ESCCC-302

PETROLEUM
GEOLOGY
UNIT-3
 WELL LOG
WELL LOGGING:

Well log is a continuous record of measurement made in bore hole respond to variation in some
physical properties of rocks through which the bore hole is drilled. Traditionally Logs are display on
girded papers, but now a days the log may be taken as films, images, and in digital format. The
primary objectives of the well logging are-

 The identification of reservoir

 The estimation of hydrocarbon in place.
 The estimation of recoverable hydrocarbon.

Well logs are results of several geophysical measurements recorded in a well bore. They consist of
key information about formation drilled ie.,

 To identify the productive zones of hydrocarbon.

 To define the petrophysical parameters like porosity, permeability, hydrocarbon saturation
and lithology of zones.
 To determine depth, thickness, formation temperature and pressure of a reservoir.
 To distinguish between oil, gas and water zones in a reservoir.
 To measure hydrocarbon mobility.

TYPES OF WELL LOGGING:

Well logging services are broadly classified into-

 Open hole logging

Open hole logging is a type of well logging technique used in the oil and gas industry to
evaluate the physical properties of rock formations surrounding a borehole before it is cased
and cemented. n other words, the logging is done through the bare rock sides of the
formation. This is the most common type of logging method because the measurements are
not obstructed and it's done during or after the well has been drilled. Some open hole logging
techniques include gamma ray logging, resistivity logging, sonic logging, density logging,
neutron porosity logging etc.
 Cased hole logging
cased-hole logging involves retrieving logging measurements through the well casing, or the
metal piping that is inserted into the well during completion operations. Cased-hole logging is
performed more rarely but still provides valuable information about the well. Cased-hole
logging is used to help operators obtain additional information from a well or reservoir that
has already been completed. For example, the well may have already started production and
a cased-hole log could help determine what has hampered flow. In some cases, the decision
must be made to plug and abandon the well or recomplete it, and the cased-hole log will help
identify what lies beyond the casing of the well.
 Production logging
While most types of logs are used to characterize the wellbore, formation, and fluids prior to
well completion, a number of logging tools are available to provide information during
production operations and beyond. Production Logging is one of a number of cased hole
services that includes cement monitoring, corrosion monitoring, monitoring of formation fluid
contacts (and saturations), perforating and plug and packer setting. Services performed in
dead, overbalanced, conditions can use relatively simple surface pressure control equipment

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 and are often performed using large open hole style logging cables. Production logs are used
to allocate production on a zone by zone basis and also to diagnose production problems
such as leaks or cross flow.

PROCEDURE FOR LOGGING OPERATIONS:

Type of Logging operations to be carried out at various rigs is decided based on the requirement of
the well. These jobs are carried out by truck mounted logging units these units are placed in front of
catwalk of the rig. The logging tools are lowered in to the well with the help of logging cable. For
lowering the tools with logging cable two sheaves are used. The bottom sheave is tied with derrick
floor and placed near the well mouth and the top sheave is hung to the traveling block so that the
tools are lowered into the well. The tools are assembled and connected to logging cable through a
rope socket on the catwalk and tested/calibrated prior to lowering into the well. The tool is lowered to
the desired depth and data is acquired while the tool is pulled up. After completing the survey the
Tool is pulled out and rig down process is initiated.

The logging procedure covers the following steps-

 Parking of logging unit in front of cat walk.

 Rig up (Fixing of top & bottom sheaves)
 Stacking the tools and testing before lowering the tools.
 Lowering the tool in to the well at the desired depth.
 Logging Process.
 Pulling out the tool in to the surface
 Rig Down.

Logs are recorded to measure different physical parameter of a well to ascertain the capacity of the
well to flow hydrocarbon as mentioned above. It is also called as the electronic eye of a well. There
are many physical parameters that can be recorded in Logs depending upon the need. However there
are a very few basic parameters which are essential to be recorded in every well. They are broadly
classified as-

 Resistivity Logs
 Porosity/Radioactive Logs.
 Sonic/Acoustic Logs
 Sampling and coring
 Cement evaluation Logs
 Production Logs.

LOGGING UNITS:

Logging service companies utilize a variety of logging units, depending on the location (onshore or
offshore) and requirements of the logging run. The logging unit contains at the minimum the surface
instrumentation, a winch, a depth recording system and a data recorder. The surface instrumentation
controls the logging tool, processes the data received and records the results digitally and on hard
copy. The winch lowers and raises the cable in the well. A depth wheel drives the depth recording
system. The data recorder includes a digital recorder and a printer.

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES MEASURED BY LOGGING TOOLS:

Logging tools are instruments used to measure various physical parameters in subsurface
formations. These tools are typically lowered into boreholes, wells, or bore cores to gather data about
the properties and characteristics of the subsurface materials. Here are some common physical
parameters that can be measured by logging tools-

 Gamma Ray:
Gamma ray logging tools measure the natural gamma radiation emitted by subsurface
formations. Gamma radiation is emitted by certain radioactive elements, such as uranium,
thorium, and potassium, which are commonly found in rocks and sediments. Gamma ray logs
can provide information about lithology, mineralogy, and radioactive content of the
formation, which can help identify different rock types and determine the composition of the
subsurface materials.
 Electrical Resistivity:
Electrical resistivity logging tools measure the resistance of a formation to the flow of
electrical current. Different rock types have different resistivity values, and resistivity logs can
provide information about the porosity, saturation, and fluid content of the formation. For
example, resistivity logs can help identify the presence of hydrocarbons in oil and gas
reservoirs, or the presence of groundwater in aquifers.
 Acoustic and Sonic:
Acoustic and sonic logging tools measure the speed of sound or acoustic waves in subsurface
formations. These tools can provide information about the mechanical properties of the
formation, such as rock stiffness, porosity, and fracture density. Sonic logs can also be used
to determine the thickness of individual rock layers or formations, and to identify changes in
lithology or rock quality.

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  Density:
Density logging tools measure the bulk density or mass per unit volume of the formation.
Density logs can provide information about the composition, porosity, and fluid content of the
formation. For example, density logs can help distinguish between different types of rocks,
such as sandstone, limestone, or shale, based on their density values.
 Magnetic Field:
Magnetic field logging tools measure the magnetic properties of subsurface formations. These
tools can provide information about the presence of magnetic minerals, such as iron, which
can help identify rock types and characterize the geological structure of the formation.
Magnetic field logs can also be used to locate and map subsurface hydrocarbon reservoirs.
 Pressure:
Pressure logging tools measure the pressure of fluids, such as water, oil, or gas, in
subsurface formations. These tools can provide information about the pressure gradient,
pressure distribution, and fluid movement within the formation. Pressure logs can be used to
estimate reservoir properties, such as reservoir pressure, fluid saturation, and hydrocarbon
reserves.
 Temperature:
Temperature logging tools measure the temperature of subsurface formations. Temperature
logs can provide information about the geothermal gradient, which is the rate of change in
temperature with depth. Temperature data can be used to estimate subsurface heat flow,
identify thermal anomalies, and characterize the thermal properties of the formation.
 Nuclear:
Nuclear logging tools use radioactive sources and detectors to measure various properties of
subsurface formations, such as porosity, lithology, and fluid content. For example, neutron
logs can be used to estimate porosity, while gamma-gamma logs can be used to identify
lithology and mineralogy. Nuclear logs are often used in conjunction with other logging tools
to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the subsurface materials.

These are just some examples of the physical parameters that can be measured by logging tools. The
specific parameters measured and the types of logging tools used may vary depending on the
industry, application, and formation characteristics.

WIRELINE LOGGING
Wireline logging is a continuous measurement of formation properties with electrically powered
instruments to infer properties and make decision about drilling and production operations. Well logs
result from a probe lowered into the borehole at the end of an insulated cable. The resulting
measurements are recorded graphically or digitally as a function of depth. These records are known
as geophysical well logs, petrophysical logs, or more commonly well logs, or simply logs.

The advantages of wireline logging are considerable. It allows the acquisition of valuable data at a
fast rate and over a wide range of depths. This allows fast and accurate decisions to be made
regarding drilling, based on the information obtained. Understanding the physical properties of an oil
well is critical to properly managing it over its lifetime. Wireline logging makes that possible. In
wireline logging time is a critical factor. The cost of running operations on an offshore drilling rig is
very high.

Well loggers use combinations of both radiation-based and non-radiation-based tools (called nuclear
and nonnuclear in this field) to examine the earth formations surrounding the well and sensors to
detect the media’s response to interrogation tools. An analyst examines detector logs to look for
some or all of the following parameters of the formation: formation water saturation, porosity, rock

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characteristics, carbon/oxygen ratio, and permeability. Because of the complexity of earth formations,
only a combination of all the logs allows the log analyst to draw accurate conclusions for the
formation parameters. For example, combining resistivity and nuclear logs, the log analyst can
determine porosity, water content, and density

PRINCIPLE:

The sensing element is fixed on the sonde, this element gathers information from the well and then
entered to a signal conditioning element to make the signal ready for transmission.The data from the
sonde are transmitted up the cable to instruments in the logging truck where they are recorded (field
print). The data are also processed later, and a cleaner log (final print) is made. The logging data are
digitised (if was not digital already), recorded on the hard drive, and sent to a logging company office
(email), otherwise put on a server or the Internet.

HOW TO MAKE A WIRELINE WELL LOG:

To make a wireline well log after the well (a section) is drilled (and before setting casing), the hole is
first cleaned by the circulating drilling mud and then the drilling equipment is pulled from the well.
Then a sonde (probe) is lowered down the well (which is still filled with the drilling mud) on a logging
cable. The logging cable is an armoured cable with steel cables surrounding conductor cables in
insulation. It is reeled out from the drum in the back of a logging truck.

Sonde:

 The sonde or tool is a cylinder, commonly 27 to 60 in (8 to 19 m) long and some up to 90 in

(27.5m) long, 3 to 4 in (8 to10 cm) in diameter and is filled with instruments (electric,
nuclear or acoustic transmitters, receivers and amplifiers).
 Several instrument packages such as formation density, neutron porosity and gamma ray can
be screwed together to form the sonde.
 The sonde has either one expandable arm or bow spring that puts the sensors in contact with
the well walls or three expandable arms or bow springs that centers the sonde in the well.
 As the sonde is run back up the well, it remotely (with respect to a guy in the truck) senses
the electrical, acoustical, and/or radioactive properties of the rocks and their fluids and
sometimes the geometry of the wellbore.
 In a directional well with a high deviation or a horizontal hole, the sonde must be pushed
down the well with tubing or the drillstring. One trip down and up with a sonde is called a
run.

THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG

The spontaneous potential log, commonly called the self-potential log or SP log, is a measurement
taken by oil industry well loggers to characterise rock formation properties. The log works by
measuring small electric potentials (measured in millivolts) between depths in the borehole and a
grounded voltage at the surface. It’s one of the first log measurements made. It was discovered as a
potential that effected old electric logs .It has been in use for over the past 50 years.

The change in voltage through the well bore is caused by a buildup of charge on the well bore walls.
Clays and shales (which are composed predominantly of clays) will generate one charge and
permeable formations such as sandstone will generate an opposite one. This build up of charge is, in
turn, caused by differences in the salt content of the well bore fluid (drilling mud) and the formation

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water (connate water). The potential opposite shales is called the baseline, and typically shifts only
slowly over the depth of the borehole. Whether the mud contains more or less salt than the connate
water will determine the which way the SP curve will deflect opposite a permeable formation. The
amplitudes of the line made by the changing SP will vary from formation to formation and will not
give a definitive answer to how permeable or the porosity of the formation that it is logging.

APPLICATIONS:

The SP tool is one of the simplest tools and is generally run as standard when logging a hole, along
with the gamma ray. SP data can be used to find-

 Correlation from well to well .

 Depth reference for all logging runs .
 Detecting permeable beds (Where the permeable formations are ).
 The boundaries of these formations Detecting bed boundaries .
 Rw determination and the values for the formation-water resistivity .

The SP curve can be influenced by various factors both in the formation and introduced into the
wellbore by the drilling process. These factors can cause the SP curve to be muted or even inverted
depending on the situation.

 Bed thickness (h), and true resistivity (Rt) of the permeable bed.
 Invaded resistivity (Rxo) and the diameter of invasion (di)
 Ratio of mud filtrate to formation water salinities - Rmf/Rw
 Neighboring shale resistivity (Rs)
 Hole diameter (dh)
 Mud resistivity (Rm)

There are many SP correction charts

available although no one chart is able
to include all the possible variables in
making the necessary corrections.

The drilling mud salinity will affect the

strength of the electromotive forces
(EMF) which give the SP deflections. If
the salinity of the mud is similar to the
formation water then the SP curve may
give little or no response opposite a
permeable formation; if the mud is
more saline, then the curve has a
positive voltage with respect to the
baseline opposite permeable
formations; if it is less, the voltage
deflection is negative. In rare cases the
baseline of the SP can shift suddenly if
the salinity of the mud changes part
way down hole. Mud invasion into the
permeable formation can cause the
deflections in the SP curve to be

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rounded off and to reduce the amplitude of thin beds. A larger wellbore will cause, like a mud filtrate
invasion, the deflections on the SP curve to be rounded off and decrease the amplitude opposite thin
beds, while a smaller diameter wellbore has the opposite effect.

natural potential is measured between an electrode in the well and earth at the surface. The SP
electrode is built into different logging tools for example-

 Induction log.
 Laterolog.
 Sonic log.
 Sidewall core gun.

SP results from electric currents flowing in the drilling mud. There are three sources of the currents,
two electrochemical and one electrokinetic. Deflection of SP is caused by the Electrochemical Ec and
Electrokinetic Ek actions-

Electrochemical Component:

Ec = Elj + Em

These two effects are the main components of the SP. They are caused as a result of differing
salinities in the mud filtrate and the formation water.

Elj- "Liquid Junction Potential"

The ions Na+ and Cl- have different nobilities at the junction of the invaded and virgin zones. The
movement of the ions across this boundary generates a current flow and hence a potential.

If the salinity of the mud in the borehole is weaker or stronger than that of the formation water the
potential generated between the two solutions is known as the Liquid Junction Potential or Elj. The
greater the difference between the salinity of the solutions the greater the potential.

Em- "Membrane Potential"

Shale’s are permeable to Sodium ions but not to Chlorine ions. Hence there is a movement of charged
particles through the shale creating a current and thus a potential. This is known as the membrane
potential or Em.

Deflection Of The SP Curve:

The SP measurement is constant but jumps suddenly to another level when crossing the boundary
between two different formations.

 When Rmf > Rw The SP deflects to the left (-ve SP) found in permeable formations filled
with formation water ,
 When Rmf < Rw The SP deflects to the right (+ve SP) found in permeable formation filled
with formation water ,
 There is no deflection in non-permeable or shaly formations.

Limitations :

 Borehole mud must be conductive.

 Formation water must be water bearing and conductive.

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  A sequence of permeable and non-permeable zones must exist.
 Small deflection occurs if Rmf=Rw .
 Not fully developed in front of thin beds .

Metallic Reaction At Measure Electrode:

This is one of the components that will cause the SP to drift. The SP electrode made of mild iron will
rust and this oxidizing effect of the electrode results in an added electrochemical potential to the SP
measurement. The drift gradually disappears as the electrode becomes fully oxidized. Because this is
an undesirable potential, the drift can be removed bycorrecting the SP curve using computer
software.Possible solution to the problem-

 The bridle electrode should be made of lead as it incurs less oxidization and
therefore less drift.
 Never clean or remove the rust from the SP electrode.
 One hour before going down hole, wrap the electrode in a rag soaked in the mud
 pit. This will reduce the oxidizing effect down hole .

NATURAL GAMMA RAY LOG

The GR is a measurement of the natural radio-activity of the formation. The radio-activity of rocks is
due to the presence of activities (Actinium, Thorium, Uranium) and their decay products and of radio-
active isotopes of Potassium (K-40 & K-19). In sedimentary rocks the GR normally reflects the shale
content of the formation as radioactive elements tend to concentrate in clays and shale.

Origin of Natural Gamma Rays:

Gamma rays originate in three sources in nature. These are the radioactive elements of the Uranium
Group, the Thorium Group, and potassium. Uranium 235, uranium 238 and thorium 232 all decay, via
long chains of daughter products, to stable lead isotopes.

An isotope of potassium, 40K, decays to argon and emits a gamma ray. It should be noted that each
type of decay is characterized by a gamma ray of a specific energy (wavelength, frequency, or color)
and that the frequency of occurrence for each decay energy is different. This is an important concept
since it is used as the basis for analysis of data from the natural gamma spectroscopy tools.

Degree of Natural Radioactivity in sedimentary Rocks:

Degree of natural radioactivity in sedimentary rocks can be grouped as follows-

 Rocks of high radioactivity – deep water shaley sediments, globigerina and radiolarian oozes,
black bituminous shale, argillites and shale & potassium salts.
 Rocks of medium radioactivity – shallow water and continental clays, shaly sandstone, marls,
shaly limestone and shaly dolomites.
 Rocks of low radioactivity – anhydrites, gypsum, sandstones, carbonates and coals.\

Process:

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The gamma ray log is commonly given the symbol GR. Once the gamma rays are emitted from an
isotope in the formation, they progressively reduce in energy as the result of collisions with other
atoms in the rock (compton scattering). Compton scattering occurs until the gamma ray is of such a
low energy that it is completely absorbed by the formation.

Hence, the gamma ray intensity that the log measures is a function of-

 The initial intensity of gamma ray emission, which is a property of the elemental composition
of the rock.
 The amount of compton scattering that the gamma rays encounter, which is related to the
distance between the gamma emission and the detector and the density of the intervening
material.

The tool therefore has a limited depth of investigation. Note that the gamma ray measurement device
accepts gamma rays from almost a hemisphere that includes the formation and the drilling mud
between the formation and the sensor. Gamma rays may therefore come from the formation at any
angle from horizontal to almost vertically, and indeed may come from the drilling mud itself (beware:
some drilling muds are very radioactive!). The gamma ray log is combinable with all tools, and is
almost always used as part of every logging combination run because of its ability to match the
depths of data from each run.

Principles & Equipment:

Natural radiations of unstable elements consist primarily of alpha, beta and gamma rays, but it is
practical to measure only gamma radiations in a well-bore because of their high power of penetration
to reach the detector in the borehole. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations emitted from an
atomic nucleus during radioactive decay. The gamma ray device contains a detector to measure the
gamma radiation originating in the volume of formation near the sonde. There are four types of
gamma ray detectors – Ionization chamber, the Geiger Mueller counter, Proportional counter and
Scintillation counter (more commonly used).

Method of Operation:

Natural gamma-ray tools are designed to measure naturally occurring gamma radiation in the earth
caused by the disintegration due to Potassium, Uranium, and Thorium. Unlike nuclear tools, these
natural gamma ray tools do not emit any radiation.

Natural gamma ray tools employ a radioactive sensor, which is usually a scintillation crystal that emits
a light pulse proportional to the strength of the gamma ray pulse incident on it. This light pulse is
then converted to a current pulse by means of a photo multiplier tube PMT where the current is
amplified about 1x106 times. From the photo multiplier tube, the current pulse goes to the tool's
electronics for further processing and ultimately to the surface system for recording. The data then
can be converted to energy spectra which can be easily read to find information about the well. The
strength of the received gamma rays is dependent on the source emitting gamma rays, the density of

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the formation, and the distance between the source and the tool detector.

Units:

Natural Gamma Ray Logs are generally calibrated in API units. This unit is based on an artificially
radioactive concrete block at the University of Houston, Texas, USA, that is defined to have a
radioactivity of 200 American Petroleum Institute (API) units. This was chosen because it was
considered to be twice the radioactivity of typical shale. The formation is the primary standard for
calibrating gamma ray logs. However, even when properly calibrated, different gamma ray tools will
not necessarily have identical readings down hole because their detectors can have different spectral
sensitivities. They will read the same only if the down hole formation contains the same proportions
of thorium, potassium and uranium as the Houston standard.

One API unit is defined as the 1/200th of the difference in the GR response between zones of high
and low activity in the API Gamma Ray calibration pit in Houston, Texas.

Nature & Advantages of GR:

 GR essentially distinguishes shale from other formation.

 The recording shows an increase in the natural gamma ray counts by deflection of the curve
towards right.
 This is somewhat similar to that of ‘SP’ curve.
 The GR can be recorded in uncased and cased hole in combination with other devices.
 GR is very useful in correlation purposes and is used primarily for bed definition,
determination of interfaces, and in work over and well completion operations.

Application:

 The gamma ray is particularly useful for defining shale beds when sp curve is rounded.
 It is used as a quantitative indicator of shale content.

 Detection and evaluation of radioactive minerals.

 Delineation of non-radioactive minerals including coal beds.
 Correlation in cased hole operations.
 The gamma ray log used in connection with radioactive tracer operation.

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 POROSITY LOG
Determining formation porosity using open-hole porosity logging tools is the most common method
for several reasons-

 Coring is often more expensive than logging and may be riskier in terms of sticking the tool in
the hole.
 Coring may not be practical in soft unconsolidated formations or in formations with a high
degree of secondary porosity such as vugs or natural fractures.

When porosity measurements are considered

very important, both coring and logging
programs are generally conducted. When both
measurements are available, the log-based
porosity calculations are usually calibrated to the
core-based porosity measurements.

Porosity values can be obtained from sonic log,

a formation density log or a neutron log. In
addition to porosity these logs are affected by
other parameters, such as lithology, nature of the
pore fluids, and shaliness. For more accurate
porosity is obtained from combination of logs.
The readings of these tools are determined by
the properties of formation close to the borehole. The sonic log has the shallowest investigation.
Neutron and density logs are affected by a little deeper region, depending somewhat on the porosity,
but generally within the fluzhed zone.

NEUTRON LOG:

Principle:

In neutron log a chemical source is used

such as Americium – Beryllium/Neutron
bulb which provides the emission of
neutrons as continuous source of
energy of about 4.5 MeV/14 Mev. When
neutron collides with nucleus of the
atoms in the formation the neutron
losses its energy and excites the
nucleus of the atoms in the formation.
When the exited nucleus returns back to
its normal state, it emits Gamma ray
characteristic to the atom. The analysis
- ray spectrum identifies the
composition of the elements in the
formation viz. C, H, Cl, O etc. when the
energy of the neutron reduces to
thermal level and collides with Hydrogen atom its energy reduces to 0.025eV, also the neutrons are
captured emitting gamma ray. Thus the uncaptured neutron reaching the detector is a measure of
Hydrogen index of the formation.

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Advantages:

 Determination of Porosity.
 Lithology identification
 Water saturation.
 Gas detection.
 Location & Monitoring of gas / oil and water / oil contacts.
 Correlation with open hole resistivity logs.
 Shale indicator.

SONIC LOG:

Principle:

The sonic tool measures the interval transit time, Δt or the time in microsecond for an acoustic wave
to travel through one foot formation, along a path parallel to the borehole, which is the reciprocal of
the velocity of the compressional sound wave. Wyllie proposed the following empirical relation for
determination of porosity from the sonic log-

Ø = ( Δt - Δm)/ ( Δt,t - Δm)

Where Δt,t and Δm are the transit times in the pore fluid
and rock matrix, respectively. This time average relation is
good for clean, compacted formations of intergranular
porosity containing liquids.

Tool Configuration:

The tool mainly consists of upper transmitter, lower

transmitter and two pairs of receiver. The transmission
from T1 is recorded by the receiver followed by T2 and
vice versa for compensating the effects as sonde tilt and
rugose hole condition.

First ‘t’ reading = (T1- R1) – (T1 – R2)

Second ‘t’ reading = (T1 – R2) – (T2 – R2)

T = (Memorized first ‘t’ reading) + (Second ‘t’ reading)/

2×span

Advantages:

 Effects of cement coverage can be easily

measured by comparing both open and cased hole data. (The transmit time overlying each
other for good cement).
 Detection of hydrocarbon in high porosity sand.
 Lithology can be identified.
 Integrated travel time useful in seismic interpretation.

Limitation:

 In unconsolidated formations.
 Formation fractures.

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  Gas saturations.
 Aerated muds.
 Rugose salt sections.

DENSITY LOG:

Principle:

The density measures formation bulk density and

photo electric absorption index of the lithologic
column penetrated. The δb density depends on fluid
density and matrix density in porous formation, and
Pe depends on atomic number used to determine the
lithology of formation. To measure δb and Pe gamma
rays are directed to the formation. The detectors
measure the gamma ray flux resulting from
scattering and absorption effect of the formation.
The higher the formation density, the lower the
gamma ray intensity at the detectors.

Tool Configuration:

The density utilizes-

 A Cesium 137 gamma ray source

 Two sodium iodide scintillation detectors
 Small Cesium 137 source near the detectors

All of which are mounted on an articulated pad.

The SS detectors count rates associated with Compton scattering used only in the determination of
bulk density because it is covered by cadmium shield which absorbs all gamma rays of energy less
than 140 KeV. The LS detector count rate depends on Compton scattering and photo electric effect
used to determine both δb and Pe. The LS detector is covered by beryllium shield absorbs r rays of
energy less than 160 KeV.

Limitation:

 Primarly in open hole operation.

 Limited cased hole operation.
 Maximum hole diameter 22 inches.
 Minimum hoe diameter 6 inches.

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 RESISTIVITY LOG
Electrical resistivity is a fundamental geophysical method used in both surface and subsurface
geophysics. All resistivity logs obey Ohm's law (one way or another).

OHM’S LAW:

Electrical resistance is the property of a material to resist the passage of electric current through the
material. If a voltage, sometimes called a potential or electromotive force, is applied to two sides of a
chunk of material, such as wire, a piece of rock, or an electrical appliance, electric current flows
through the material. The resistance is defined by Ohm's Law (Georg Ohm, 1827), for direct current
(DC) systems, as the ratio of the voltage applied to the current that flows-

R=V/I

Where,
V = voltage (volts)
I = current (amperes)
R = resistance (ohms)

Ohm's Law has been extended to alternating current (AS) systems as-
Z=V/I

Where,
V = voltage (rms volts or instantaneous)
I = current (rms amperes or instantaneous amperes)
Z = impedance (ohms)

This looks like Ohm's Law but V and I are vectors represented by complex numbers, so Z is also a
complex number. Reactive and capacitive elements in the circuit cause phase shifts between V and I.
Z will not be the same as R except in purely resistive circuits.

The term "rms" means "root mean square", a method for averaging the absolute values of
instantaneous voltage or current over time to obtain a useful value with a meter. A pure sine wave AC
voltage of 10 volts rms will have a peak voltage of +/-14.1 volts.

The current in a DC circuit is dissipated as heat in the resistor, but only the real component of the
complex current is dissipated in an AC system. The imaginary component is converted to a magnetic
field in the reactive element.

Electrical Survey Tools:

Prior to 1950 resistivity measurements were performed using two types of electrode arrangements.

 The Normal Device

 The Lateral Device

The electric logs are difficult, sometimes almost impossible to interpret.

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PRINCIPLE:

The basic resistivity measuring system comprises two Current Electrodes A & B and two Potential
measuring Electrodes M & N. A current is passed between A & B , and the resulting potential is
measured at M & N.

If the formation is uniform and its resistivity equals the mud resistivity, the formation resistivity may
be computed using the formula R = k V ⁄I , where ‘V’ is the Potential difference between M & N; and
‘I’ , the intensity of the current flowing in the earth from A to B. ‘k’ is a geometrical factor that
depends upon the relative distance between A, B, M, and N (it is a constant for a given electrode
arrangement).

In practice the formation is not uniform and its resistivity is different from mud resistivity. In this case
the ‘R’ is a weighted average resistivity of the material situated in a certain volume of the Earth. This
is ‘Ra’, known as the ‘Apparent Resistivity’ of that volume. Therefore by definition-

Ra = k V ⁄I .

A recording of ‘Ra’ as a function of depth is a ‘Resistivity Log’.

NORMAL DEVICE:

 Electrode A & M on an insulating mandrel called Probe

or Tool, which is suspended at the end of the logging
cable.
 Electrode B & N are placed far from A & M.
 The distance A – M is known as Spacing.
 The reference point of measurement is the midpoint
between A & M.
 The usual electro-log system comprises two normal with
spacing of 16 inches (short normal) and 64 inches (long
normal).
 Radius of investigation in good efficiency (soft
formation) is of the order of twice the spacing.

LIMITATIONS:

The Normal Device generally has good efficiency in soft

formations, except for the Serious limitation of reversal of the
Normal curve opposite a thin (bed thickness spacing) resistive
bed. This limitation is remedied by supplementing the normal
curves with resistivity measurements made with a Lateral
device.

LATERAL DEVICE:

 Potential electrodes M & N are placed on the Probe.

 Current electrode ‘A’ is above the Potential Electrodes
(M & N) generally on the cable.
 Current Electrode ‘B’ is at the surface of the ground or
on the cable at a large distance above ‘A’.

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  The distance A-O (‘O’ being the midpoint between M & N) is defined as spacing, and is
always several times larger than the distance M & N (the Span).
 With the usual electro-log tool, the spacing is 18 feet and 8 inches and the Span is 32 inches.
 The reference point of measurement is at ‘O’.
 The shape and dimensions of the volume sampled by a Lateral device depends upon the
resistivity distribution around the Probe.
 In soft formations; the bulk of this volume is contained in a flat cylinder whose height equals
the distance of M-N and whose radius equals approximately the spacing.
 The radial depth of investigation of the electrolog Lateral Device is approximately equal to the
spacing A-O and the vertical resolution is approximately MN.

RESISTIVITY LOG CONFIGURATIONS:

There are 3 different configurations of resistivity log-

 Short-normal: It has the smallest distance between 2 adjacent electrodes (40 cm (16 in or
less)). It is the most sensitive to thin layers but is also influenced by the drilling mud. Short
normal devices are considered to investigate only the invaded zone.
 Long-normal: Long normal (162 cm (64 in)) devices are considered to investigate both the
invaded zone and the zone where native formation water is found.
 Lateral: Lateral log has the longest distance between two adjacent electrodes (18 feet 8
inches). It samples resistivity over a large section of sediment/rock away from the borehole.
Lateral log may miss thin beds.

TYPES OF RESISTIVITY LOGS:

There are many different types of resistivity logs, which differ primarily in how far into the rocks they
measure the resistivity. Because drilling fluids tend to force their way into the surrounding rock,
resistivity logs with shallow depths of investigation are unable to see beyond an "invasion zone" to
determine the true formation water resistivity of permeable rocks. Instead, these logs measure the
lower resistivity of the contaminated zone. Thus, by pairing logs with deep and shallow depths of
investigation, it is possible to measure permeability by looking at the resistivity differences between
the logs.

In 1950, Focused Logs replaced Normal and Lateral by which path and survey current are controlled.
The focusing is done on-

 minimized borehole and adjacent bed effects.

 provided simultaneously both deep penetration and good bed resolution.

There are two types of focused tools-

 Induction - works best in fresh-muds, medium-to-high-porosity conditions.

 Laterolog - best suited to salt-muds, low porosity conditions.

Laterolog:

The laterolog was put into service in 1949, predating the induction log by 6 or 7 years, as a
replacement for the ES Log in salt mud environments. It is a direct current (DC) tool based on Ohm’s
Law.

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Laterolog is an electrode log that measures the true formation resistivity (Rt) in boreholes filled with
saltwater muds (where Rmf ≈ Rw). Laterolog was actually introduced to cope with conditions of salty
mud and high formation resistivity.

A current from the surveying electrode is forced into the formation by focusing electrodes. This
focuses the measuring current into a sheet to obtain the best tool resolution. The focusing current
can be adjusted so that the tool measures both the deep resistivity and the shallow resistivity.

The effective depth of Laterolog investigation is controlled by the extent to which the surveying
current is focused. Deep reading laterologs are therefore more strongly focused than shallow reading
laterologs.

Laterolog can be influenced by invasion, but because resistivity of the mud filtrate is approximately
equal to the resistivity of the formation water when a well is drilled with saltwater-based mud,
invasion does not strongly affect Rt values derived from laterolog.

When to Use:

 Seawater/brine mud in borehole

 Bed thickness > 2ft.
 Rmf/Rw < 3
 Rt > 150 ohm-m

Induction Log:

Focused induction logs have proven to be the best method for obtaining formation resistivity in wells
drilled with fresh mud, air or oil base mud.Induction logging instruments are composed of
transmitter-receiver coil pairs. The number of coils and spacing of these coils determine the depth of
investigation, borehole response and the resolution of the instrument.

The modern induction log is called the Dual Induction Focused and it can measure both deep and
shallow resistivity reading. The Dual Induction Focused Log is used essentially in formations that are
deeply invaded by mud filtrate. Because of deep invasion, a deep reading induction log (RILd) may
not accurately measure the true resistivity of the formation.

The Dual Induction logs should be corrected for borehole, bed thickness and invasion effects if three
curves are present. Resistivity values obtained from the three curves on a Dual Induction Focused
Log are used to correct deep resistivity (RILd) to true resistivity (Rt).

The induction system works best where the undisturbed formation has lower resistivity than the
invaded zone (this is typical of logging in a fresh mud system).

When to Use:

 Oil base/fresh water mud in borehole

 Bed thickness > 5ft
 Rmf/Rw > 3
 Rt > 150 ohm-m.

APPLICATION:

 Bed boundary
 Lithology
 Formation fluid type

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  Invasion profile.

ACRONYMS OF RESISTIVITY LOGS:

 AIT (Array Induction Tool) - the resistivity log of the future. It measures five depths of
investigation.
 DIL (Dual Indiction Log) - a frequently used log with deep and medium depths of
investigation.
 DLL (Dual Laterolog) - a frequently used log with deep and medium depths of
investigation.
 LAT (Lateral Log)- an obsolete log with a deep depth of investigation.
 LN (Long Normal) - an obsolete log with a deep depth of investigation.
 SFL (Spherically Focused Log) - a frequently used log with a shallow depth of
investigation.
 SGR (Shallow Guard Log) - a frequently used log with a shallow depth of investigation.
 SN (Short Normal) - an obsolete log with a shallow depth of investigation.

RESISTIVITY RANGE:

Commonly encountered Resistivity (Ohm-Meter)-

 Salt water 0.02

 Fresh water 1.00
 Shale & sand 5.00 (Approx.)
 Dense carbonate 100
 Coal 150
 Anhydrite 1000 or more
 Oil, order of 3 × 1011
 Gas nearly ∞

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