Life-Span Development (Developmental Psychology)

SEVENTEENTH EDITION
JOHN W. SANTROCK

CONTENT OF THE WEEK 1 TO WEEK 4

CHAPTER 1: THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE 1

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2: BEGINNINGS
BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH
CHAPTER 3: INFANCY
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
CHAPTER 4: EARLY CHILDHOOD
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Chapter 1. The Life-Span Perspective

A.Introduction The Importance of Studying the
Life-Span Development

Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective

Some Contemporary Concerns

B.The Nature of Development Biological, Cognitive, and

Socioemotional Processes

Periods of Development

The Significance of Age

Developmental Issues

C.Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories

Cognitive Theories

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories

Ethological Theory

Ecological Theory
 An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation

D.Research on Life-Span Development Methods of Collecting Data

Research Design

Time Span of Research

Conducting Ethical Research

Minimizing Bias

We reach backward to our parents and forward to our children, and through their children to a
future we will never see, but about which we need to care.
—Car Jun Swis Psychiatris, 20t Centur

Terminologies

development The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life
span. Most development involves growth, although it also includes decline brought on by aging
and dying.
life-span perspective The perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional,
multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and
regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working
together.
Life Expectancy Recent increases in human life expectancy have contributed to the popularity
of the life-span approach to development. The upper boundary of the human lifespan (based on
the oldest age documented) is 122 years.
normative age-graded influences Influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age
group.
normative history-graded influences Influences that are common to people of a particular
generation because of historical circumstances.
Nonnormative life events are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the lives of
individual people.
culture The behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group that are passed on
from generation to generation.
cross-cultural studies Comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures. These
provide information about the degree to which development is similar, or universal, across
cultures, and the degree to which it is culture-specific.
ethnicity A characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion,
and language.
socioeconomic status (SES) Refers to the grouping of people with similar occupational,
educational, and economic characteristics.
gender The characteristics of people as males or females.
social policy A national government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its
citizens.
developmental cognitive neuroscience, which explores links between development, cognitive
processes, and the brain.
developmental social neuroscience, which examines connections between socioemotional
processes, development, and the brain.
gene-gene interaction is increasingly used to describe studies that focus on the
interdependent process by which two or more genes influence characteristics, behavior,
diseases, and development (Lovely & others, 2017; Yip & others, 2018).

According to life-span development expert Paul Baltes (1939–2006), life-span perspective

views development as lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and
contextual, and as a process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss (Baltes,
1987, 2003; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006).

Component of th lif-spa perspectiv

Development Is Lifelong In the life-span perspective, early adulthood is not the
endpoint of development; rather, no age period dominates development. Researchers
increasingly study the experiences and psychological orientations of adults at
different points in their lives.
Development Is Multidimensional No matter what your age might be, your body, mind,
emotions, and relationships are changing and affecting each other. Development has
biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions
Development Is Multidirectional Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a
dimension expand and others shrink.
Development Is Plastic Developmentalists debate how much plasticity people have in
various dimensions at different points in their development (Roisman & Cicchetti, 2017;
Park & Festini, 2018). Plasticity means the capacity for change. For example, can you
still improve your intellectual skills when you are in your seventies or eighties? Or might
these intellectual skills be fixed by the time you are in your thirties so that further
improvement is impossible? Researchers have found that the cognitive skills of older
adults can be improved through training and acquisition of effective strategies (Motes &
others, 2018; Shah & others, 2017).
Developmental Science Is Multidisciplinary Psychologists, sociologists,
anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an interest in
unlocking the mysteries of development through the lifespan. How do your heredity and
health limit your intelligence? Do intelligence and social relationships change with age in
the same ways around the world? How do families and schools influence intellectual
development? These are examples of research questions that cut across disciplines.
Development Is Contextual All development occurs within a context, or setting.
Contexts include families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhoods,
university laboratories, countries, and so on. Each of these settings is influenced by
historical, economic, social, and cultural factors (Lubetkin & Jia, 2017; Nair, Roche, &
White, 2018).
Contexts exert three types of influences (Baltes, 2003): (1) normative age-graded
influences, (2) normative history-graded influences, and (3) nonnormative or highly
individualized life events. Each type of influence can have a biological or environmental
impact on development.
Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss Baltes and his
colleagues (2006) assert that the mastery of life often involves conflicts and competition
 among three goals of human development: growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss.
As individuals age into middle and late adulthood, the maintenance and regulation of
loss in their capacities takes center stage.
Development Is a Co-construction of Biology, Culture, and the Individual
Development is a co-construction of biological, cultural, and individual factors working
together (Baltes, Reuter-Lorenz, & Rösler, 2012). For example, the brain shapes culture,
but it is also shaped by culture and the experiences that individuals have or pursue. In
terms of individual factors, we can go beyond what our genetic inheritance and our
environment give us. We can author a unique developmental path by actively choosing
from the environment the things that optimize our lives (Rathunde & Csikszentmihalyi,
2006).

Som Contemporar Concern

Health and Well-Being Health professionals today recognize the powerful influences of
lifestyles and psychological states on health and well-being (Hales, 2018; Rolfes, Pinna,
& Whitney, 2018).
Parenting and Education
Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity Health, parenting, and education— like
development itself—are all shaped by their sociocultural context (Duncan, Magnuson, &
Votruba-Drzal, 2017; Lansford & Banati, 2018). To analyze this context, four concepts
are especially useful: culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender.
Natur of Developmen
BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES

biological processes
Changes in an individual’s physical nature.

cognitive processes
Changes in an individual’s thought,
intelligence, and language.

socioemotional processes
Changes in an individual’s interpersonal
relationships, emotions, and personality.

Connecting Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes Biological, cognitive, and

socioemotional processes are inextricably intertwined (Diamond, 2013). Consider a baby smiling
in response to a parent’s touch. This response depends on biological processes (the physical
nature of touch and responsiveness to it), cognitive processes (the ability to understand
intentional acts), and socioemotional processes (the fact that smiling often reflects a positive
emotional feeling and helps to connect us in positive ways with other human beings).

Periods of Development
The interplay of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes produces the periods of the
human lifespan. A developmental period refers to a time frame in a person’s life that is
characterized by certain features.

The prenatal period is the time from conception to birth. It involves tremendous growth— from
a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities—and takes place in
approximately a 9-month period.
Infancy is the developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months. Infancy is a time of extreme
dependence upon adults. During this period, many psychological activities— language,
symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination, and social learning, for example— are just
beginning.
The term toddler is often used to describe a child from about 1 ½ to 3 years of age. Toddlers
are in a transitional period between infancy and the next period, early childhood. Early
childhood is the developmental period from 3 through 5 years of age. This period is sometimes
called the “preschool years.” During this time, young children learn to become more
self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills (following instructions,
identifying letters), and spend many hours playing with peers. First grade typically marks the
end of early childhood.
Middle and late childhood is the developmental period from about 6 to 10 or 11 years of age,
approximately corresponding to the elementary school years. During this period, children master
the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and they are formally exposed to the
larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child’s world,
and self-control increases.
Adolescence is the developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood,
entered at approximately 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 to 21 years of age.
Adolescence begins with rapid physical changes—dramatic gains in height and weight, changes
in body contour, and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the
breasts, growth of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. At this point in
development, the pursuit of independence and an identity are preeminent. Thought is more
logical, abstract, and idealistic. More time is spent outside the family.
The transition from adolescence to adulthood has been referred to as emerging adulthood, the
period from approximately 18 to 25 years of age (Arnett, 2015, 2016a, b). At this point in their
development, many individuals are still exploring which career path they want to follow, what
they want their identity to be, and which lifestyle they want to adopt (for example, single,
cohabiting, or married) (Jensen, 2018; Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2017).
Early adulthood is the developmental period that begins in the early twenties and lasts through
the thirties. It is a time of establishing personal and economic independence, advancing in a
career, and for many, selecting a mate, learning to live with that person in an intimate way,
starting a family, and rearing children.
Middle adulthood is the developmental period from approximately 40 to about 60 years of age.
It is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next
generation in becoming competent, mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining
satisfaction in a career.
Late adulthood is the developmental period that begins during the sixties or seventies and
lasts until death. It is a time of life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles and
diminishing strength and health.

Significanc of Ag

FOUR AGES
Life-span developmentalists who focus on adult development and aging increasingly describe
life-span development in terms of four “ages” (Baltes, 2006; Willis & Schaie, 2006): First age:
Childhood and adolescence
Second age: Prime adulthood, ages 20 through 59
Third age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of age
Fourth age: Approximately 80 years and older

Three Developmental Patterns of Aging

Normal aging characterizes most individuals, for whom psychological functioning often peaks
in early middle age, remains relatively stable until the late fifties to early sixties, and then shows
a modest decline through the early eighties. However, marked decline can occur as individuals
approach death.
Pathological aging characterizes individuals who show greater than average decline as they
age through the adult years. In early old age, they may have mild cognitive impairment, develop
Alzheimer disease later on, or have a chronic disease that impairs their daily functioning.
Successful aging characterizes individuals whose positive physical, cognitive, and
socioemotional development is maintained longer, declining later in old age than is the case for
most people. For too long, only the declines that occur in late adulthood were highlighted, but
recently there has been increased interest in the concept of successful aging (Docking & Stock,
2018).
Age and Happiness
Is there a best age to be? About 33 percent were very happy at 88 years of age compared with
only about 24 percent in their late teens and early twenties. Why might older people report being
happier and more satisfied with their lives than younger people?
Despite facing higher incidences of physical problems and losses, older adults are more content
with what they have in their lives, have better relationships with the people who matter to them,
are less pressured to achieve, have more time for leisurely pursuits, and have many years of
experience resulting in wisdom that may help them adapt better to their circumstances than
younger adults do (Carstensen, 2015; Sims, Hogan, & Carstensen, 2015). Researchers have
also found that baby boomers (those born between 1946 and 1964) tend to report being less
happy than individuals born earlier— possibly because they are not lowering their aspirations
and idealistic hopes as they age, as did earlier generations.

Chronological age is the number of years that have elapsed since birth. Age has
been conceptualized not just as chronological age but also as biological age,
psychological age, and social age (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009).

Developmenta Issue (Recurrin Issue i Huma Developmen)

Is your own journey through life marked out ahead of time, or can your experiences change your
path? Are the experiences you have early in your journey more important than later ones?

nature-nurture issue Debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or

nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurturing its environmental
experiences.

continuity-discontinuity issue Debate about the

extent to which development involves gradual,
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages
(discontinuity).

stability-change issue Debate about whether we

become older renditions of our early experience
(stability) or whether we develop into someone
different from who we were at an earlier point in
development (change).

For the most part, developmentalists who

emphasize nurture describe development as a
gradual, continuous process. Those who
emphasize nature often describe development as a
series of distinct stages.

Evaluating the Developmental Issues Most

life-span developmentalists acknowledge that
development is not all nature or all nurture, not all
stability or all change, and not all continuity or all
discontinuity. Nature and nurture, stability and
 change, continuity and discontinuity characterize
development throughout the human life span.
Although most developmentalists do not take
extreme positions on these three important issues,
there is spirited debate regarding how strongly
development is influenced by each of these factors
(Almy & Cicchetti, 2018; Moore, 2017).
eorie of Developmen

● Psychoanalytic Theories
● Cognitive Theories
● Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
● Ethological Theory
● Ecological Theory
● An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation

Psychoanalytic theories describe development as primarily unconscious (beyond awareness)

and heavily colored by emotion. Psychoanalytic theorists emphasize that behavior is merely a
surface characteristic and that a true understanding of development requires analyzing the
symbolic meanings of behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind. Psychoanalytic
theorists also stress that early experiences with parents extensively shape development. These
characteristics are highlighted in the main psychoanalytic theory, that of Sigmund Freud
(1856–1939).

Psychosexual Stages

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (1902–1994) recognized Freud’s contributions

but believed that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. For one
thing, Erikson (1950, 1968) said we develop in psychosocial stages, rather than in psychosexual
stages as Freud maintained. According to Freud, the primary motivation for human behavior is
sexual in nature; according to Erikson, it is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other
people.

According to Erikson, this crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point marked by both
increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more successfully an individual resolves
each crisis, the healthier development will be.

Erikson’s Stages Developmental Period

Trust versus Mistrust Infancy (first year)
 Autonomy versus shame and doubt Infancy (1 to 3 years)

Initiative versus guilt Early childhood (preschool years, 3 to 5

years)

Industry versus Inferiority Middle and late childhood (elementary

school years, 6 years to puberty

Identity versus identity confusion Adolescence (10 to 20 years)

Intimacy versus isolation Early adulthood (20s, 30s)

Generativity versus stagnation Middle adulthood (40s, 50s)

Integrity versus despair Late adulthood (60s onward)

COGNITIVE THEORIES
Whereas psychoanalytic theories stress the importance of the unconscious, cognitive theories
emphasize conscious thoughts. Three important cognitive theories are Jean Piaget’s cognitive
developmental theory, Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory, and the information
processing theory.

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Piaget’s theory states that children go through four
stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world. Two
processes underlie this cognitive construction of the world: organization and adaptation. To
make sense of our world, we organize our experiences.

Piaget (1954) identified four stages in understanding the world:

Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social
interaction guide cognitive development. Vygotsky portrayed the child’s development as
inseparable from social and cultural activities (Daniels, 2017). He maintained that cognitive
development involves learning to use the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical
systems, and memory strategies.

The Information-Processing Theory Information-processing theory emphasizes that

individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Unlike Piaget’s theory, but
like Vygotsky’s theory, information-processing theory does not describe development as
stage-like. Instead, according to this theory, individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity
for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and
skills (Knapp & Morton, 2017).
The information-processing approach often uses the computer as an analogy to help
explain the connection between cognition and the brain (Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2018).

BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES

Behaviorism essentially holds that we can study scientifically only what can be directly observed
and measured. Out of the behavioral tradition grew the belief that development is observable
behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment (Maag, 2018).

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning According to B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), through operant

conditioning the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the
behavior’s occurrence. A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur,
whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur. For example, when
an adult smiles at a child after the child has done something, the child is more likely to engage
in that behavior again than if the adult gives the child a disapproving look.

In Skinner’s (1938) view, such rewards and punishments shape development. For
Skinner the key aspect of development is behavior, not thoughts and feelings. He emphasized
that development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought about by
rewards and punishments. For example, Skinner would say that shy people learned to be shy
as a result of experiences they had while growing up. It follows that modifications in an
environment can help a shy person become more socially oriented.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory holds that behavior, environment,
and cognition are the key factors in development. American psychologist Albert Bandura (1925–
) is the leading architect of social cognitive theory. Bandura (1986, 2004, 2010a, b, 2012, 2015)
emphasizes that cognitive processes have important links with the environment and behavior.
His early research program focused heavily on observational learning (also called imitation or
modeling), which is learning that occurs through observing what others do.
ETHOLOGICAL THEORY

Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is
characterized by critical or sensitive periods. These are specific time frames during which,
according to ethologists, the presence or absence of certain experiences has a long-lasting
influence on individuals (Bateson, 2015).

John Bowlby (1969, 1989) illustrated an important application of ethological theory to human
development. Bowlby stressed that attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has
important consequences throughout the life span. In his view, if this attachment is positive and
secure, the individual will likely develop positively in childhood and adulthood. If the attachment
is negative and insecure, life-span development will likely not be optimal.

ECOLOGICAL THEORY
One ecological theory that has important implications for understanding life-span development
was created by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005). Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986, 2004; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998, 2006) holds that development
reflects the influence of several environmental systems. The theory identifies five environmental
systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

AN ECLECTIC THEORETICAL ORIENTATION

Researc o Lif-Spa Developmen

METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
● Observation
● Naturalistic observation
● Survey and Interview
● Standardized Test
● Case Study
● Physiological Measures

RESEARCH DESIGNS
● Descriptive Research
● Correlational Research
● Experimental Research
● Cross-Sectional Approach
● Longitudinal Approach
● Cohort Effects

CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH

1. Informed consent. All participants must know what their research participation will involve
and what risks might develop. Even after informed consent is given, participants must retain the
right to withdraw from the study at any time and for any reason.
2. Confidentiality. Researchers are responsible for keeping all of the data they gather on
individuals completely confidential and, when possible, completely anonymous. 3. Debriefing.
After the study has been completed, participants should be informed of its purpose and the
methods that were used. In most cases, the experimenter also can inform participants in a
general manner beforehand about the purpose of the research without leading participants to
behave in a way they think that the experimenter is expecting. 4. Deception. In some
circumstances, telling the participants beforehand what the research study is about
substantially alters the participants’ behavior and invalidates the researcher’s data. In all cases
of deception, however, the psychologist must ensure that the deception will not harm the
participants and that the participants will be debriefed (told the complete nature of the study) as
soon as possible after the study is completed.

MINIMIZING BIAS
● Gender Bias
● Cultural and Ethnic Bias

Chapter 2: The Beginnings (PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH)

A. The Evolutionary Perspective Natural Selection and Adaptive Behavior

Evolutionary Psychology

B. Genetic Foundations of Development The Collaborative Gene

Genes and Chromosomes

Genetic Principles
 Chromosomal and Gene-Linked
Abnormalities

C. Reproductive Challenges and Choices Prenatal Diagnostic Tests

Infertility and Reproductive Technology

D. Heredity-Environment Interaction: Behavior Genetics

The NatureNurture Debate

Heredity-Environment Correlations

The Epigenetic View and Gene ×

Environment (G × E) Interaction

Conclusions About
Heredity-Environment Interaction

NATURAL SELECTION AND ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR

Natural selection is the evolutionary process by which those individuals of a species that are
best adapted are the ones that survive and leave the most fit offspring.
Charles Darwin, who published his observations and thoughts in On the Origin of Species
(1859), noted that most organisms reproduce at rates that would cause enormous increases in
the population of most species and yet populations remain nearly constant.

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology’s newest approach, evolutionary psychology, emphasizes the importance of

adaptation, reproduction, and “survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior (Bjorklund, 2018;
Legare, Clegg, & Wen, 2018; Lewis & others, 2017).

Genetic Foundations of Development

The nucleus of each human cell contains chromosomes, which are threadlike structures made
up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is a complex molecule that has a double helix shape,
like a spiral staircase and contains genetic information. Genes, the units of hereditary
information, are short segments of DNA. They help cells to reproduce themselves and to
assemble proteins. Proteins, in turn, are the building blocks of cells as well as the regulators
that direct the body’s processes (Goodenough & McGuire, 2017; Mason & others, 2018).

Each gene has its own location—its own designated place on a particular chromosome. Today,
there is a great deal of enthusiasm about efforts to discover the specific locations of genes that
are linked to certain functions and developmental outcomes (Hoefnagels, 2018; Johnson,
2017). An important step in this direction is the Human Genome Project’s efforts to
map the human genome—the complete genetic content of our cells, which includes
developmental information used for creating proteins that contribute to the making of a human
organism (Brooker & others, 2018).
 Among the major approaches to gene identification
and discovery that are being used today are the
genome-wide association method, linkage
analysis, next-generation sequencing, and the
Thousand Genomes Project.

Recent research has documented that factors such as

stress, exercise, nutrition, respiration, radiation,
temperature, and sleep can influence gene expression
(Kader, Ghai, & Mahraj, 2018; Poulsen & others, 2018;
Stephens & Tsintzas, 2018; Turecki & Meaney, 2016;
Van Bussel & others, 2016). For example, one study
revealed that an increase in the concentration of stress
hormones such as cortisol produced a fivefold
increase in DNA damage (Flint & others, 2007).
Another study also found that exposure to radiation
changed the rate of DNA synthesis in cells (Lee &
others, 2011). And recent research indicates that sleep
deprivation can affect gene expression in negative
ways such as increased inflammation, expression of
stress-related genes, and impairment of protein
functioning (da Costa Souza & Ribeiro, 2015).

Scientists have found that certain genes become

turned on or off as a result of exercise mainly through
a process called methylation, in which tiny atoms
attach themselves to the outside of a gene
(Castellano-Castillo & others, 2018; Marioni & others,
2018). This process makes the gene more or less
capable of receiving and responding to biochemical
signals from the body (Kader, Ghai, & Mahraj, 2018;
Martin & Fry, 2018).

GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

Genes are not only collaborative, they are enduring. How do the genes manage to get passed
from generation to generation and end up in all of the trillion cells in the body? Three processes
are at the heart of the story: mitosis, meiosis, and fertilization.

mitosis Cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus duplicates itself with two new cells
being formed, each containing the same DNA as the parent cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs
of chromosomes.
meiosis A specialized form of cell division that occurs to form eggs and sperm (also known as
gametes).

fertilization A stage in reproduction when an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell,
called a zygote.

zygote A single cell formed through fertilization.

genotype A person’s genetic heritage; the actual genetic material.

phenotype The way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observed and measurable

characteristics.

Dominant-Recessive Genes In some cases, one gene of a pair always exerts its effects; it is
dominant and overrides the potential influence of the other gene, called the recessive gene.
This is the dominant-recessive genes principle. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if the
two genes of a pair are both recessive. If you inherit a recessive gene for a trait from each of
your parents, you will show the trait. If you inherit a recessive gene from only one parent, you
may never know you carry the gene. Brown hair, farsightedness, and dimples are dominant
genes; blond hair, nearsightedness, and freckles are recessive genes.

Sex-Linked Genes Most mutated genes are recessive. When a mutated gene is carried on the
X chromosome, the result is called X-linked inheritance. The implications for males may be very
different from those for females (Freeman & others, 2017; Mader & Windelspecht, 2018).
Remember that males have only one X chromosome. Thus, if there is an absent or altered
disease-relevant gene on the X chromosome, males have no “backup” copy to counter the
harmful gene and therefore may develop an X-linked disease. However, females have a second
X chromosome, which is likely to be unchanged. As a result, they are not likely to have the
X-linked disease. Thus, most individuals who have X-linked diseases are males. Females who
have one abnormal copy of the gene on the X chromosome are known as “carriers,” and they
usually do not show any signs of the X-linked disease. Hemophilia and fragile X syndrome,
which we will discuss later in the chapter, are examples of X-linked inheritance diseases
(Thurman & others, 2017).

Genetic Imprinting Genetic imprinting occurs when the expression of a gene has different
effects depending on whether the mother or the father passed on the gene (Brooker &
others,
2018; Simon, 2017). A chemical process “silences” one member of the gene pair. For example,
as result of imprinting, only the maternally derived copy of the expressed gene might be active,
while the paternally derived copy of the same expressed gene is silenced—or vice versa (John,
2017). Only a small percentage of human genes appear to undergo imprinting, but it is a normal
and important aspect of development. When imprinting goes awry, development is disturbed, as
in the case of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (a growth disorder) and Wilms tumor (a type of
cancer) (Bachmann & others, 2017; Okun & others, 2014).

Polygenic Inheritance Genetic transmission is usually more complex than the simple examples
we have examined thus far (Moore, 2017). Few characteristics reflect the influence of only a
single gene or pair of genes. The term polygenic inheritance means that many different genes
determine a characteristic (Hill & others, 2018; Oreland & others, 2017). Even a simple
characteristic such as height, for example, reflects the interaction of many genes as well as the
influence of the environment.

CHROMOSOMAL AND GENE-LINKED ABNORMALITIES

Sometimes a gamete is formed in which the male’s sperm and/or the female’s ovum do not
have their normal set of 23 chromosomes. The most notable examples involve Down syndrome
and abnormalities of the sex chromosome.

Sex-Linked Chromosomal Abnormalities Recall that a newborn normally has either an X and
a Y chromosome, or two X chromosomes.

Gene-Linked Abnormalities Abnormalities can be produced not only by an abnormal number

of chromosomes but also by harmful genes. More than 7,000 such genetic disorders have been
identified, although most of them are rare. Two widely studied gene-linked abnormalities are
phenylketonuria and sickle-cell anemia.
Thus, genes are not destiny, but genes that are missing, nonfunctional, or mutated can
contribute to disorders (Lu & others, 2017; Valiente-Palleja & others, 2018). Identifying such
genetic flaws could enable doctors to predict an individual’s risks, recommend healthy practices,
and prescribe the safest and most effective drugs (Kobow & Blumcke, 2018; Wang & others,
2018).
Genetic counselors, usually physicians or biologists who are well-versed in the field of
medical genetics, understand the kinds of problems just described, the odds of encountering
them, and helpful strategies for offsetting some of their effects.

Reproductive Challenges and Choices

PRENATAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS

One choice open to prospective mothers is the extent to which they will undergo
prenatal testing. A number of tests can indicate whether a fetus is developing normally,
including ultrasound sonography, fetal MRI, chorionic villus sampling,
amniocentesis, and maternal blood screening.

INFERTILITY AND REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY

in vitro fertilization (IVF) in which eggs and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish. If
any eggs are successfully fertilized, one or more of the resulting zygotes is transferred
into the woman’s uterus.

Heredity-Environment Interaction: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Behavior genetics is the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and
environment on individual differences in human traits and development (Charney, 2017
twin study A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with
the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.

HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS

passive genotype-environment correlations Correlations that exist when the natural

parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the
child.

evocative genotype-environment correlations Correlations that exist when the child’s

genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments.

active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations Correlations that exist

when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating.

THE EPIGENETIC VIEW AND GENE × ENVIRONMENT (G × E) INTERACTION

epigenetic view Emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing,
bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.

Prenata Developmen

THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Typical prenatal development, which begins with fertilization and ends with birth, takes between
266 and 280 days (38 to 40 weeks). It can be divided into three periods: germinal, embryonic,
and fetal.

germinal period The period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks
after conception. It includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the
attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.

blastocyst The inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period. These cells later
develop into the embryo.

trophoblast The outer layer of cells that develops in the germinal period. These cells provide
nutrition and support for the embryo.

embryonic period The period of prenatal development that occurs two to eight weeks after
conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support
systems for the cells form, and organs appear.

SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE GERMINAL PERIOD

amnion The part of the prenatal life-support system that consists of a sac containing a clear
fluid in which the developing embryo floats.

umbilical cord Part of the prenatal life-support system that contains two arteries and one vein
that connect the baby to the placenta.

placenta A prenatal life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which
small blood vessels from the mother and offspring intertwine.

organogenesis Organ formation that takes place during the first two months of
prenatal development.
THE PLACENTA AND THE UMBILICAL CORD
fetal period Lasting about seven months, the prenatal period between two months after
conception and birth in typical pregnancies.

Brain Development At birth, infants’ brains weigh approximately 25 percent of what they
will weigh in adulthood.
THE THREE TRIMESTERS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the field of study that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. Any
agent that causes birth defects is called a teratogen. The dose, genetic susceptibility, and time
of exposure influence the severity of the damage to an unborn child and the type of defect that
occurs.
● Prescription drugs that can be harmful include antibiotics. Nonprescription drugs that can
be harmful include diet pills, aspirin, and caffeine. Legal psychoactive drugs that are
potentially harmful to prenatal development include alcohol and nicotine.
● Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders are a cluster of abnormalities that appear in offspring of
mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy. Even when pregnant women drink
moderately (one to two drinks a few days a week), negative effects on their offspring
have been found.
● Cigarette smoking by pregnant women has serious adverse effects on prenatal and child
development, including low birth weight. Illegal psychoactive drugs that are potentially
harmful to offspring include marijuana, cocaine, and heroin. Incompatibility of the
mother’s and the father’s blood types can also be harmful to the fetus.

Prenatal care varies extensively but usually involves health maintenance services with a
defined schedule of visits.
Chapter 3: Infancy
A. Infancy PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

cephalocaudal pattern is the sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the
top—the head—with physical growth and differentiation of features gradually working their way
down from top to bottom.

proximodistal pattern, the sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and
moves toward the extremities

Brain Development
● Frontal lobes are involved in voluntary movement, thinking, personality, and
intentionality or purpose.
● Occipital lobes function in vision.
● Temporal lobes have an active role in hearing, language processing, and memory. ●
Parietal lobes play important roles in registering spatial location, attention, and motor
control.
Within the brain, the type of nerve cells
called neurons send electrical and chemical
signals, communicating with each other. A neuron
is a nerve cell that handles information processing
(see Figure 7). Extending from the neuron’s cell
body are two types of fibers known as axons and
dendrites. Generally, the axon carries signals away
from the cell body and dendrites carry signals
toward it. A myelin sheath, which is a layer of fat
cells, encases many axons (see Figure 7). The
myelin sheath insulates axons and helps electrical
signals travel faster down the axon (Cercignani &
others, 2017; van Tilborg & others, 2018).
Myelination also is involved in providing energy to
neurons and in communication (Saab & Nave,
2017). At the end of the axon are terminal buttons,
which release chemicals called neurotransmitters
into synapses, which are tiny gaps between
neurons’ fibers. Chemical interactions in synapses
connect axons and dendrites, allowing information
to pass from neuron to neuron (Ismail, Fatemi, &
Johnson, 2017; Zhou & others, 2018).
Motor Development

● Thelen’s dynamic systems theory seeks to explain how motor behaviors are assembled
for perceiving and acting. Perception and action are coupled. According to this theory,
motor skills are the result of many converging factors, such as the development of the
nervous system, the body’s physical properties and its movement possibilities, the goal
the child is motivated to reach, and environmental support for the skill. In the dynamic
systems view, motor development is far more complex than the result of a genetic
blueprint.
● Reflexes—automatic movements—govern the newborn’s behavior. They include the
sucking, rooting, and Moro reflexes. The rooting and Moro reflexes disappear after three
to four months. Permanent reflexes include coughing and blinking. For infants, sucking is
an especially important reflex because it provides a means of obtaining nutrition.
● Gross motor skills involve large-muscle activities. Key skills developed during infancy
include control of posture and walking. Although infants usually learn to walk by their first
birthday, the neural pathways that allow walking begin forming earlier. The age at which
infants reach milestones in the development of gross motor skills may vary by as much
as two to four months, especially for milestones in late infancy.
● Fine motor skills involve finely tuned movements. The onset of reaching and grasping
marks a significant accomplishment, and this skill becomes more refined during the first
two years of life.

Sensory and Perceptual Development

Sensation occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors. Perception is the
interpretation of sensation.

The infant’s visual acuity increases dramatically in the first year of life. Infants’ color vision
improves as they develop. Young infants systematically scan human faces. As early as 3
months of age, infants show size and shape constancy. At approximately 2 months of age,
infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded objects are complete.

The fetus can hear during the last two months of pregnancy. Immediately after birth, newborns
can hear, but their sensory threshold is higher than that of adults. Developmental changes in the
perception of loudness, pitch, and localization of sound occur during infancy. Newborns can
respond to touch and feel pain. Newborns can differentiate odors, and sensitivity to taste may
be present before birth.
Perceptual-Motor Coupling Perception and action are often not isolated but rather are
coupled. Individuals perceive in order to move and move in order to perceive.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

assimilation Piagetian concept of using existing schemes to deal with new information or
experiences.

accommodation Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and

experiences.
organization Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher order,
more smoothly functioning cognitive system.

equilibration A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of
thought to the next.

sensorimotor stage The first of Piaget’s stages, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age;
infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with
motoric actions.

coordination of secondary circular reactions Piaget’s fourth sensorimotor substage, which

develops between 8 and 12 months of age. Actions become more outwardly directed, and
infants coordinate schemes and act with intentionality.

tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity Piaget’s fifth sensorimotor substage, which
develops between 12 and 18 months of age. In this substage, infants become intrigued by the
many properties of objects and by the many things that they can make happen to objects.

internalization of schemes Piaget’s sixth and final sensorimotor substage, which develops
between 18 and 24 months of age. In this substage, the infant develops the ability to use
primitive symbols.

object permanence The Piagetian term for understanding that objects and events continue to
exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.

Attention, the focusing of mental resources on select information. Attention in the first year of
life is dominated by an orienting/investigative process, Another important type of attention is
sustained attention, also referred to as focused attention. New stimuli typically elicit an orienting
response followed by sustained attention. It is sustained attention that allows infants to learn
about and remember characteristics of a stimulus as it becomes familiar.

memory A central feature of cognitive development, pertaining to all situations in which an

individual retains information over time.

implicit memory Memory without conscious recollection; involves skills and routine procedures
that are automatically performed.

explicit memory Memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can
state.

Concepts are cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas.

deferred imitation Imitation that occurs after a delay of hours or days.

language A form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a

system of symbols. Language consists of the words used by a community and the rules for
varying and combining them.
infinite generativity The ability to produce and comprehend an endless number of meaningful
sentences using a finite set of words and rules.

phonology The sound system of the language, including the sounds that are used and how
they may be combined.

morphology Units of meaning involved in word formation.

syntax The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.

Babbling and Other Vocalizations

Long before infants speak recognizable words, they produce a number of vocalizations.
The functions of these early vocalizations are to practice making sounds, to communicate, and
to attract attention (Lee & others, 2017). Babies’ sounds go through the following sequence
during the first year:
● Crying. Babies cry even at birth. Crying can signal distress, but, as we will
discuss in the chapter on “Socioemotional Development in Infancy,” different
types of cries signal different things.
● Cooing. Babies first coo at about 2 to 4 months (Menn & Stoel-Gammon, 2009).
These are gurgling sounds that are made in the back of the throat and usually
express pleasure during interaction with the caregiver.
● Babbling. In the middle of the first year, babies babble—that is, they produce
strings of consonant-vowel combinations, such as “ba, ba, ba, ba.” Infants’
 babbling influences the behavior of their caregivers, creating social interaction
that facilitates their own communicative development (Albert, Schwade, &
Goldstein, 2018). In a recent study, babbling onset predicted when infants would
say their first words (McGillion & others, 2017a).

Broca’s area An area in the brain’s left frontal lobe that is involved in speech production.
Wernicke’s area An area in the brain’s left hemisphere that is involved in language
comprehension.
aphasia A loss or impairment of language ability caused by brain damage. language
acquisition device (LAD) Chomsky’s term that describes a biological endowment enabling the
child to detect the features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
emotion Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or interaction that is
important to him or her. Emotion is characterized by behavior that reflects (expresses) the
pleasantness or unpleasantness of the state a person is in or the transactions being
experienced.
primary emotions Emotions that are present in humans and other animals and emerge early in
life; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust.
self-conscious emotions Emotions that require self-awareness, especially consciousness and
a sense of “me”; examples include jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment.

Emotional expressions are involved in infants’ first relationships. The ability of infants to
communicate emotions permits coordinated interactions with their caregivers and the beginning
of an emotional bond between them (Perry & Calkins, 2018; Thompson, 2015, 2016). Not only
do parents change their emotional expressions in response to infants’ emotional expressions,
but infants also modify their emotional expressions in response to their parents’ emotional
expressions (Frick & others, 2018; Johnson, 2018). In other words, these interactions are
mutually regulated. Because of this coordination, the interactions are described as reciprocal, or
synchronous, when all is going well.

Crying Crying is the most important mechanism newborns have for communicating with their
world. The first cry verifies that the baby’s lungs have filled with air. Cries also may provide
information about the health of the newborn’s central nervous system. A recent study found that
excessive infant crying in 3-month-olds doubled the risk of behavioral, hyperactive, and mood
problems at 5 to 6 years of age (Smarius & others, 2017).

Babies have at least three types of cries:

• Basic cry. A rhythmic pattern that usually consists of a cry, followed by a briefer silence, then
a shorter whistle that is somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry, then another brief rest
before the next cry. Some infancy experts believe that hunger is one of the conditions that
incites the basic cry.
. • Anger cry. A variation of the basic cry in which more excess air is forced through the vocal
cords.
• Pain cry. A sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding; no preliminary moaning is
present. The pain cry is stimulated by a high-intensity stimulus.
Smiling Smiling is a key social signal and a very important aspect of positive social interaction
in developing a new social skill (Martin & Messinger, 2018). Researchers have found that
smiling and laughter at 7 months of age are associated with self-regulation at 7 years of age
(Posner & others, 2014).

reflexive smile A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It happens during
the first month after birth, usually during sleep.
social smile A smile in response to an external stimulus, which early in development is typically
a face.

Temperament involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic

ways of responding. Chess and Thomas classified infants as (1) easy, (2) difficult, or (3) slow to
warm up. Kagan proposed that inhibition to the unfamiliar is an important temperament
category. Rothbart and Bates’ view of temperament emphasizes this classification: (1)
extraversion/surgency, (2) negative affectivity, and (3) effortful control (self-regulation).

CHAPTER 4: EARLY CHILDHOOD

A. EARLY CHILDHOOD PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Physical
The average child grows 2½ inches in height and gains 5 to 10 pounds a year during early
childhood. Growth patterns vary individually, though. Some of the brain’s interior changes in
early childhood are due to myelination. From 3 to 6 years of age, the most rapid growth in the
brain occurs in the frontal lobes.
Cognitive
According to Piaget, in the preoperational stage children cannot yet perform operations, which
are reversible mental actions, but they begin to represent the world with symbols, to form stable
concepts, and to reason. During the symbolic function substage, which occurs between about 2
and 4 years of age, children begin to mentally represent an object that is not present, but their
thought is limited by egocentrism and animism. During the intuitive thought substage, which
stretches from about 4 to 7 years of age, children begin to reason and to bombard adults with
questions. Thought at this substage is called intuitive because children seem so sure about their
knowledge yet are unaware of how they know what they know. Centration and a lack of
conservation also characterize the preoperational stage

Vygotsky’s theory represents a social constructivist approach to development. According to

Vygotsky, children construct knowledge through social interaction, and they use language not
only to communicate with others but also to plan, guide, and monitor their own behavior and to
help them solve problems. His theory suggests that adults should assess and use the child’s
zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is the range of tasks that are too difficult for children
to master alone but that can be learned with the guidance and assistance of adults or
more-skilled children. The theory also suggests that adults and peers should teach through
scaffolding, which involves changing the level of support over the course of a teaching session,
with the more-skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the student’s current performance level.

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

The Self
In Erikson’s theory, early childhood is a period when development involves resolving the conflict
of initiative versus guilt. The toddler’s rudimentary self-understanding develops into the
preschooler’s representation of the self in terms of body parts, material possessions, and
physical activities. At about 4 to 5 years of age, children also begin to use trait-like self
descriptions. Young children display more sophisticated self-understanding and understanding
of others than was previously thought.

Emotional Development
Advances in young children’s emotional development involve expressing emotions,
understanding emotions, and regulating emotions. Young children’s range of emotions expands
during early childhood as they increasingly experience self-conscious emotions such as pride,
shame, and guilt. Between 2 and 4 years old, children use an increasing number of terms to
describe emotion and learn more about the causes and consequences of feelings. At 4 to 5
years of age, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions and understand that a
single event can elicit different emotions in different people. They also show a growing
awareness of the need to manage emotions to meet social standards.
Moral Development
Moral development involves thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions
about what people should do in their interactions with others. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
emphasizes the importance of feelings in the development of the superego, the moral branch of
personality. Positive emotions, such as empathy, also contribute to the child’s moral
development.

Parenting
Authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, and indulgent are four main parenting styles.
Authoritative parenting is the most widely used style around the world and is the style most
often associated with children’s social competence.

Sibling Relationships and Birth Order

Siblings interact with each other in positive and negative ways. Birth order is related in certain
ways to personality characteristics—for example, firstborns are more adult-oriented and
self-controlled than later-born children. Only children often are achievement-oriented. By itself,
however, birth order is not a good predictor of behavior.

Peer Relations
Peers are powerful socialization agents. Peers provide a source of information and comparison
about the world outside the family
Media/Screen Time
Young children watch 2 to 4 hours of TV per day on average, but experts recommend that they
watch 1 hour or less. Young children increasingly are spending time with other media and
information/communication devices such as computers, DVDs, video games, and iPhones,
which has given rise to the term screen time. Screen time can have both negative influences
(such as turning children into passive learners, presenting them with aggressive models, and
decreasing time spent with peers and in play and physical activity) and positive influences (such
as providing models of prosocial behavior) on children’s development. Both watching TV
violence and playing violent video games have been linked to children’s aggressive behavior.
Watching prosocial behavior on TV can teach children positive social skills.