University of the Philippines Visayas Tacloban College Bio 16.
1 General Ecology Laboratory
Division of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
EXERCISE 4: COMPETITION
Introduction
Competition is generally defined as the direct or indirect interaction of organisms that leads to a change
in fitness when the organisms share the same resource. Typically, it is considered as an interaction
between individuals vying for a common resource that is in limited supply. The weaker competitor is
negatively affected as the outcome of competition. There are three forms of competition: interference,
exploitation, and apparent. Interference competition happens when an individual directly alters the
resource – attaining behavior of other individuals. This occurs between individuals via the form of
aggression when an individual interferes with foraging, reproduction, survival, and/or directly preventing
competitors in establishing in a particular habitat. Exploitation competition occurs indirectly when a
common limiting resource is exploited by an individual. For instance, the use of a limited resource depletes
the amount available for others. Over time, a superior competitor can eliminate an inferior one from the
area resulting in competitive exclusion regardless of the type of competition. The third type, apparent
competition, occurs when two individuals that do not directly compete for resources affect each other
indirectly by being prey for the same predator. Apparent competition can be difficult to identify in nature,
often because of the complexity of indirect interactions that involve multiple species and changing
environmental conditions.
Several equations are used to predict the outcomes of competition including the most well known Lotka
– Volterra model. The model relates the population density and carrying capacity of two species to each
other and includes their overall effect on each other. The model presents four outcomes for competition:
species A competitively excludes species B, species B competitively excludes species A, either species wins
based on population densities, or coexistence occurs. Aside from the Lotka – Volterra model several
techniques are used to model and simulate competition in order to predict the outcomes of competitive
interactions between species.
The competitive exclusion principle states that two species cannot stably coexist if they have the same
niche (ecological role of an organism) in a habitat. Species with identical niches also have identical needs
leading to competition for the same resources. Although, it is rare that two species occupy exactly
identical niches, the greater the overlap in the niches is, the stronger the competition between individuals
are. In nature, several adaptations are done to avoid competitive exclusion including the use of different
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University of the Philippines Visayas Tacloban College Bio 16.1 General Ecology Laboratory
Division of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
resources by one or both of the competing species, occupying a different area of the habitat, or changing
the feeding time. These adaptations result in two similar species using non – overlapping resources and
thus have different niches. This evolutionary adaptation is called resource partitioning and results in the
coexistence of two previously competing species since there is less direct competition between them.
Objectives
At the end of this exercise, the students should be able to:
● explain the results of competition using simulation,
● analyze data from simulating competition,
● predict results of a competitive interaction when variables are changed, and
● simulate fundamental and realized niche, competitive interactions in a microcosm, and
competitive exclusion.
Materials and Methods
This exercise will be done virtually by going to this site:
1. http://virtualbiologylab.org/community-ecology/
2. https://www.biologysimulations.com/competition
Exploring the Simulators
1. Go to the specified site 1 to start exploring competitive interactions. Make sure to play around
with the model and familiarize yourself with it before starting the activity.
2. There are two models available on the site: barnacle competition (fundamental and realized
niche) and microcosm.
3. Start the activity by clicking Launch Model for Barnacle competition.
4. Upon clicking it will redirect you to the main page for barnacle competition experiments
http://virtualbiologylab.org/ModelsHTML5/BarnacleCompetition/BarnacleCompetitionModel.ht
ml
5. Read the Background Information and Tutorial by clicking on them.
6. Click Run Experiments to start simulation.
7. By clicking Run Experiments, the experimental design will be shown.
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University of the Philippines Visayas Tacloban College Bio 16.1 General Ecology Laboratory
Division of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
8. Follow the tutorial you have read earlier and play around by adjusting the variables presented in
the simulation.
9. After doing barnacle competition, launch the model for microcosm model. This is a simulation of
the classic experiments by Gauss using protists.
10. Similar to what you did with the first simulator, familiarize yourself with the use of the model.
11. After visiting the first site, click on site number 2 to open the biology simulations page. Change
the starting information and run simulations. Make sure that you are familiar with the model
before doing the activity.
12. After exploring both simulation sites for competition, do the activity below.
Activity
Barnacle Simulation Model
1. Launch the model for barnacle competition and create a simulation by changing the values for
the variables. There will be no set values for the variables so you make sure to record your
experimental design.
2. Create your own experimental design and run the simulation for two rounds, with different
experimental designs in each round. You can do this by changing the number of the barnacles as
well as altering sea level and tides. Explicitly indicate the values of your variables used in each
simulation round in your materials and methods.
3. Record and interpret the data collected. Make sure that you understand your results and can
explain it in class.
4. Submit your results and discussions.
Competitive Exclusion Principle
1. Run simulations by changing simulation information: relative plant population, blue population,
and gray population.
2. You can use the accompanying worksheet to guide you in collecting data.
3. The guide questions in the worksheet will help you better understand the principle.
4. Record your results and explain them.
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University of the Philippines Visayas Tacloban College Bio 16.1 General Ecology Laboratory
Division of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
References
Hatcher, M. J., Dick, J. T. A. & Dunn, A. M. How parasites affect interactions between competitors and
predators. Ecology Letters 9, 1253-1271.
Holomuzki, J. R., Feminella, J. W. & Power, M. E. Biotic Interactions in Freshwater Benthic Habitats. Journal
of the North American Benthological Society 29, 220-244.
Lang, J. M. & Benbow, M. E. 2013. Species Interactions and Competition. Nature Education Knowledge
4(4):8
