Uni

University of Zakho
Faculty of Humanities
Dept. of English
Fourth Semester

Grammar Report
Supervised by
Miss. Lozan A.Rasool
Prepared by
Ahmed Y. Ahmed
Abdulhakim M. Hayder
Husni R. Haji
Jahwer A. Hayder
Omed M. Mosa
Content:
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………2
1.What are conditionals?.............................................................................................3
2.What is the difference between the real and unreal conditionals?..............5
3.What is a reported speech and how to change the direct into reported
speech?..................................................................................................................9
4.What is a relative clause and what are its types?........................................13
5.How relative pronouns are different from each other?.................................15
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..18
References……………………………………………………………………………19

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Introduction:
Conditionals, reported speech, relative clauses, and pronouns are all essential
components of effective communication in the English language. Conditionals
involve expressing a hypothetical result based on a certain condition, while reported
speech involves re-telling another person's speech in indirect form. Relative clauses
and pronouns clarify the relationship between a noun and its modifier and replace
nouns for smoother communication. These grammar concepts allow for clear and
concise writing, making them crucial for native speakers and language learners alike.
In this article, we will delve into the details of how to use and construct each of these
concepts in everyday language.

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1. What are conditionals?
In our daily conversations, we say many things which relate with the past,
present and future. We use 'if' to state a condition that might have happened
in the past or might happen in the future. 'If' is a conditional word that is
used to describe a situation related to past, present and future. It is one of the
most useful structure in English and is commonly included in daily
conversations.

For example: If it rains today, I won’t go to the party.

The example says, if a condition that can happen and result in the change of
the plan which is connected to our daily conversations and situations. It
creates the uncertainty of possible things. It goes by the word condition, where
you come up with a different situation and with different probability or
outcomes. (McCarthy, 2013)

Sometimes we call them 'if clauses'. They describe the result of something that
might happen (in the present or future) or might have happened but didn't (in
the past). They are made using different English verb tenses.

Conditionals are used as a component of English grammar. Hence, conditional

tenses are used to figure out about what could happen, what might have
happened and what you wish should happen. Every conditional sentence
consists of the word ‘if’. More specifically it is a clause called the 'if clause'.

There are four basic types of conditional sentences in the English language.
Each type has two parts - the main clause and the if clause.
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Zero conditional: describes situations that are always true. If has the same meaning as
when or whenever. We use the present simple tense in both the main clause and the if
clause. Examples:
I take my umbrella if it rains.
If you park your car on double yellow lines, you pay a fine.
(Whenever you park illegally, you pay a fine.)
First conditional: refers to the present or future. First conditional sentences are used
to speculate about possible situations that can really happen. We use the present tense
in the if clause and will + bare infinitive in the main clause. Examples:
I'll call you if I work late.
If he studies hard, he'll pass the exams.
Second conditional: also refers to the present or future. In second conditional
sentences we speculate about situations that will probably never happen. We use the
past tense in the if clause and would + bare infinitive in the main clause. Note: the
verb to be can have a specific form in the if clause. Examples:
If I were rich, I wouldn't work.
If I won a million dollars, I would start a business of my own.
(But I know that it is not realistic.)
Third conditional: The third conditional sentences always refer to the past. We
speculate about situations that happened or did not happen in the past.
She wouldn't have come if I hadn't invited her.
If he had met her, he would have told her. (Unfortunately, he didn’t meet her).

(McCarthy, 2013)

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Husni R. Haji
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2.What is the difference between the real and unreal
conditionals?

Real Conditional describes real-life situations. Unreal Conditional describes

unreal, imaginary situations. Although the various conditional forms might seem
quite abstract at first, they are actually some of the most useful structures in
English and are commonly included in daily conversations.

(McCarthy, 2013)
REAL CONDITIONALS
Real conditionals are conditionals in which the condition, and hence the result,
can be fulfilled. Real conditionals describe condition-result relationships that
always or frequently obtain (zero conditionals); and the probability of something
happening in the future (future conditionals). Nonetheless, the subtypes give us a
way of understanding the meanings and functions of conditional sentences and
the uses of modals and tense-aspect combinations within them. There are two
types of real conditionals, zero conditionals and Future conditionals:

Zero conditionals: express facts considered scientific truths.

Examples:
If water is cooled to 32 degrees Fahrenheit, it becomes a solid.
If light is moving in the direction labeled z, it has two possibilities of
polarization.

Future conditionals: express predicted future results of conditions which are

also often in the future.
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Examples:
If you don't leave now, you'll miss your plane.

The if clauses in future conditionals can also be followed by instructions,

questions, and suggestions.

Examples:
If you see him, tell him I want to talk to him.
If he calls, what do I tell him?
If you intend to do it, you ought to do it soon.
(Cowan, 2008)

IMPORTANT If / When:
Both "if" and "when" are used in the Present Real Conditional. Using "if"
suggests that something happens less frequently. Using "when" suggests that
something happens regularly.
Examples:
When I have a day off from work, I usually go to the beach.
I regularly have days off from work.
If I have a day off from work, I usually go to the beach.
I rarely have days off from work.
(McCarthy, 2013)

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UNREAL CONDITIONALS
Unreal conditionals are conditionals in which the proposition in the if clause is
an imagined condition and the proposition in the result clause is its imagined
outcome. Like real conditionals, unreal conditionals can express present, past, and
future time. There are two types of unreal conditionals, hypothetical
conditionals and counterfactual conditionals.

Hypothetical conditionals: which express speculations about the present or the

future.

Examples:
If I found someone's wallet, I would return it.
If we knew her telephone number, we could call her right now.
I would be enjoying this match a lot more if Barcelona were winning.

Counterfactual conditionals: which express speculations about past events that

did not obtain or impossible states or situations in the present.

Examples:
If he had been paying more attention, he wouldn't have crashed.
If Mozart were alive, he would be writing music for films.
If Gore had won the 2000 election, we would all be driving cars that get 50
miles per gallon of gas.
(Cowan, 2008)
Important - Only use "If":
Only the word "if" is used with the Present Unreal Conditional because you
are discussing imaginary situations. "When" cannot be used.

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Examples:
I would buy that computer when it were cheaper. Not Correct
I would buy that computer if it were cheaper. Correct
(McCarthy, 2013)

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3.What is a reported speech and how to change the
direct into reported speech?
In the English language, there are two ways of conveying what someone else
has said: • direct/quoted speech and • indirect/reported speech
Direct Speech What is it?
Direct/quoted speech, involves quoting the exact words uttered by the person,
within inverted commas or quotation marks.
For example: Ahmed said, “ I will be coming home tonight”
(Coulmas,1986)
Indirect speech
Indirect/reported speech, on the other hand, does not have to be within quotes
or reported word-to-word. In fact, unless one is relaying the exact words spoken,
one should never use quotation marks.
For example:
She said that she would be coming home that night.
(Peter,2016)
When using reported speech, the words inserted into the reported sentences do
not exactly match the words actually spoken.
For example:

“I’ll leave here at 8.30 on Friday.”

She says that she will leave home at 8.30 on Friday.

“I’m looking forward to seeing you.”

She says she’s looking forward to seeing us.

(Peter,2016)
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When using reported speech, the words inserted into the reported sentences do
not exactly match the words actually spoken.

For example ‘I believe you.’

She said that she believed us
‘I’m leaving you.’
She said that she was leaving him.
‘I’ve finished.’
She said that she had finished.
(Joshi,2014)

When we use reported speech , we usually talking about the past.

Therefore, verbs usually change to the past tense in reported speech.

For example:

Am /is was
Are were
have /has had
can /Can’t could / Couldn’t
Will/won’t Would/wouldn’t

(Joshi,2014)

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Tense Change in Indirect speech
Present simple tense Past simple

Present continuous tense Past continuous

Present perfect tense Past perfect

Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous

Past simple Past perfect

Past continuous Past perfect continuous

Future simple,will would

Future continuous,will be Would be

Future perfect, will have Would have

(Joshi,2014)

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Changes in time and adverbs in Indirect speech
Changes to
today That day/the samr day
tomorrow The next day/the following day
yesterday The day before/the previous day
Next week/month/year The following week/month/year
Last week/month/year The previous week/month/year
Now/just then
ago before
here there
this that

(Joshi,2014)

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4.What is a relative clause and what are its types?
Relative clauses give us information about the person or thing mentioned.

Defining relative clauses give us essential information – information that tells us

who or what we are talking about.

The woman who lives next door works in a bank.

These are the flights that have been cancelled.

We usually use a relative pronoun or adverb to start a defining relative

clause: who, which, that, when, where or whose. For example:

She's the woman who cuts my hair.

He's the man that I met at the conference.
There was a one-year guarantee which came with the TV.
Summer is the season when I'm happiest.
That's the stadium where Real Madrid play.
He's the musician whose albums have sold millions. (Cowan, 2008)

There are two types of relative clause

Restrictive Relative Clauses
Restrictive relative clauses give information that defines the noun—information
that’s necessary for complete identification of the noun. Use “that” or “which” for
non-human nouns; use “that” or “who” for human nouns. Do not use commas.

I like the paintings. (Which paintings? We can’t clearly identify them without the
relative clause.)

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Non-restrictive relative clauses

This type of relative clause merely provides extra information. The information
may be quite interesting and important to the larger conversation, but it is
not essential for precise identification of the noun. “That” cannot be used as a
relative pronoun in a non-restrictive relative clause. Commas are always used at the
beginning and end of this type of relative clause.

A non-restrictive relative clause can modify a single noun, a noun phrase, or an

entire proposition.

My mother is thinking of opening a restaurant. My mother is an excellent cook.

“My mother” is already a clearly defined noun, so the second sentence becomes a
non-restrictive relative clause set off by commas on both sides. (Cowan, 2008)

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5.How relative pronouns are different from each other?

For a sentence to contain additional information, relative pronouns are

necessary. They assist establish the relationship between the noun or pronoun
and the supporting details by linking the supporting clauses to the main
sentence. There are various relative pronouns in English, each serving a distinct
function. The clarity and meaning of a phrase can be greatly affected by
choosing the right relative pronoun when referring to individuals, objects,
possessions, or locations.

There are five relative pronouns in English. Each of the five relative pronouns
has a slightly different purpose. "Who," "whom," "whose," "that," and "which" are
examples of these pronouns. The differences between these pronouns and how
they are used will be covered. (Thomson & Martinet, 1986)

1.Who/Whom
Both "who" and "whom" can refer to individuals. They are used to specify the
sentence's subject or object. When referring to the subject or the object, "who"
is used instead of "whom." "The woman who donated the money is kind," and
"The woman whom gave the donation, is kind" are two examples.
Because she is the one performing the action in the first example, the woman is the
subject of the sentence. "Who" is therefore used.

2. Whose
Whose is a pronoun that denotes possession or ownership. It can be applied to
refer to either humans, animals, or objects. For instance, "The dog whose name

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is Bella, belongs to my neighbor." Whose is making a reference to the dog and
indicating that it is the neighbor's.

3. That
That can be used as a subject or object pronoun and can be used to refer to
both people and things. It is frequently used to make sentences shorter in both
written and spoken English. For instance, "The book that I am reading is very
interesting." That serves as an object pronoun and is used to refer to the book.

It's important to remember that there are situations in which that isn't
appropriate. For instance, which is preferable over that in non-restrictive clauses
(clauses that can be deleted from the phrase without affecting its meaning). For
instance, "My car, which is red, has a flat tire." Because "which is red" is a non-
restrictive clause, its removal won't change the sentence's meaning.

4. Which
Which is always used for nonrestrictive clauses but can also be used to refer to
individuals or things. It is employed to add further details about the noun or pronoun.
For illustration, "The car which, which is red, was parked in the driveway." This,
while emphasizing the fact that the car is red, might be omitted without altering the
sentence's meaning.

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5. Where
Where is a word that denotes a place or spot. It frequently comes after a preposition
like in, on, or at. For instance, "The store where I work is located downtown."
Where is referring to the store's location.

In short words, relative pronouns are used to link two clauses and give further details
about a noun or pronoun. The words who, whom, whose, that, and which all have the
same meaning, but they are employed in different ways and have distinctive
characteristics that set them apart from one another. Writers can construct sentences
that are understandable and impactful by recognizing the variations between these
relative pronouns. (Alexander, 1988)

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Conclusion:
In conclusion, English grammar includes various important aspects such as
conditionals, reported speech, relative clauses, and pronouns. The use of conditionals
is crucial for expressing hypothetical or conditional situations, and understanding
their appropriate usage is essential for effective communication. Similarly, reported
speech is essential for relaying information from others, while understanding the rules
and conventions of reported speech is crucial for effective communication in both
spoken and written English. Additionally, relative clauses and pronouns help connect
ideas and provide additional information, making communication clearer and more
concise. By understanding and using these aspects appropriately, we can ensure
effective and impactful communication in English, whether in creative writing or
everyday conversation.

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References:
Alexander, L. G. (1988). Longman English Grammar. Longman publishing, New
York.

Coulmas, F. (1986). Direct and Indirect Speech. Walter de Gruyter.

Cowan, R. (2008). The Teacher's Grammar of English: A Course Book and Reference
Guide. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Joshi, M. (2014). Direct and Indirect Speech: English Speaking. Manik Joshi.

McCarthy, R. (2013, April 11). Advanced Level: Present Conditionals. English

Language Centers.

Peter ,S.(2016).Complete English grammar rules.

Thomson, A. J., & Martinet, A. V. (1986). A Practical English Grammar (4th ed).
Oxford University Press.

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