Exercises of Plasma Physics

MEFT - Master in Engineering Physics

Vasco Guerra

February 2017
 Foreword

This collection of exercises is an outcome of my teaching experience as the respon-

sible of the Plasma Physics and Technology course from the Integrated Master in
Engineering Physics of Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, in the
period between 2013 and 2017. This is a one semester introductory course, attended
by all students of the Master. As such, it is not intended to be a comprehensive
course for students that will follow a plasma physics track. Nevertheless, the course
is designed to give a general overview of plasma physics, addressing the basic con-
cepts and the main approaches to study the field, namely single particle motion,
fluid descriptions (both two fluid and single fluid) and kinetic theory. The exercises
are organised as one-week problem sheets.
Due to the broad scope of the course, it is impossible to cover in detail all the topics
studied within the allocated time. Therefore, various exercises were conceived in
order to make students have a glance at some relatively standard phenomena not
studied in class, but that can be investigated with the knowledge already acquired,
such as the ponderomotive force, the two-stream instability and the derivation of
the fluid equations from the moments of Vlasov’s equation. Some of these problems
would be rather challenging without guidance, but with the hints included students
are expected to succeed in solving them.
Various exercises are taken or adapted from the textbook of Francis Chen (F.F. Chen,
Introduction to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 1, Plenum Press 1984).
All these exercises are duly identified along the text. Other exercises were adapted
from other books and sources available on the web. The book of Dwight Nicholson
(D.R. Nicholson, Introduction to plasma theory, John Wiley & Sons 1983) and the
very good online collection by John Howard, from the Australian National University,
deserve a special reference. To these problems I have added a significant number of
my own. Finally, several exercises used in actual written examinations are included
in this collection, which allows assessing the intended level of the course.

Lisboa, February 2017

Vasco Guerra
4
 Formulae

• Constants:

me = 9.1 × 10−31 kg; e = 1.6 × 10−19 C; 0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m

kB = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K

• Conversion factors:

1 u = 1.66 × 10−27 kg; 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J; 1 atm = 760 Torr

5
1 atm = 1.013 × 10 Pa

• Mathematical relations:

~ × (∇
∇ ~ × A)
~ = ∇(
~ ∇~ · A)
~ − ∇2 A
~
~ × (ψ A)
∇ ~ = ψ(∇
~ × A)
~ + (∇ψ)
~ ×A~
~ × (∇
∇ ~ A)
~ =0

ˆ ∞
r
π
exp(−Ax2 )dx =
−∞ A
ˆ +∞ √
2 2 π
x exp(−Ax )dx =
0 4A3/2
1 d2
 
2 1 d 2 dφ
In spherical coordinates and simmetry, ∇ φ = 2 r = (rφ)
r dr dr r dr2
6

• Basic relations and fundamental effects

Ideal gas law P V = N kB T

q
Electron Debye length λe = ε0nkeBe2Te
 
q 1 r
Debye potential (spherical symmtry) φ(r) = 4π 0 r exp − λD
q
ne e2
Plasma frequency ωpe = ε0 me
Plasma parameter Λ = ne λ3D
eB
Electron cyclotron frequency ωce = me
v⊥
Larmor radius rL = ωce
q
Thermal speed vt = kmB Te
e

• Drifts
~ ×B
E ~
ExB drift ~vd = 2
B
mv 2 B ~ × ∇B
~
⊥
Grad B drift ~vd =
2qB B2
2 ~
mvk ~ur × B
Curvature drift ~vd =
qB 2 Rc

1 2
 ~
1 ~ur × B
2
Fields in vacuum ~vd = mvk + v⊥
2 qB 2 Rc
m d ~
Polarization drift ~vd = E⊥
qB 2 dt
~ ×B
1 ∇P ~
Diamagnetic drift ~vd = −
qn B 2
1
mv 2
Magnetic moment µ= 2 ⊥
B

• Waves
– Electrostatic electron waves
∗ B~ 0 = 0 ou ~k k B
~ 0 : ω 2 = ω 2 +3k 2 v 2 ; v 2 = kT /m (Langmuir
pe t t
waves)
∗ ~k ⊥ B~ 0 : ω 2 = ωpe 2 2
+ ωce = ωh2 ; (upper hybrid waves)
– Ion electrostatic waves
∗ B~ 0 = 0 ou ~k k B
~ 0: ω 2 = k 2 c2s ; c2s = γe kB Te +γi kB Ti
(ion
mi
acoustic waves)
 
γi kB Ti γe k B T e 1
ω2 = k2 mi + mi 1+γe k2 λ2De
(ion
plasma waves)
∗ ~k ⊥ B ~ 0: ω 2 = k 2 c2s + ωl2 ; ωl2 = ωce ωci (lower hybrid
oscillations)
ω 2 = k 2 c2s + ωci
2
(ion cyclotronic waves)
 7

– Electron electromagnetic waves

∗ B~ 0 = 0: ω 2 = ωpe
2
+ k 2 c2 ; (electromagnetic waves)
2
2 2 ωpe
∗ ~k ⊥ B
~ 0, E
~1 k B
~ 0: n2 = c k
ω2 =1− ω2 ; (ordinary wave)
2
ωpe ω 2 −ωpe
2
∗ ~k ⊥ B
~ 0, E
~1 ⊥ B
~ 0: n2 = 1 − ω2 2
ω −ωh 2 ; (extraordinary wave)
2
ωpe /ω 2
∗ ~k k B
~ 0: n2R,L = 1 − 1∓ωce /ω ; (right and left waves)

• Transport and MHD

∂ ~ · (ns~vs ) = 0
ns + ∇
∂t
 
∂~vs h
~ v~s = qs ns E
i
~ + ~vs × B − ∇P ~ s − νs0 ns ms (~vs − ~v0 )
ns m s + (~vs · ∇)
∂t

ν = N hσvi ~Γ = n~v
~Γ = nµE
~ − D∇n
~ ~ + ~v × B
E ~ = η J~
∂~v
ρm = J~ × B
~ − ∇P
~ P = Pe + Pi
∂t

• Maxwell’s equations

~
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0; ~ = µ0 J~ + 1 ∂ E
~ ×B
∇ 2
c ∂t
~
∇ ~ = ρ ;
~ ·E ~ ×E
∇ ~ =− ∂ B
ε0 ∂t

• Kinetic theory
ˆ ˆ
n(~r, t) = f (~r, ~v , t)d3 v ; ~ = h~v i = 1
V ~v f (~r, ~v , t)d3 v
n
∂f ~ r f + q (E
~ + ~v × B)
~ ·∇
~ v f = 0 (eq. Vlasov)
+ ~v · ∇
∂t m
8
 PROBLEM SHEET # 1

Debye shielding and fundamental effects

1. Calculate the number density of an ideal gas at:

(a) p = 1 atm and T = 273 K (Loschmidth number)
(b) p = 1 Torr and T = 300 K
2. (F. F. Chen ∼ 1.3) On a log-log plot of n (m−3 ) vs kTe (eV) draw lines of
constant λD and Λ. On the graph place the following points:
(a) Tokamak (Te ' 1 keV, ne ' 1013 cm−3 )
(b) Solar wind near the Earth (Te ' 10 eV, ne ' 10 cm−3 )
(c) Ionosphere, ∼ 300 km above Earth’s surface (Te ' 0.1 eV, ne ' 106
cm−3 )
(d) Laser fusion (Te ' 1 keV, ne ' 1020 cm−3 )
(e) Gaseous electronics (Te ' 1 eV, ne ' 1010 cm−3 )
(f) Interstellar medium (Te ' 1 eV, ne ' 10−1 cm−3 )
(g) Flame (Te ' 0.1 eV, ne ' 108 cm−3 )
3. Consider Debye’s potential created by a punctual test charge qT that is placed
inside an homogeneous plasma.
(a) Show that the charge in the shielding cloud exactly cancels qT . Calculate
the total charge inside spheres of radii λD /2, λD and 5λD .
(b) Determine the electrostatic interaction energy between the test charge
and the particles in the plasma and the total mean energy of the plasma
particles (assume Te = Ti = T ).
4. Consider a homogeneous plasma with density n0 = 108 cm−3 occupying the
region x > 0. Outside the plasma (x < 0) there exists an uniform electric
~ = 100~ux V/cm, which penetrates the plasma. The electron and ion
field E
temperatures are equal, Te = Ti = 0.1 eV. Show that the plasma shields the
10 Problem sheet # 1. Debye shielding and fundamental effects

field and calculate the typical shielding length. Calculate the intensity of the
electric field at x = 0.5 cm, assuming that eφ(x)/kT  1.
5. (F. F. Chen ∼1.10) A spherical conductor of radius R is immersed in a plasma
and charged to a potential φ0 . The electrons remain Maxwellian and move
to form a Debye shield, but the ions are stationary during the time frame of
the experiment. Assuming eφ0  kTe :
(a) derive an expression for the potential as a function of r;
(b) calculate the charge in the sphere;
(c) calculate the sphere capacity for R = 10 cm, Te = 1 keV and n0 = 1014
and 106 cm−3 , and show that for high electron densities the plasma
behaves as a dielectric.
6. (D. R. Nicholson 1.3) In the deduction of the electron plasma frequency,
suppose the ions are not infinitely massive, but have a mass mi and can move.
Modify the discussion to show that the coupled oscillation of the electron and
ion “slabs” is made with the total plasma frequency (ωp2 = ωpe 2 2
+ ωpi ).
7. (Exam 2016/2017) In this problem we want to calculate the plasma oscillation
frequency for a spherical plasma, proceeding in a similar way as it was done
for the slab configuration in the previous exercise.
Consider a spherical plasma of radius R, represented by a uniform positive
ion background of density n0 inside the sphere. Assume the ions are infinitely
massive. Initially, the electron density has the same volume distribution as
that of the ions. The “electron sphere” is then stretched to a radius R+δr and
then released. Assume at all instants that the electron density is distributed
uniformly on the spherical volume it occupies.
(a) Obtain the total number of positive ions and electrons, N , as a function
of R and n0 ; determine the electron density ne (δr ) when the electrons
occupy a sphere of radius R + δr , as a function of R, δr and n0 .
(b) Assuming δr  R, show that when the electrons occupy a sphere of
radius R + δr the electric field inside a sphere of radius r < (R + δr ) is
approximately given by E(r) ' n00e Rr δr .
(c) Write the equation of motion for an electron placed in the radial electric
field at the surface of the plasma sphere and determine the frequency of
plasma oscillations.
8. An infinite conducting plane is placed inside an homogeneous plasma and
charged to a potential φ0 . The electrons move and keep a Boltzmann distri-
bution, with eφ/kTe  1, while the ions can be considered stationary for the
time-scale of the experiment. Consider the xx direction perpendicular to the
plane and x = 0 coinciding with the plane.

(a) Obtain the potential as a function of x and represent φ(x)

(b) Determine the electric field as a function of x and the charge density in
the plane. Represent E(x) and compare with the solution in vacuum.
(c) Show that the plasma completely shields the charge in the conducting
plane.
 11

9. (Exam 2013/2014) Consider an infinite line, uniformly charged with a linear

charge density λ, immersed in a homogeneous plasma. The electrons and ions
follow Maxwellian distributions, respectively with temperature Te and Ti .
(a) Show that the electrostatic potential can be  written, in cylindrical co-
λ r
ordinates, in the form φ(r) = 2πε0 K0 λD , where K0 is the modified
Bessel function of second kind of order zero, and determine λD . Derive
the expression for the electric field as a function of r.
(b) Calculate the total charge around the line, per unit length.
(c) Comment the results

The modified Bessel equation of

order α is
d2 y dy
x2 2
+ x − (x2 + α2 )y = 0 .
dx dx
The solution is a linear combi-
nation of modified Bessel func-
tions of first and second kind,
Iα (x) e Kα (x), which are expo-
nentially growing and decreasing
functions, respectively (see fig-
ure).

K00 (x) = −K1 (x)

ˆ +∞
xK0 (x)dx = 1
0
1
For small x, K0 (x) ' − ln x; K1 (x) '
x
10. (Exam 2015/2016, dusty plasmas) In many plasmas there can be found large
particles, besides electrons and positive ions, known as dust particles. The
aim is to study Debye shielding around a positive test charge qT in dusty plas-
mas. Assume that electrons and positive ions follow a Boltzmann distribution
at temperatures Te e Ti , respectively, while the dust particles are infinitely
massive, have a total charge Zd and are uniformly distributed on the volume.
(a) Do you expect the charge Zd to be positive, negative, or that it can
have any of the signs? Justify.
(b) Consider a quasi-neutral plasma where the dust particles are negatively
charged. Show that Poisson’s equation can be written in the form

ne0 e2
 
ni0 Te
∇2 φ = 1+ φ,
0 kB Te ne0 Ti
where ne0 and ni0 are the non-perturbed densities of electrons and ions,
i.e., their densities at a large distance from the test charge.
(c) Determine the Debye length and tell if it is larger, smaller or equal to
the case where there are no dust particles.
12 Problem sheet # 1. Debye shielding and fundamental effects

(d) Obtain the expression for the electrostatic potential φ(r).

Historical note: this problem was studied by Lakhsmi, Bharuthram and
Shukla in Astrophys. Space Sci. 209 (1993) 213. Dust particles have
been observed in asteroid regions, planetary atmospheres (Earth and
Titan), comet tails and several laboratory plasmas.
 PROBLEM SHEET # 2

Single particle motion I

2
1. For particles with the same kinetic energy W = mv⊥ /2, compute the ratio
between the Larmor radius of a proton and an electron (mp /me = 1836).

2. (D. R. Nicholson 2.1) Consider a particle of charge q > 0 and mass m,

initially at rest at (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0), in the presence of a static magnetic
field B~ = B0 ~uz and E~ = E0 ~uy , with E0 , B0 > 0.

(a) Sketch the orbit of the particle.

(b) Derive an exact expression for the orbit of the particle.
(c) Show that the orbit can be separated into an oscillatory term and a
constant drift term. After averaging in time over the oscillatory motion,
is there any net acceleration? If not, how are the forces balanced?
(d) In a neutral plasma, with positive and negative particles and ions of
different masses, would there be any net current?
(e) Suppose the electric field were replaced by a gravitational force in the
yy direction, would there be a net current?

3. (F. F. Chen 2.7) An electron beam with density ne = 1014 m−3 and radius
R = 1 cm crosses a region with a uniform magnetic field B ~ = B0 ~uz , where
B0 = 2 T and the zz axis is aligned with the direction of propagation of the
beam. Determine the direction and magnitude of the E ~ ×B ~ drift at r = R
~ is the electrostatic field created by the charge of the beam).
(note that E

4. (F. F. Chen 2.5) Suppose electrons obey the Boltzmann relation in a cylindrical
symmetric plasma column, ne (r) = n0 exp(eφ/kTe ). The electron density
varies with a scale length λ, i.e., ∂ne /∂r ' −ne /λ.

(a) Using E~ = −∇φ,

~ find the radial electric field for given λ.
(b) For electrons, show that rL = 2λ p
when the E ~ ×B ~ drift velocity, vE , is
equal to the thermal speed, vt = 2kTe /m (this means that the finite
14 Problem sheet # 2. Single particle motion I

~ ×B
Larmor radius effects are important if the E ~ drift velocity is of the
order of the thermal speed).

5. (F. F. Chen 2.8) Suppose the earth’s magnetic field is 3 × 10−5 T at the
equator and falls off as 1/r3 as in a perfect dipole. Let there be an isotropic
population of 1 eV protons and 30 keV electrons, each with density n = 107
m−3 at r = 5 earth radii in the equator plane.

~ drift velocities.
(a) Compute the ion and electron ∇B
(b) Does an electron drift eastward or westward?
(c) How long does an electron take to encircle the earth?
(d) Compute the current ring density in A/m2 .
..
Note: the curvature drift is non-neglible... but neglect it anyway ^

6. (Exam 2014/2015, Hall thrusters) Hall thrusters are widely used in space
propulsion. A stationary plasma thruster is schematically represented in the
figure.1
The thruster has a cylindrical
shape, with an open chamber de-
fined by inner (Ri ) and outer
(Re ) radii and height L, where
the anode is placed. In the cham-
ber there is a magnetic field,
pointing from Ri to Re . An ax-
ial electric field points outwards
from the anode. The thruster ex-
periences a propelling force if it is
able to eject positive ions along
the direction of the electric field.
Xenon is injected into the cham-
ber, and electrons coming from
the cathode ionize the Xe atoms,
creating new electron/ion pairs.

Our purpose is to study the motion of electrons and ions created by ionisation
of Xe in the thruster. Consider Re = 5 cm, Ri = 3 cm and L = 3 cm. The
fields in the chamber are approximately E = 5kV /m and B = 5 mT, and the
mass of Xe is 131.3 u (1u = 1.66 × 10−24 g).

(a) Assuming that the electrons are created with a speed perpendicular to
~ ~v⊥ , describe qualitatively their motion and draw schematically their
B,
trajectory (neglect any possible curvature, ∇B~ and centrifugal force
drifts).
(b) A simple image of the thrust operation can be obtained by calculating
the electron and ion Larmor radii, rL,e and rL,i . Assuming the velocity
of ions and electrons to be, respectively, v⊥,i = 100 m/s (ions are formed
1 M. Keidar and I. I. Beilis, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 34 (2006) 804
 15

from ionisation of the injected neutral Xe atoms) and v⊥,e = 1 × 104

m/s (electrons coming from the cathode are accelerated from the E
field), calculate rL,e and rL,i and compare it with the relevant thruster
dimensions. Does the thruster experience a propelling force in these
conditions?
(c) Solve the equations of motion for the electrons created in an ionising
collision, assuming they are created with zero speed. Consider a plane
geometry (i.e., solve the equations in cartesian axes), with the xx-axis
along E.~ Determine the amplitude of oscillation in the xx direction.
(d) In the conditions of c., what would be the amplitude of oscillation of the
positive ions in the xx direction, if they were created withe zero speed?
Comment the results of c. and d..
Note: a tutorial on the physics and modelling of Hall thrusters is pre-
sented by J. P. Boeuf, J. Appl. Phys. 121 (2017) 011101.

7. (Exam 2015/2016, ponderomotive force) Consider a particle of charge q,

qE0
initially at rest and placed at xi = − mω 2 , that moves under the effect of a

~
high-frequency electric field, E = E0 cos(ωt)~ux .

(a) Solve the equation of motion and describe the trajectory.

(b) Assume now that the amplitude of the electric field slowly varies in space,
E(x, t) = E0 (x) cos(ωt), where E0 is a growing function of x.
i. Describe qualitatively the trajectory.
[Suggestion: think on the values of the field E0 on the turning
points of the trajectory]
ii. To solve for the trajectory, decompose the motion on a slowly
varying component, x0 , denoted as oscillation center, and a high-
frequency component x1 , where x1 is measured from the oscillation
centre, x = x0 + x1 (note that this is analogous to the decom-
position of motion in the guiding centre motion and an oscillating
component, used to describe motion on a magnetic field). Expand
E0 (x) around x0 and:
A. define condition of validity of the expansion and show that the
equation of motion can be written in the form
 
dE0 (x0 )
m(ẍ0 + ẍ1 ) = q E0 (x0 ) + x1 cos(ωt) ;
dx
B. start from the equation of motion to justify that, approximately,
qE0
ẍ1 = cos(ωt)
m
and solve for x1 (t);
C. start from the equation of motion to show that the oscillation
centre feels a force
q2 d 2
Fp = − E .
4mω 2 dx 0
[Suggestion: start by taking the temporal average of the equa-
tion of motion on the sort time 2π/ω and note that hxi = x0 ]
16 Problem sheet # 2. Single particle motion I

Note: the ponderomotive force is very important in several appli-

cations and basic research phenomena, such as the study of the
interaction of intense lasers with dense plasmas and plasma accel-
eration.
 PROBLEM SHEET # 3

Single particle motion II

1. (F. F. Chen ∼2.12, Fermi acceleration of cosmic rays). A cosmic ray proton
is trapped between two moving magnetic mirrors with mirror ratio Rm = 5.
Initially its energy is W = 1 keV and v⊥ = vk at the mid-plane. Each mirror
moves toward the mid-plane with a velocity vm = 10 km/s and the initial
distance between the mirrors is L = 1010 km.

(a) Using the invariance of µ, find the energy to which the proton is accel-
erated before it escapes.
(b) How long does it take to reach that energy?
[Suggestions: i) suppose that the B field is approximately uniform in the
space between the mirrors and changes abruptly near the mirrors, i.e.,
treat each mirror as a flat piston and show that the velocity gained at
each bounce is 2vm ; ii) compute the number of bounces necessary; iii)
assume that the distance between the mirrors does not change appre-
ciably during the acceleration process.]

2. (F. F. Chen 2.11) A plasma with an isotropic distribution of speeds is placed

inside a magnetic mirror with mirror ratio Rm = 4. There are no collisions,
so that the particles in the loss cone escape, while the others remain trapped.
Calculate the fraction of particles that remains trapped.

3. (F. F. Chen 2.20) The magnetic field along the axis of a magnetic mirror is
B( z) = B0 (1 + α2 z 2 ), where α is a constant. Suppose that at z = 0 an
electron has velocity v 2 = 3vk2 = 32 v⊥
2
.

(a) Describe qualitatively the electron motion.

(b) Determine the values of z where the electron is reflected.
(c) Write the equation of motion of the guiding center for the direction
~ and show that there is a sinusoidal oscillation. Calcule the
parallel to B
frequency of the motion as a function of v.
18 Problem sheet # 3. Single particle motion II

4. (D. R. Nicholson ∼2.3) Consider a particle moving in a time-dependent elec-

~ = −Ėt~uy , where Ė is a constant, and a uniform magnetic field
tric field E
~
B = B0 ~uz .
~ ×B
(a) Calculate the E ~ drift.
(b) Relate the resulting accelerated drift with a force and verify that the
drift due to that force is the polarization drift.

5. (F. F. Chen 2.19) A plasma is created in a toroidal chamber with average

radius R = 10 cm and square cross section of size a = 1 cm. The magnetic fiel
is generated by an electrical current I along the symmetry axis. The plasma
is Maxwellian with temperature kT = 100 eV and density n0 = 1019 m−3 .
There is no applied electric field.
~ field, for both positive
(a) Sketch the typical drift orbits in the non-uniform B
ions and electrons with vk = 0.
(b) Calculate the rate of charge accumulation (Coulomb per second) due to
the curvature and gradient drifts on the upper part of the chamber. The
magnetic field in the center of the chamber is 1 T and you can use the
approximation R  a if necessary.

6. (Exam 2013/2014) Consider an electron moving in an oscillating electric field,

~ = E0 exp(iωt) ~ux , perpendicular to a constant and uniform magnetic field,
E
~ = B ~uz .
B
(a) Calculate the drifts existing on the particle motion and describe qualita-
tively the motion.
(b) Try now to confirm the results you have already obtained, starting di-
rectly from the equations of motion. In particular, show that you can
indeed recover the results from a) for low frequencies of the field, i.e.,
ω  ωce
[Suggestion: i) search for solutions of the form ~v = ~vk +~vL +~vD exp(iωt),
where ~vL is the velocity of the cyclotron motion and ~vD is constant and
~ ii) verify you can obtain an equation for ~vD in the
perpendicular to B;
form iωm~vD = −eE ~ 0 − ev~D × B;
~ iii) make the cross product with B ~
~
and eliminate ~vD × B].
 PROBLEM SHEET # 4

Fluid drifts

1. (F. F. Chen 3.6) An isothermal plasma is confined between the planes x =

±a in a magnetic ~ = B0 ~uz . The density distribution is n(x) =
field B
2 2


n0 1 − x /a .
(a) Derive an expression for the electron diamagnetic drift velocity, as a
function of x.
(b) Draw a diagram showing the density profile and the direction of the
~ points out
electron diamagnetic drift on both sides of the midplane, if B
of the paper.
(c) Evaluate vD at x = a/2, if B = 0.2 T, kTe = 2 eV and a = 4 cm.

2. (F. F. Chen 3.7) A 

cylindrically symmetric plasma ~ field
2
  column
 in a uniform B
eϕ
has n(r) = n0 exp − rr2 e ni = ne = n0 exp kTe .
0

(a) Show that the E~ ×B ~ (~vE ) and electron diamagnetic drifts (~vDe ) ãare
equal in magnitude and have opposite directions.
(b) Show that the plasma rotates as a rigid body.
(c) In the reference frame that rotates with velocity ~vE there are drift waves
that propagate with speed vϕ = 0.5vDe . What is vϕ in the labora-
tory frame? Represent on a r − θ diagram the directions and relative
magnitudes of ~vE , ~vDe and ~vϕ in the lab frame.
(d) Obtain the diamagnetic current, J~D , as a function of r.
(e) Calculate JD for B = 0.4 T, n0 = 1016 m−3 , kTe = kTi = 0.25 eV and
r = r0 = 1 cm.
3. A cylindrical plasma column of an isothermal plasma of radius R = 8 mm
and equal ion and electron temperatures, kB T = 5 eV, is immersed on on
a magnetic field B = 0, 6 T, aligned with the cylinder axis (coincident with
the zz axis). The density has a profile n(r) = n0 J0 2, 4 Rr , where J0 is


20 Problem sheet # 4. Fluid drifts

12 −3
the Bessel function of first kind of order zero and

n0 = 10 0 cm . Assume
eϕ
you can consider ni = ne = n = n0 exp kT . Note: J0 (x) = −J1 (x),
J0 (1, 2) ' 0, 67; J1 (1, 2) ' 0, 49.

(a) Obtain the expressions for the ion and electron diamagnetic drift as a
function of r. Justify qualitatively the direction of the drifts.
(b) Calculate the diamagnetic current density at r = R/2 (value and direc-
tion).
 PROBLEM SHEET # 5

Waves in non-magnetized plasmas

1. (F. F. Chen 4.6) Compute the effect of collisional damping on the propagation
of Langmuir waves, by adding a term −mnν~v to the electron equation of
motion and rederiving the dispersion relation for Te = 0 (plasma oscillations).
Show that the wave is damped in time.

2. (F. F. Chen 4.13) An 8 mm microwave interferometer is used on an infinite

plane-parallel plasma slab 8 cm thick.

(a) What is the plasma density if a phase shift of 1/10 fringe is observed?
Assume a uniform density and note that one fringe corresponds to a
360o phase shift.

(b) Show that if the phase shift is small, then it is proportional to the density.

3. (Exam 2015/2016) The international space station (ISS) orbits approximately

400 kms above the surface of the Earth. The average profile of the electron
density in the ionosphere is shown in the figure. If the astronauts in the ISS
want to communicate with the Earth, in which range of frequencies shall they
tune their radios?

Note: Anyone can communicate by radio with the ISS astronauts. The de-
tails and the frequencies actually used can be found in NASA’s webpage
(http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/reference/radio/)
22 Problem sheet # 5. Waves in non-magnetized plasmas

4. (F. F. Chen 4.10) Hannes Alfvén (Nobel Prize in Physics in 1970) has sug-
gested that perhaps the primordial universe was symmetrical between matter
and antimatter. Suppose that the universe was at one time a uniform mixture
of protons, antiprotons, electrons and positrons, each species having a density
n0 .

(a) Obtain the dispersion relation for high-frequency electromagnetic waves

in this plasma, neglecting collisions, annihilations and thermal effects.
(b) Obtain the dispersion relation for ion waves. Use Poisson’s equation,
neglect Ti (but not Te ) and assume that all leptons follow the Boltzmann
relation.

5. (Exam 2013/2014) We want to study electrostatic longitudinal waves in a

non-magnetized plasma. Consider a unidimensional problem and that you
can neglect the thermal motion of the positive ions, but not of the electrons.

(a) Show that the dispersion relation can be written in the form

ω2
ω 2 = ωpi
2 2
+ ωpe
ω 2 − γe vt2 k 2

(b) Obtain and discuss the limiting case Te → 0

(c) Obtain and discuss the limiting case M → ∞
(d) Obtain and discuss the limiting case m → 0
(e) Obtain and discuss the limiting case m → 0 e λD k  1

6. (Exam 2013/2014, two-stream instability ) Consider the one-dimensional prop-

agation of waves in a cold (Te = Ti = 0) non magnetized plasma, where the
ions are initially stationary (i.e., the zeroth order term of the ionic velocity is
zero), but the electrons travel at speed v0 (i.e., the zeroth order term of the
electronic speed is v0 ). Neglect the effect of the collisions.
 23

(a) Use the two-fluid equations and the Poisson’s equation to show that the
dielectric constant of the plasma can be written in the form
2 2
ωpi ωpe
(k, ω) = 1 − − .
ω2 (ω − kv0 )2
(b) Verify that the dispersion relation is a polynomial function of fourth
order (so that for each real value of k there are four solutions for ω).
ω2 ω2
Sketch approximately the function f (ω) = ωpi2 + (ω−kv pe
0)
2 for a fixed k

and mark on the graph where the four roots are ω [you do not need to
give the exact values, we are only interested in understanding the form
of the function].
(c) In some situations the dispersion relation has only two real roots, which
happens for small enough kv0 (convince yourself this is the case, by
looking at the graph you have just drawn). In that case, one of the
imaginary roots corresponds to an unstable wave, growing exponentially
in time. Show that, if kv0 = ωpe  ω, the instability growth rate is
√  1/3
me
given by 23 21/3
1
mi ωpe s−1 [Suggestion: start by expanding the
last term of (k, ω) to the first order in ω/ωpe ].
(d) From the general relations in a) e b), derive the dispersion relation in the
limit mi → ∞. Then obtain the limit v0 → 0 (while keeping mi → ∞).
Comment the results.
7. (Exam 2015/2016) Consider a plasma formed by electrons and two species of
positive ions, o light species (a) and a heavy species (b). We want to study
the propagation of low-frequency electrostatic waves in this plasma. As the
plasma is quasi-neutral, the non-perturbed electron and ion densities verify
the relation ne0 = na0 + nb0 .
(a) Justify why you can use the plasma approximation, neglect the electron
inertia and consider isothermal electrons.
(b) Write the relevant fluid equations and linearize them, keeping only the
terms up to first order.
(c) Show that the first order perturbations of the electron and ion-a densities
are related by
r
na1 = ω2 ma n ,
Ta e1
k2 kB Te − γa Te
where r = na0 /ne0 .
(d) What is the relation between the first order perturbation on the electron
and ion-b densities?
(e) Show that the dispersion relation can be written as
r (1 − r) m
mb
a

1= ω2 ma Ta
+ ω2 ma a Tb
k2 kB Te − γa Te k2 kB Te − γb m
mb Te

(f) Verify that on the limit Ta = Tb = 0 we have ion acoustic waves,

corresponding to an ion of effective mass M given by
1 r 1−r
= + .
M ma mb
24 Problem sheet # 5. Waves in non-magnetized plasmas

If both ion species have similar densities, which one determines the
plasma behaviour? Comment the result.
[Historical note: These waves were experimentally observed by Naka-
mura and Saitou, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion (2003) 45 759; the
case Ta , Tb 6= 0 gives two solutions, a fast acoustic wave and a slow
acoustic wave and it is much more complex to analyse.]

8. (Exam 2016/2017) Consider an electromagnetic wave in a cold, non-magnetised

plasma. Neglect the ion motion but consider the effect of collisions between
electrons and neutrals, assuming a constant collision frequency ν.
(a) Write the relevant system of equations to study this system.
(b) Linearize the system of equations in the usual form and keep only the
first order terms.
(c) Show that the dispersion relation can be written in the form
2
c2 k 2 ωpe
= 1 − .
ω2 ω(ω + iν)

(d) Assuming ν/ω  1, show that the skin depth (attenuation distance) is
given by
!1/2
2
2c ω 2 ωpe
2
1− 2 .
ν ωpe ω

[Suggestion: use the dispersion relation and take a real frequency ω and
an imaginary wavenumber k = iα + β.]
 PROBLEM SHEET # 6

Waves in magnetized plasmas

1. (F. F. Chen 4.7) For the upper hybrid oscillations, show that the elliptical
orbits are always elongated in the direction of ~k (hint: derive an expression
for vx /vy ).

2. (F. F. Chen 4.22) Faraday rotation of an 8-mm wavelength microwave beam

in a uniform plasma in a 0.1 T magnetic field is measured. The plane of
polarization is found to be rotated 90o after traversing 1 m of plasma. What
is the density?

3. (F. F. Chen 4.21) Show that in a positronium plasma, i.e., a neutral plasma
of electrons and positron, there is no Faraday rotation [suggestion: write the
system of linearized equation in matrix form, Ax = 0, and ask Mathematica
..
for help to calculate det(A) ^].

4. (F. F. Chen 4.25) A microwave interferometer employing the ordinary wave

cannot be used above the cutoff density. To measure higher densities, one
can use the extraordinary wave.

(a) Write an expression for the cutoff density for the X wave.
(b) On a vφ2 /c2 vs. ω diagram, show the branch of the X-wave dispersion
relation on which such interferometer would work.

5. (Exam 2014/2015) We want to study electrostatic waves in an electronegative

plasma, formed by electrons, positive ions and negative ions. The plasma is
quasi-neutral, i.e., the non perturbed densities are n+0 = n0 , ne0 = (1 − ε)n0
e n−0 = εn0 , respectively for the positive ions electrons and negative ions.
Assume that initially there is no electric field and all the fluid velocities are
zero. The plasma is immersed on a constant and uniform magnetic field,
~ = B0 ~uz . Consider only longitudinal perpendicular waves, with the wave
B
~ 1 , aligned along the xx axis.
electric field, E

(a) Write the fluid equations relevant to study this problem.

26 Problem sheet # 6. Waves in magnetized plasmas

(b) Linearize the equations for the electrons, keeping only the first order
terms. Show that
ωce
vey = i vex ,
ω
where (obviously) the speeds vex and vey are the components of the first
order correction to the electron velocity.
(c) Still using only the electron equations from c), show that

k(1 − ε)n0
ne1 = −i eE1 ,
me Ω2e
kB Te
where Ω2e = ω 2 − ωce
2
− γe k 2 c2se and c2se = me .
(d) Defining Ω+ e Ω− similarly toá Ωe , what are the expressions for n+1 e
n−1 ?
(e) Show that, in the plasma approximation, the dispersion relation can be
written in the form
me 2 2 m− me m− 2 2
ε Ω+ Ω e + (1 − ε)Ω2+ Ω2− + Ω− Ωe = 0 .
m+ m+ m2+

(f) Obtain the dispersion relation in the limit ε = 0 and me  m+ . Com-

ment the result.
Historical note: these waves were predicted theoretically by N. D’Angelo,
IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 20 (1992) 658 and detected experimentally by
T. An, R. L. Merlino e N. D’angelo, Phys. Fluids 5 (1993) 1917.
6. (Exam 2015/2016) Consider an electromagnetic mode with E1 ⊥ B0 and
k k B0 .
(a) Write the system of linearised (vectorial) equations that leads to the
dispersion relation for these waves, neglecting ion motion (mi → ∞),
electron thermal motion (Te → 0) and collisions.
(b) It can be shown that the system you just wrote leads to

Ex (ω 2 − c2 k 2 − α) + Ey iαωce /ω =0
2 2 2
Ey (ω − c k − α) − Ex iαωce /ω =0

where
ωp2
α= 2 ω2
.
1 − ωce
Continue from here to obtain the dispersion relation for this wave (in
the form given in the formulae for the exam).
(c) Show (briefly) that the modes are right and left hand circularly polarized,
and identify which is which.
(d) Define and obtain the cutoff frequencies. Comment the results.
 PROBLEM SHEET # 7

Diffusion and transport in weakly ionized plasmas

1. The cross section for electron-neutral momentum transfer in Ar can be ap-

proximated by the relation σ(u) = αu[eV ], with α = 1.37×10−20 m2 /eV (see
figure, σ[10−16 cm2 ] vs. u [eV]). Calculate the mean collision frequency for
momentum transfer in an argon plasma at p = 5 Torr and Tg = 20 o C, char-
acterized by an electron temperature kTe = 1 eV, i.e, assuming a Maxwellian
distribution of velocities (pay attention to the definition and normalization of
the distribution!),
3/2
mv 2
  
2 m
f (v) = 4πv exp − .
2πkTe 2kTe
Compare with the value you would obtain if the cross section were constant,
with the value corresponding to the mean energy.

4.50E+01

4.00E+01

3.50E+01

3.00E+01

2.50E+01

2.00E+01

1.50E+01

1.00E+01

5.00E+00

0.00E+00

0
 5
 10
 15
 20
 25
 30
 35


Real
 Linear
Approxima8on


2. (F. F. Chen, 5.1) The electron-neutral collision cross section for 2 eV electrons
in He is about 6πa20 , where a0 = 0.53 × 10−8 cm is the radius of the first
28 Problem sheet # 7. Diffusion and transport in weakly ionized plasmas

Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom. A positive column with no magnetic field
has p = 1 Torr of He (at room temperature), and kTe = 2 eV.

(a) Compute the electron diffusion coefficient in m2 /s, assuming that hσvi
is equal to the product σv for 2 eV electrons.
(b) If the current density along the column is 2 kA/m2 and the plasma
density is 1016 m−3 , what is the electric field along the column?

3. (Exam 2013/2014) Suppose that the electron distribution function in a homo-

geneous plasma can be approximated by a superposition of two Maxwellians
at different temperature, i.e., f (~v ) = α1 f1 (~v ) + α2 f2 (~v ), where
3/2
mv 2
  
m
fj (~v ) = n exp − ,
2πkB Tj 2kB Tj

with j = 1, 2, α1 + α2 = 1 e v = |~v |.
´´´
(a) Verify that the distribution function is correctly normalized, i.e., f (~v )d3 v =
n.
(b) Show that the average value q
of the absolute value of the velocity of each
B j 8k T
of the maxwellians is hvj i = πm and calculate the average value of
the absolute value of the velocity of the distribution.
(c) The cross section for electron-neutral momentum transfer can be approx-
imated by σm (u) = βm u, where βm is constant and u is the electron
energy. Show that the mean collision frequency for momentum transfer
associated to each Maxwellian is νm = 2N βm kB Tj hvj i and calculate
the average value of the momentum collision frequency of the distribu-
tion.
(d) The ionization cross section of the same gas can be approximated by
σi (u) = 0, if u < ui , and σi (u) = βi , if u ≥ ui , where ui is the
ionization threshold. Show that the
 ionization
 frequency
 associated with
ui ui
each Maxwellian is νi = N βi hvj i kTj + 1 exp − kTj and calculate
the mean ionization frequency of the distribution.
(e) Calculate the values in items c. and d. for kB T1 = 1 eV, kB T2 = 16 eV,
α1 = 0.99, α2 = 0.01, βm = 10−20 m2 /eV, βi = 10−20 m2 , ui = 15
eV and N = 1023 m−3 . Comment the results.
(f) (to answer in the las problem sheet) Suppose that an electronic wave is
excited on a plasma with an initial distribution with a shape similar to
the one used in this problem. Is there a region of wavelengths where,
at least in principle, these waves are unstable. If yes, can you define an
interval of phase speeds where to search for these waves?
Useful integrals:
ˆ ∞ √ ˆ ∞
2

2
 π 3

2
 1
x exp −Ax dx = x exp −Ax dx =
0 4A3/2 0 2A2
ˆ ∞ 2 ˆ ∞ (Ax2 2
2 3 2 i + 1) exp(−Axi )
 
x exp (−Ax) dx = x exp −Ax dx =
0 A3 xi 2A2
 29

4. (Lieberman and Lichtenberg 5.2) A steady-state argon plasma is created at

high pressure between two parallel plates located at x = ±L/2 by illuminating
the region between the plates with ultraviolet radiation (which ionizes the
neutrals). The radiation creates a uniform number of electron-ion pairs per
unit volume and pe unit time, G0 (m−3 s−1 ), everywhere within the plates.
The electrons and ions are lost by ambipolar diffusion to the walls.

(a) Show that in the limit Ti  Te the ambipolar diffusion coefficient is

given by Da ' µi (kTe /e).
(b) Assuming Da uniform in space and constant in time, obtain the station-
ary plasma profile, n(x), and the value of the density at the center, n0 ,
assuming you can impose the boundary condition n(x) ' 0 at the walls.

5. (Exam 2015/2016) Consider an axisymmetric cylindrical weakly-ionized plasma

with E~ = E~ur , B~ = B~uz and ∇P
~ i,e = ∂Pi,e /∂r~ur . Neglect the convective
term and consider the stationary case. Assume neutrality, the same temper-
ature for electrons and ions and that you are on a reference frame where the
average velocity of the neutrals is zero.

(a) Write the expressions for the r and θ components of the two fluid force
equations.
(b) Solve the previous equations for vr and vθ and verify that:
i. for the r component,

1 ∂n
ver = −µer E − Der
n ∂r
where
µe De
µer = 2
ωce
, Der = 2
ωce
1+ νe2 1+ νe2

and
e kB Te
µe = , De = ;
me νe me νe
ii. for the θ component
vE + vD
veθ = νe2
1+ 2
ωce

where
E kB Te 1 ∂n
vE = − , vD = − .
B eB n ∂r
(c) Find the expression of E that ensures ambipolarity along the radial di-
rection.
(d) Obtain the expression of Der for very intense B-fields (ωce  νe ) and
verify which is the length scale of the associated “random walk” motion.
Comment the result.

Note: it is interesting to compare the results of this exercise with exercise 4

from the problem sheet 8.
30 Problem sheet # 7. Diffusion and transport in weakly ionized plasmas

6. (Exam 2016/2017) A steady-state nitrogen plasma is created between two

parallel plates at high pressure by an external electric field. The plasma
contains electrons and two main types of positive ions, N2+ and N4+ . The
electrons and ions are lost by ambipolar diffusion to the walls.
(a) Assuming a strongly collisional regime (high pressure), a constant electron-
neutral collision frequency and an isothermal plasma (γ = 1), obtain the
expressions for the mobility and diffusion coefficients of species s, as well
as for the ratio Ds /µs . Justify all the approximations you make.
(b) Write the quasi-neutrality and congruency hypotheses in this case.
(c) Show that the ambipolar electric field is

~ ~ ~
~ = D1 ∇n1 + D2 ∇n2 − De ∇ne ,
E
µ1 n1 + µ2 n2 + µe ne
where the indexes 1 and 2 represent each the two positive ions and e
the electrons.
(d) Further assuming the proportionality hypothesis,

~ 1
∇n ~ 2
∇n ~ e
∇n
' ' ,
n1 n2 ne

show that ~Γs = −Das ∇n ~ s for all species, where the ambipolar diffusion
coefficients for the positive ions (s = 1, 2) are

D1 n1 + D2 n2 − De ne
Das = Ds − µs .
µ1 n1 + µ2 n2 + µe ne

(e) Show that, in the limit Te  Ti (i = 1, 2), Dsi ' Di TTei .

(f) Within the conditions of the problem, justify that we must have ne Dse =
n1 Ds1 + n2 Ds2 .
[Historical note: the expressions for the ambipolar diffusion coefficients for a
plasma comprised of electrons and several positive ions are given, e.g., in V.
Guerra, P. A. Sá and J. Loureiro, Eur. Phys. J. Appl. Phys. 28 (2004) 125]
7. (Exam 2017/2018) Consider a weakly ionized plasma diffusing in the ambipo-
lar regime. Assuming Da uniform in space and constant in time, obtain the
radial profile of the fundamental diffusion modes for a cylindrical plasma col-
umn of radius R and show that the characteristic decay time for this mode is
R2
τ0 ' 2.405 2D .
a
 PROBLEM SHEET # 8

Diffusion and transport in fully ionized plasmas

1. (F. F. Chen 5.9) Suppose the plasma in a fusion reactor is in the shape of
a cylinder 1.2 m in diameter and 100 m long. The 5 T magnetic field is
uniform, except for short mirror regions at the ends, which we may neglect.
Other parameters are kTi = 20 keV, kTe = 10 keV and n(r = 0) = 1021 m−3 .
The density profile is found experimentally to be approximately as sketched
in the figure.

(a) Assuming classical diffusion, calculate D⊥ at r = 0.5 m

(b) Calculate dN/dt, the total number of electron-ion pairs leaving the cen-
tral region radially per second.
(c) Estimate the confinement time, τ by τ ' −N/(dN/dt).

2. (F. F. Chen 5.11)
A cylindrical plasma column has a density distribution

n = n0 1 − r2 /a2 , where a = 10 cm and n0 = 1019 m−3 . If kTe = 100 eV,
kTi = 0 and the axial magnetic field is B0 = 1 T, what is the ratio between
the Bohm and the classical diffusion coefficients perpendicular to B0 ?

3. (F. F. Chen 5.18) If a cylindrical plasma column diffuses at the Bohm rate,
calculate the steady-state radial density profile, n(r), ignoring the fact that it
32 Problem sheet # 8. Diffusion and transport in fully ionized plasmas

may unstable. Assume the density is zero at r = ∞ and has the value n0 at
r = r0 .
4. (F. F. Chen 5.15) Consider an axisymmetric cylindrical plasma with E ~ =
~ = B~uz and ∇P
Ee ~ur , B ~ i = ∇P~ e = ∂P/∂r~ur . Neglect the convective term
and consider the stationary case.
(a) Write the two-fluid equations.
(b) From the θ components of these equations, show that vir = ver .
(c) From the r components, show that vsθ = vE + vDs (s = i, e).
(d) Find an expression for vir and show it does not depend on Er .
5. (Exam 2014/2015)
(a) Use the MHD equations to derive the expression
∂~v ~ × B)
~ + σ0 (~v × B)
~ ×B
~ − ∇P
~ ,
ρm = σ0 ( E
∂t
where σ0 is the plasma conductivity (σ0 = 1/η).
~ in
(b) Solve the equation for the velocity components perpendicular to B
~
the case E = 0 and P = const., to show that the characteristic time
for diffusion across the magnetic field is
ρm
τ= ,
σ0 B 2
i.e., ~v⊥ (t) = ~v⊥ (0) exp (−t/τ ).
6. (Exam 2015/2016) Consider a fully ionised plasma where the density varies
~ = B0 (x)~uz .
slowly along ~ux and where the magnetic field is given by B
∂P
(a) Use the MHD equations to show that, in stationary regime, ∂x = Jy B0 .
(b) The MHD equations provide a macroscopic image of the plasma. Explain
the physical meaning of the expression obtained.
(c) On a more microscopic image, since the positive ions are typically heavier
and colder than the electrons, the electric current density calculated in
a) is carried essentially by the electrons. Calculate the electron velocity
associated with that current. Comment the result.
7. (Exam 2016/2017) As seen in class, the generalised Ohm’s law can take the
form
~
~ = η J~ + 1 J~ × B
~ + ~v × B
E ~ + 1 ∇P~ e + me ∂ J .
en ne 2
en ∂t
During a substorm in the nightside magnetotail (disturbance in the mag-
netosphere) the following values have been measured: E ' 0.1 mV/m;
v ' 100 km/s; B ' 1 nT; J ' 1 nA/m2 ; n ' 1 cm−3 ; Pe ' 0.1 nPa.
In these circumstances, the characteristic length scale is L ' 104 km, the
characteristic time scale is τ ' 10 s and the effective resistivity is less than
1 mS−1 .
Compare the magnitudes of the various terms in Ohm’s law in this case.
Comment the results.
 33

8. (Exam 2016/2017) MHD equations can be used to investigate the origin of

the magnetic fields in stars, planets and the universe.
(a) Consider Ohm’s law in its common form (i.e., where the r.h.s contains
only the resistivity term) and assume that η is spatially uniform. Fur-
ther assume the displacement current can be neglected in Ampère’s law.
Derive the following closed equation for the magnetic field,
~
∂B ~ × (~v × B)
=∇ ~ + χ∇2 B
~ ,
∂t
where χ = η/µ0 is the magnetic diffusivity.
(b) The previous equation does not explain the origin of magnetic fields in
~ the
a medium initially non-magnetised [as the equation is linear in B,
~ = 0) = 0 implies B(t
initial condition B(t ~ > 0) = 0].
Repeat the previous question keeping as well the electron pressure gra-
dient term in Ohm’s law, to show that the equation for the temporal
evolution of the magnetic field has now a source term creating a mag-
netic field in the direction perpendicular to the gradients of density and
electron temperature.
[Historical note: this source term is known as the Biermann battery and
can be conveniently expressed in terms of the field E~ b = kB Te ∇n.
~ The
en
Biermann battery provides the first seeds of the magnetic field, which are
~
then efficiently amplified by the dynamo associated with the ∇×(~ ~
v × B)
term. The historical reference is L. Biermann, Z. Naturforsch. 5a (1950)
65.]
(c) Knowing that in Earth’s core χ ' 2 m2 s−1 and that the Earth’s core
radius is R ' 3.5×106 m, make a rough order of magnitude estimation of
the decay time of Earth’s magnetic field due only to magnetic diffusion.
9. (Exam 2017/2018) In the deduction   of the MHD equations, it is argued the
mi me n ∂ J~
electron inertia term e ∂t n can often be neglected in comparison
with the Hall term (mi − me )J~ × B. ~ Establish and discuss the conditions of
validity of this approximation.
∂
10. (Exam 2017/2018) Consider a cylindrically symmetric plasma column ( ∂z =
∂ ∂
0; ∂θ = 0) of radius R, in equilibrium ( ∂t = 0), confined by a magnetic field.
(a) Show that the radial component of the MHD force equation can be
written as
∂P (r)
= Jθ (r)Bz (r) − Jz (r)Bθ (r) .
∂r
(b) [2.5 val] Use Ampere’s law neglecting the displacement current to elim-
inate J and show that the former equation can take the form
1 Bθ2 (r)
 
∂ 1 2 1 2
P (r) + Bz (r) + Bθ (r) = − ,
∂r 2µ0 2µ0 µ0 r
1 2
which allows defining a magnetic pressure 2µ0 B associated with the
J~ × B
~ force.
34 Problem sheet # 8. Diffusion and transport in fully ionized plasmas

(c) Imagine a situation with Bθ = 0 and where the plasma density decreases
radially. Interpret and discuss the meaning of the previous equation in
this case.
[Suggestion: start by drawing a typical profile of n(r), then draw Bz (r)
and mark all forces acting on the plasma.]
 PROBLEM SHEET # 9

Kinetic theory I

1. Derive the continuity equation from the Vlasov’s equation (integrate in d3 v).

2. Derive the force equation from Vlasov’s equation (multiply by ~v and inte-
grate in d3 v). The most laborious term is the one involving the gradient in
configuration space, which makes appear the average value of the tensor ~v~v .
Calculate the explicitly this term when:

(a) the thermal agitation is negligible;

(b) the average velocity is zero (i.e., the fluid is at rest and there is only
thermal agitation);
(c) in the general case where the velocoty can be decomposed as ~v = ~u + w,
~
where ~u is the average velocity of the fluid and w
~ corresponds to the
thermal agitation.

3. (Exam 2015/2016) Consider a stationary plasma, without magnetic field, un-

der the effect of an electrostatic field E ~ = −∇φ. ~ We want to obtain the
electrostatic potential due to a test charge placed in the plasma. We shall
look for a stationary solution of Vlasov’s equation on the separable form
fs (~r, ~v , t) ≡ fs (v, ~r) = f0s (v)ψs (~r), where f0 is the Maxwellian distribution,
3/2
mv 2
  
m
f0 (~r, ~v , t) ≡ f0 (v) = n0 exp − ,
2πkB Te 2kB Te

where v = |~v | and s = e, i.

´
(a) Show that the distribution f0 is properly normalised, i.e., f0 (v)d3 v =
n0 .
(b) Use Vlasov’s equation to show that çã

~ s (~r)
∇ψ ~ r)
qs ∇φ(~
=−
ψs (~r) kB Ts
36 Problem sheet # 9. Kinetic theory I

(c) Solve the previous equaiton and show that

 
qs φ(~r)
fs (v, ~r) = f0 (v) exp − ,
kB Ts

where n0 in the Maxwellian distribution is the plasma density faraway

from the test charge, i.e., in a region where φ(~r) = 0.
(d) Write Poisson’s equation using the distributions fs and show that
    
2 en0 eφ eφ
∇ φ− exp − exp − =0.
0 kB Te kB Ti

Comment the result.

4. (Exam 2016/2017) The kinetic study of the behaviour of electrons in a plasma

can be made using a general kinetic equation of the form
 
∂f ~ r f + q (E
~ + ~v × B)
~ ·∇~ v f = ∂f
+ ~v · ∇ ,
∂t m ∂t c

where the r.h.s.

´ term represents the influence of collisions. Assume the
normalisation f (~r, ~v , t)d3 v = ne (~r, t).
One of the simpler expressions for the collision term is given by the relaxation
time approximation, also known as the Krook model, which takes collisions
into account using  
∂f
= −νc (f − f0 ) ,
∂t c
where νc is a constant collision frequency and f0 (~r, ~v ) is the equilibrium dis-
tribution of the electrons.

(a) Show that for a homogeneous plasma in the absence of external fields
the difference between f and f0 decays exponentially with time.
(b) Consider now electrons in an unmagnetized, homogeneous, time-independent
plasma in a weak constant electric field, E~1 . Linearise the distribution
function, f (~r, ~v , t) ≡ f (~v ) = f0 (~v ) + f1 (~v ) , where f0 is the (uniform
and stationary) unperturbed distribution, assumed to be a Maxwellian,
and f1 is a first order perturbation.
i. Show that ˆ 
e2 
J~ = − ~ ·∇
E ~ v f0 ~v d3 v .
νc m
ii. Show that the electrical conductivity is given by

ne e2
σc = .
mνc
[Note: This is one of many examples of deriving familiar macroscopic
results from underlying kinetic equations.]
 PROBLEM SHEET # 10

Kinetic theory II

1. (F. F. Chen 7.2) An electron plasma wave with 1 cm wavelength is excited

in a 10 eV plasma with n = 1015 cm−3 . The excitation is then removed and
the wave Landau damps away. How long does it take for the amplitude to
fall by a factor of e?
2. (Exam 2014/2015) Consider a one dimensional electron distribution function
of the form
 2
(u − ub )2
 
np u nb
f0 (u) = 1/2 exp − 2 + 1/2 exp − ,
π vt vt π vb vb2

resulting from the injection of an electron beam of average speed

q ub and
kB T
density nb on a Maxwellian plasma of density np , where vt = m is the
thermal electron speed. Suppose as well that vt ∼ vb and ub  vt , nb  np ,
and neglect ion motion.
´ +∞
(a) Calculate −∞ f0 (u)du to verify that the distribution function is cor-
rectly normalised.
(b) Sketch f0 (u) and show where do you expect that unstable waves may
exist.
(c) In which interval of phase speeds would you search for unstable waves?
[Suggestion: determine where the two components of f0 give the same
contribution]
(d) Determine the frequency, wave number and growth rate for the fastest
growing mode.
3. (F. F. Chen 7.3) An infinite, uniform plasma with fixed ions has an electron
distribution function composed of (1) a Maxwellian distribution of “plasma
electrons” with density np and temperature Tp at rest in the laboratory frame,
and (2) a Maxwellian distribution of “beam electrons” with density nb and
temperature Tb centered at ~v = V ~ux . If nb  np , plasma oscillations in
38 Problem sheet # 10. Kinetic theory II

the x-direction are Landau damped. If nb is large, there will be a two-stream

instability. The critical density for the onset at the instability can be estimated
by setting the slope of the total distribution function to zero, as follows:
(a) write expressions for fp (v) and fb (v), using the abbreviations v = vx ,
2kB Tp
a2 = m and b2 = 2km B Tb
;
(b) assuming that the value of the phase velocity vϕ will be the value of v
at which fb (v) has the largest positive slope, find vϕ and fb0 (vϕ );
(c) find fp0 (vϕ ) and set fp0 (vϕ ) + fb0 (vϕ ) = 0;
(d) para V  b show thatthe beam
 critical density is given approximately
nb
√ T V V2
by np = 2e Tp a exp − a2 .
b

4. (Exam 2015/2016, Gardner’s theorem) We want to study the propagation of

Langmuir waves starting from Vlasov’s equation. As it has been shown in
class, if we assume immobile positive ions (mi → ∞), the dispersion relation
can be written in the form
2 ˆ +∞
ωpe ∂g 1
(k, ω) = 1 − 2 du = 0
k −∞ ∂u u − ω/k
where g(u) is the unidimensional distribution function
ˆ +∞ ˆ +∞
1
g(u) = f0 (u, vy , vz )dvy dvz .
n0 −∞ −∞
(a) Justify that if g is Maxwellian and the wave phase speed is much larger
than the electron thermal speed we can, on a first approximation ac-
counting only for the contribution of the electrons of the body of the
distribution, neglect the pole on the integral. Obtain the dispersion
relation in this case
´ +∞
[Suggestion: recall that for a Maxwellian and u  vϕ , −∞ g(u)/(u −
vϕ )2 du ' 1/vϕ2 + 3vt2 /vϕ4 ]
(b) In fact ω can be complex. There are unstable modes if the imaginary
part of the frequency is positive. We want to show Gardner’s theorem,
establishing that a single-humped velocity distribution is always stable.

The proof can be made by con-

g(u)"
tradiction. Consider ω = ωr + iγ
in the expression from a), where
ωr and γ are the real and imag-
inary parts of the frequency, re-
spectively. Assuming γ > 0 the
integral in the dispersion relation
can be made along the real axis u, u"
since the pole is above that axis. v0"

i. Show that the dispersion relation can be written in the form

2 ˆ +∞ ∂g ωr


∂u u − k
ωpe
r (k, w) = 1 − 2
2
2 = 0
k −∞ u − ωkr + γk
 39

2 ˆ +∞ ∂g
ωpe γ ∂u
i (k, ω) = − 2 =0
k k ωr 2 γ 2



−∞ u− k + k
ii. Show that
2 ˆ +∞ ∂g
∂u (v0 − u)
ωpe
1+ 2
2
2 =0,
k −∞ u − ωkr + γk
where v0 is the value of u corresponding to the hump in the distri-
bution function (see figure).
[Suggestion: consider the linear combination r − i (kv0 − ωr )/γ]
iii. Show that the expression from the previous question can never be
satisfied and conclude about the stability of single-humped distri-
butions.

5. (Exam 2016/2017) Consider longitudinal oscillations of electrons in the ab-

sence of a magnetic field. Collisions with neutrals are taken into account
by the Krook model (relaxation time approximation), so that electrons are
described by the kinetic equation
∂f ~ rf − e E
~ ·∇
~ v f = −νc (f − f0 ) ,
+ ~v · ∇
∂t m
where νc is a constant collision frequency and f0 (v) an unperturbed velocity
distribution corresponding to n0 particles per unit volume. The dynamics of
the ion motion are neglected, the ions act merely as a uniform background of
positive charge.
(a) Linearize the equation in the usual way and show that
1 eE1 ∂f0
f1 = ,
i(kv − ω − iνc ) m ∂v
where v ≡ vx .
(b) Show that the dispersion relation can be written in the form
ˆ +∞
k2 dg 1
2
− dv = 0 ,
ωpe −∞ dv v − ω/k − iνc /k
´
where g(vx ) = n10 dvy dvz f0 (vx , vy , vz ).
(c) Determine the damping rate of the wave for small collision frequencies.
Comment the results, referring the conditions where Landau damping
can be observed, if any.
[Suggestion: Recall that without collisions you have the same dispersion
relation as in 5b, with νc = 0 and where ω is complex, ω = ωr + iωi ; in
3
πωpe dg ωr
that case the result is ωi ' 2k2 du (u = k ).]

6. (Exam 2017/2018) The purpose of this problem is to make a kinetic study of

linear, transverse waves in non-magnetized plasmas (B ~ 0 = 0). A complete de-
scription of the plasma is given by the Vlasov equation and the Maxwell equa-
tions. The linearization is made about equilibrium zero order, space and time-
independent, isotropic distribution functions, fs (~r, ~v , t) = f0s (v)+f1s (~r, ~v , t),
where s ∈ {e, i}. Assume the unperturbed plasma is quasi-neutral.
40 Problem sheet # 10. Kinetic theory II

~ r, t)
(a) Write the expressions that allow the calculation of ρ(~r, t) and J(~
from the distribution functions and show they are first order quantities.
(b) Looking for plane waves, show that the first order distributions are given
by
qs /ms ~ ~
f1s = E1 · ∇v f0s (v) .
i(ω − ~k · ~v )
~ 0 = 0 and B~0 = 0, but that in principle E
Note: recall that E ~1 =
6 0 and
~
B1 6= 0.
(c) Use Maxwell’s equations to show that for transverse waves
2
~ 1 = iωµ0 J~1 + ω E
k2 E ~1 .
c2

(d) Show that

X e2 ˆ
~ 1 (ω 2 − k 2 c2 ) = −i ω
E
1 ~ ·∇
E ~ v f0s (v)~v d3 v .
0 m s i(ω − ~k · ~v ) 1
s

(e) Assume E ~ 1 = E1 ~uy and ~k = k~ux and neglect the ion motion (mi → ∞).
Simplify the expression above to derive the dispersion relation
ˆ +∞
2 2 2 2 g(vx )
ω − k c = ω ωpe dvx ,
−∞ ω − kvx

where ˆ ˆ
+∞ +∞
1
g(vx ) = f0e (v)dvy dvz .
n0 −∞ −∞

[Suggestion: integrate by parts in dvy ]

(f) For non-relativistic plasmas the phase velocity of the wave is always much
larger than the thermal speed. Therefore, approximate ω − kvx ' ω and
obtain the dispersion relation of these waves.
(g) Would you expect these waves to be significantly damped?