
4
Brownies
½ cup butter 1 tsp vanilla extract
1 cup sugar ½ cup cocoa
2 eggs ½ cup flour
1. If butter not soft, then melt butter
2. Blend melted buffer and sugar until mixture has
creamy consistency
3. Add eggs and vanilla; stir
4. Add cocoa and flour; mix until well blended
5. Pour into greased round glass cake pan
6. Microwave for 9-10 minutes
Examples of Algorithms
5
Putting together IKEA furniture
Going from airport to hotel in new city
Solving Rubik’s cube
Playing board games such as Chess, Go, …
Solving a maze
Choosing a TV cable plan
Choosing a cell phone subscription plan
Oldest Algorithm?
6
First documented algorithm was presented by
Greek mathematician Euclid in 300 B.C. to
compute Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
1. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be integers such that 𝐴 > 𝐵 ≥ 0
2. If 𝐴 = 0, then GCD is 𝐵 and algorithm ends
3. If 𝐵 = 0, then GCD is 𝐴 and algorithm ends
4. Write quotient remainder format: 𝐴 ← 𝐵 ∙ 𝑄 + 𝑅
5. Set 𝐴 ← 𝐵 and 𝐵 ← 𝑅
6. Go to 2
Formal Definition
7
Procedure to solve well-specified problem
Must have following characteristics
Input
Output
Precision
Finiteness
Uniqueness
Generality
Algorithm Elements (1/4)
8
Mid-60s, mathematicians proved that any logic
problem, no matter how complicated, can be
constructed using one or more of only three
structures or elements
Think of an element as basic unit of logic
What are these three elements?
Sequence
Selection
Iteration
Algorithm Elements (2/4)
9
Euclid’s Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
algorithm
1. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be integers such that 𝐴 > 𝐵 ≥ 0
2. If 𝐴 = 0, then GCD is 𝐵 and algorithm ends
3. If 𝐵 = 0, then GCD is 𝐴 and algorithm ends
4. Write quotient remainder format: 𝐴 ← 𝐵 ∙
𝑄+𝑅
5. Set 𝐴 ← 𝐵 and 𝐵 ← 𝑅
6. Go to 2
Algorithm Elements (3/4)
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Elements an be combined in infinite ways
Every element has single entry and single exit point
Elements can be stacked or connected to one
another only at their entry or exit points
Any element can be nested within another element
Algorithm Elements (4/4)
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We’ll add two additional elements
Input
Sequence
Selection
Iteration
Output
Expressing Algorithms
12
Need notation for expressing algorithms
Options range from natural to programming
languages
Two tools commonly used
Pseudocode
Flowchart
Pseudocode
13
Pseudo means false
Code a problem means to put it into
programming language
Pseudocode means false code
Sentences that appear to be written in
programming language but don’t necessarily
follow syntax rules of any specific language
Flowcharting
14
Combination of graphical
input/output
symbols that represent
logical flow of data thro’
solution sequence
decision
terminal
flowline
Pseudocode: Input
15
Can write reading of input from user as:
1: read x input x
1: read a, b, c input a, b, c
Pseudocode: Output
16
Writing of output to user represented as:
1: print x output x
output
1: print “your speed is: “, x
“your speed is: “, x
Sequence (1/2)
17
Computational statements executed
in order, one after another
Once you start series of steps in
sequence, you must continue step by step 1
step until sequence ends
1: step 1 step 2
2: step 2
3: …
⋮ step n
n: step n
Sequence (2/2)
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x = 10
1: x = 10
2: y = ax2+bx+c y=ax2+bx+c
3: z = y
z=y
Statements, Expressions, … (1/4)
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Statement made up one or more expressions
Expression consists of one or more operands
and zero or more operators
Operand can be constant or variable
assignment operator
variable x = 10 constant
operand
Statements, Expressions, … (2/4)
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How many expressions in following statements?
3 1: x = 10
5 2: y = x*x
7 3: z = x + y * y
Statements, Expressions, … (3/4)
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Every expression evaluates to a value of
certain type
Type represents set of values and set of
operations that can be applied on these values
1: z is integer assignment
2: z = 10 = operator
type is
z 10 integer
Statements, Expressions, … (4/4)
22
Numbers without fractions (such as 10, 33, …)
are called integers
Digital systems cannot represent infinite set of
fractional values on real number-line
Instead, they represent a finite set of floating-
point values with each floating-point value
being an approximation of real values
Assignment Operator
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variable = expression
Copy value of expression into variable, or
Replace current value of variable by value of
expression
variable expression
Arithmetic Operators
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variable = operand1 operator operand2
+, -, *, /, %
=
op
variable
operand1 operand2
Relational Operators
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Used to compare two operands or values or
expressions
==, !=, >, >=, <, <=
Expression involving relational operators
always evaluates to either 1 (true) or 0 (false)
Value 0 means false
Any non-zero value means true
Logical Operators
26
Used to control sequencing of steps; combine
simple relational expressions into more
complex expressions
&&, ||, !
Expression involving logical operators always
evaluates to either 1 (true) or 0 (false)
a = x < y || x > z
b = x >= y && x <= z
Selection Element (1/4)
27
Alters sequential flow of control by taking one
of two courses of action based on result of
evaluation of condition
How to assign letter grades?
Should I take an umbrella?
condition
Overtime pay? true false
Cable billing
action1 action 2
Selection Structure (2/4)
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condition condition
true true false
false
action action 1 action 2
if (condition) then if (condition) then
action action 1
endif else
action 2
endif
Selection Structure (3/4)
29
𝒂% Letter Grade
𝑎 ≥ 93 A
𝑎 ≥ 93 90 ≤ 𝑎 < 93 A−
true false 87 ≤ 𝑎 < 90 B+
83 ≤ 𝑎 < 87 B
print ‘A’ print not ‘A’ 80 ≤ 𝑎 < 83 B−
77 ≤ 𝑎 < 80 C+
73 ≤ 𝑎 < 77 C
70 ≤ 𝑎 < 73 C−
60 ≤ 𝑎 < 70 D
𝑎 < 60 F
Selection Structure (4/4)
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𝑎 ≥ 93
true false
print ‘A’ 𝑎 ≥ 90
true false
print ‘A-’ 𝑎 ≥ 87
true false
print ‘B+’ 𝑎 ≥ 83
true false
print ‘B’ ⋮
true false
Iteration Element
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Repeat actions while a condition remains true
condition true action
while (condition)
action false
endwhile
start
First Algorithm input 𝑁
32
Compute 𝑥 2 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 1, 𝑁 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 0
𝑥=1
1: read 𝑁
2: 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 0
𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
𝑥≤𝑁
3: 𝑥 = 1 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
4: while (𝑥 <= 𝑁)
𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 + 𝑥 2
5: 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 + 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 𝑥 =𝑥+1
6: 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1
7: endwhile
output 𝑠𝑢𝑚
8: print 𝑠𝑢𝑚 end
Traveling on a Subway
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Algorithm: Subway
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Input: Source station 𝐴 and destination station 𝐵
Output: Directions to go from 𝐴 to 𝐵 using maximum of single transfer
if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are on same line 𝐿 then
travel on line 𝐿 from 𝐴 to 𝐵
else [𝐴 and 𝐵 are on different lines]
find all pairs of lines (𝐿𝑖 , 𝐿𝑗 ) s.t 𝐴 is on 𝐿𝑖 & 𝐵 is on 𝐿𝑗
and two lines have common station
if there is only one such pair then
take 𝐿𝑖 to a station also on 𝐿𝑗 , get off, and then take 𝐿𝑗 to station 𝐵
else [more than one possible pair of them]
use pair (𝐿𝑖 , 𝐿𝑗 ) which requires fewest stops
endif
endif
Summary
35
What is an Algorithm?
Algorithm characteristics: inputs, outputs, precision,
finiteness, uniqueness, generality
Elements of an algorithm: sequence, selection, iteration
Expressing algorithms: Pseudocode, flowcharting
Sequence: operator, operand, expression, variable,
constant, type, integer and floating-point values,
assignment operator, arithmetic operator, relational
operators
Examples
Things to do: Read handout, complete assignment
