INDUSTRIAL TRAINING CENTRE

OPEN, DISTANCE AND FLEXIBLE LEARNING DEPARTMENT

DIPLOMA IN TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TEACHING

MODULE NO: 320-08-A

1/3 (Term One)
COMMUNICATION SKILLS

©2016
BY: Maliya Mzyece Sililo
B.A.ED (UNZA) TEFL Post Graduate Diploma (UWIST UK)
Table of Contents

Acknowledgement..........................................................................................................................ii

Copyright ......................................................................................................................................iii

Overview of the Module...............................................................................................................iv

Learning outcomes.......................................................................................................................iv

Duration .......................................................................................................................................v

Assessment criteria........................................................................................................................v

Help? .......................................................................................................................................v

Prescribed readings......................................................................................................................vi

Recommended readings...............................................................................................................vi

How to use this module................................................................................................................vi

Marginal icon...............................................................................................................................vii

UNIT 1: THE LIBRARY...........................................................................................................1

1.1 Filing Systems...........................................................................................................2

1.2 References and Dictionaries......................................................................................2

1.3 Periodicals..................................................................................................................2

1.4 Bibliography..............................................................................................................2

UNIT 2: IDENTIFYING PROCESSES OF COMMUNICATION.......................................5

2.1 Nature and Purpose of Communication.....................................................................5

2.2 Types of Communication..........................................................................................6

2.3 The Communication Process...................................................................................10

2.4: Barriers to Effective Communication......................................................................13

2.5 Strategies of Effective Communication...................................................................17

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UNIT 3: APPLYING STUDY SKILLS..............................................................................20

3.1 Reading....................................................................................................................20

3.2 Writing skills...........................................................................................................21

3.3 Listening and Speaking............................................................................................31

3.4 Visual Communication............................................................................................39

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Acknowledgement

Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce, Open, Distance and Flexible Learning
Department would like to acknowledge and thank the following people sincerely for their
contributions to this module.

Mrs Maliya Mzyece Sililo (Writer)

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Copyright

“All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, recording, photocopying, or otherwise,
without permission from Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce”.

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Overview of the Module

Welcome to Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce, particularly to the Open,
Distance and Flexible Learning (ODFL) department. I also welcome you to Communication
Skills which is one of the subjects in Diploma in Technical and Vocational Teaching course. In
this subject, you will be introduced to Communication Skills concepts and principles. You will
be equipped with the knowledge, skills and appropriate attitudes necessary to effectively and
efficiently apply the skills in learning and teaching situations, especially the classroom. The
subject is interesting. You are advised to effectively use this module as we will have limited face
to face interaction during residential school. This subject is made up of three modules. This is the
first of the three modules. The main aspects covered in this module are as outlined in the table
contents.

Learning outcomes

On completion of this module you will be able to:

1. Use the library

2. Identify the process of communication

3. Apply study skills

Duration

You are expected to complete this module in one academic calendar according to TEVETA and
EHC specifications.

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 Assessment criteria

You will be assessed through written assignments, tests, projects, oral presentations,
observations, practical and group work. You will be expected to do four official assessments
each term except for third term when you will only have three assessments translating into a total
of eleven assessments making your Continuous Assessment (CA). Tests will be written during
residential school. The actual distribution of marks will be:
1) Continuous Assessments
(i) Four assignments
(ii) Four tests
Total marks………….. 40 marks
2) Final examination
Total marks…………. 60 marks
It is important that you write the final examination because you cannot graduate if you do not
write or fail the final examination.

Help?

When you need help you can use these contact details:

College website: http/www.evelynhone.edu

Evelyn Hone College-ODFL department: phone number: +260 211 2251272

Fax: 225127

You can also visit the college to meet specialists through the ODFL department located at
printing building during working hours from 08: 00 to 17:00hrs.

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PRESCRIBED READINGS

Desmond Evans.( People). Communication and Organisations. London: Prentice Hall

Shirley Taylor. (2005). Communication for Business. 4th Ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited
Sillars, Stuart.( 1988). Success in Communication. London: John Murray Publishers Ltd
Stanton, N. (2004). Mastering Communication. New York: Palgrave Macmillan

RECOMMENDED READINGS

Shirley Taylor. (2005). Communication for Business. 4th Ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited
Sillars, Stuart.( 1988). Success in Communication. London: John Murray Publishers Ltd

How to use this module

This module should be studied together with the recommended readings given in each unit. Each
unit will comprise of learning outcome that you should use as yardsticks as you study. A variety
of self-assessment activities will help you grasp the theory and practical part of this subject.
Familiarise yourself with the icons used in this module to signpost different activities and
emphasis. Chunk the topics as you study so as to improve on your comprehension and retention
of the subject matter.

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Marginal icon

Learning outcome
Need help
Timeframe/Duration

Group work

Tip Assessment

Unit summary

Activity
Self-assessment

Discussion Reading point

New terminology

Personal reflection Case study

Quick Tip

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UNIT 1: THE LIBRARY

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this unit, you will be able to:
1. Locate books in the library effectively
2. Use the filing systems
3. Use reference books in the library
4. Use periodicals to find information
5. Use the bibliography and the catalogue to locate books.
Learning Conditions
You shall need a pencil and piece of paper.

Duration:
You will be expected to spend at least six hours on this unit.
Introduction
In this unit, you will learn how to find information from various sources and how to make and
take notes. You shall also learn why it is important for college students like yourself to develop
note taking / note making skills.

______________________________________________________________________________
Content
______________________________________________________________________________
To be a good student, you have to know where and how to find information. The library is a very
good source of information. You will find different types of books in the library. There are
fiction and non fiction books. Most modern libraries will have computers as well and you may
need to get familiar with locating materials on the computer.

How did you locate a book you wanted from a library?

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1.1 Filing Systems

You managed to locate a book in the library because books in any library are neatly arranged in a
particular order. There are five mostly used filing systems: Namely;
1 Numerical; where numbers are used.
2 Alpha numerical; where both numerical and alphabetical filing are used.
3 Alphabetical; where the alphabetical order is used.
4 Geographical; where location is used.
5 Chronological; the use of dates to file.

1.2 References and Dictionaries

There are two main sections of the library. These are the open access and the closed access. The
closed access is the reference section where you are not allowed to take books out. You are
allowed to read the books in the library. These books are mostly reference books such as
encyclopaedias and dictionaries. Encyclopaedias are very good sources of information. A set of
encyclopaedias can have a set of books with contents arranged in alphabetical order.

1.3 Periodicals
These are publications that are released on regular basis. They may be released daily, weekly,
monthly or annually. These may include news papers, journals, and magazines. Most libraries
have a section for periodicals and you are encouraged to read them so that you are a well
informed student.

1.4 Bibliography
A bibliography is a collection of books. Some books are placed in the reference section because
they are few in number and many people would like to borrow them. You are allowed to use
such books within the confines of the library. Some books are in the open access section and you
can borrow these for home reading. The library will have a bibliography list that shows what
books are available in the library. To locate the books found in the bibliography, you may have
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to use a catalogue. There are cards in the catalogue box which will have the following
information, the author’s name, the title of the book, the publisher and date of publication as well
as the shelf where the book could be found. There are four main types, namely:

 Index Subject Headings: the cards in this case are arranged

according to subject title. Let’s say you are looking for
something on teaching methods, you will check under, “T”
to find books on teaching methods..
 Author catalogue: If you are using this type of catalogue,
you must know the author of the book because the lists are
according to the surname of the author. For example, a
book written by Banda. A will come under “B”.
 Title catalogue: The books are arranged according to the
title of the book. E.g, Education in Zambia will come under
“E”.
 Index Books contain information on published articles in
each year.

Unit Summary
In this unit, you have gained the knowledge on how to locate books in the library. Though there
are library assistants who are willing to help you find the information you want, it is important to
know where the reference books are kept and which ones are open access books which you can
borrow for home reading. Encyclopaedias are a very good source of information. Every library
will have a bibliography that will show you the titles of books available in that particular library.
The catalogue will help you to locate the book on the particular shelf.

Further Reading

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http://www.yourdictionary.com/etiquette retrieved on 18th May, 2015.
www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/implicature retrieved on 18th May, 2015.
Unwin & Woolcott.. Mastering Business Communication.

Activity 1

1. Where would you find the books that are available in a library?
2. How is an encyclopaedia arranged?
3. What is kept in the reference part of the library?
4. What is the open access part of a library?

UNIT 2: IDENTIFYING PROCESSES OF COMMUNICATION

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 Learning Outcomes
On completion of this unit, you will be able to:
2.1 Define the nature and purpose of communication
2.2 Identify the different types of communication
2.3 Explain the communication process
2.4 Recall the barriers to communication
2.5 Use the strategies of effective communication.
2.6 Explain communication in an organisation
Learning Conditions
You shall need a pencil and piece of paper.

Duration:
You will be expected to spend at least eight hours on this unit.
Introduction
This unit deals with the interesting topic of the nature and purpose of communication. You will
find out how things you have taken for granted otherwise affect how your piece of
communication is received. The unit will introduce you to concepts that are used in the study of
communication skills.

______________________________________________________________________________
Content
______________________________________________________________________________

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 Think of the last time you communicated anything to a colleague at work. How was it
received?............................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

2.1 Nature and Purpose of Communication

Communication is the process of exchanging meaningful information for mutual understanding
or aimed at reaching a mutually accepted goal through writing, speech or graphics. According to
Cielens and Acquino (1999:5),
“the word communication and other similar words such as ‘community’ and
‘communion’ all have Latin origins describing the idea of ‘commonness,’ the result of
sharing ideas, having a shared a understanding or reaching a common agreement. To be
described as communication, an exchange must involve two or more individuals,
although not necessarily humans.”

It is a very important aspect of life and living. Without it, life cannot be sustained. Imagine
sitting next to a person for a long time and not saying anything at all. It feels strange, doesn’t it?
Communication starts right when life begins at conception, at least in human beings. It enhances
life everywhere. So what happens after conception is that communication develops from one
level to the other. It starts with kicks in the womb, through the first cry at birth to cooing and
actual speaking which is further developed according to the rules of the community in which an
individual grows up in.

The Purpose of Communication

This refers to the aim of communicating or what is to be achieved through communication. It is
very important for one to identify the purpose of communication whenever one communicates.

Can you think about some of the reasons why you communicate?
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

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Let us look at the importance of purpose in communication.
Identifying the purpose every time, you communicate helps you:
 Select the best means i.e. medium(s) and channel(s) to achieve it thereby increasing the
likelihood of effectiveness of the communication.
 Measure the progress of your communication as you communicate.
 To avoid distractions and be focused instead.
 To think or at least be provoked to think about how you would identify with the audience.

2.2 Types of Communication

These are basically the mediums of communication that are used. There are written and spoken
mediums which fall under verbal communication. Verbal communication is communication
using words; written or spoken. The opposite of verbal communication is non verbal
communication which is communication through any means outside of words. Visual
communication is another medium of communication which is very commonly used. Let us look
at the written, spoken and visual mediums of communication.

Written Communication
This refers to the form in which speech is put when it is put in symbols on paper or any
medium to represent that which is said or heard. It takes a variety of forms like, letters,
notices, articles, minutes of meetings, memoranda, reports etc. Can you name other forms
which have not been mentioned here?

Advantages of Written Communication

 It can be copied easily
 It can be used for a wide variety of tasks for example, conveying simple or
complex messages.
 It provides a record of what has been communicated.
 It provides room for editing before the message is sent
 It is less prone to misinterpretation than other mediums.

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  It makes things formal if it is necessary to do that.
Disadvantages of Written Communication
 It requires the development of the skill of writing.
 It can be difficult.
 It is too restrictive.
 It lacks audible non verbal expressions which help to enhance communication i.e.
showing how sincere a person is.
 Feedback is not instant when you use written communication.
 Formality may be introduced where it may be unnecessary or inappropriate.
 There is no guarantee of a reply when you communicate using written
communication.

Oral Communication
This is communication by word of mouth. It also takes a variety of forms such as conversations,
speeches, discussions, interviews, lectures, meetings etc.

Advantages of Oral Communication

 It is quick and so makes the exchange quick and easy to adjust.
 It is good for easy persuasion.
 It provides audible or visible non verbal expressions when through phone or face to face
encounters respectively, which help to enhance communication.
 It provides instant feedback.
 It has more possibility of a guarantee for a reply compared to written communication.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

 It might not be easy to remember the exact words used.
 It leaves no record of what has been communicated.
 It provides no opportunity for editing messages since it flows quite fast because of its
fluid nature.

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Non Verbal Communication
We have already stated what non verbal communication is. So we will go straight into the
aspects and types of non verbal communication.

Aspects of Non Verbal Communication.

This refers to the forms through which non verbal communication is expressed. These are the
different types of non verbal communication.
Kinesics/Kinetics
This is concerned with communicating through movements of parts of the body for
example, raising one’s eye brows to show surprise, shaking one’s head to show
disagreement, smiling to show happiness, frowning to show anger etc. The body language
can be classified in certain groups:
 Posture- the way we stand and hold the body sends a message.
 Facial expressions are the many expressions our faces are capable of
conveying. Human beings learn to interpret facial expressions very early
in life, the smile, the frown and eyes themselves send a message
 Gestures are the movement of hands and other parts of the body to explain
or emphasize a meaning. E.g, thumbs up, head nod etc.
 Movement: Pacing up and down, finger tapping or leisurely stroll.
Proxemics
This is concerned with communicating through the distance you share with the other
party in the communication exchange. This communication is to both the parties involved
in the exchange and the onlookers. The distances you keep between two people
communicating send a message.
 Intimate distance is where there is touching such as when people hug. The
message here is that the two people are close e.g parent and child.
 Personal distance. This is like a bubble we all have around us. We each
have personal space we occupy. This space around us is called elbow
distance. It is close enough to allow personal conversation.

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  Social distance is for impersonal business or casual conversation. E.g a
businessman and a client.
 Public distance is suitable for formal gatherings such as the manager
talking to workers or at political rallies and religious gatherings.
Paralanguage
This is concerned with communicating using how we pronounce or say words rather than
what they actually mean. For example, the way you say ‘no’ could suggest ‘yes’ or
agreement. It also describes the sounds we use to express feelings of agreement, surprise
encouragement etc. E.g “Ooops,” or “Uh” “whew!” Sounds can bring out our inner most
feelings.
Personal Grooming and Appearance
This is concerned with communicating through the way we generally appear before
others, in terms of dress code among other things.
Silence
Silence sends a message. Man being a social animal expects a reply when spoken to or
expects somebody to speak. Silence therefore sends a nonverbal message of some sort.
Time
The way we use time communicates a message to those who we are in touch with. Poor
time keeping may communicate lack of interest or lack of respect. Good time keeping
may communicate enthusiasm and eagerness. It also shows respect for other people’s
time which is very important.

2.3 The Communication Process

A process is a series of actions directed towards a particular end. In this case, the end is to
communicate with a particular individual or individuals. In communication, several actions take
place aimed at having a successful communication. This is shown in the diagram below:

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Figure 1: The figure below explains the communication process.

Transmitting (the message)

Source of
Idea Channel / medium
Encodes Decodes

Sender
Receiver

Feedback

The Source
This is the person or body who initiates the communication process. The raw information or
ideas are conceived in the mind of the sender or source. The ideas make up the information or
the raw material of the communication process. It refers to the ideas the sender conceives and
wishes to communicate to another person.

Encoding
The encoding stage is the thinking stage. This refers to the process of putting the conceived ideas
into a form that is suitable for understanding by the audience. The ideas are then formulated and
put into the desired form. The sender is the one who does this. This is why some authors refer to
this element as the encoder.
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The Message
The message is the end product of the thinking process. The ideas now become a message which
is a form that is easy for the audience to understand. The sender does the encoding.

The Medium
This refers to the form in which the message is expressed. There are three main media that are
commonly used. These are written, spoken and visual mediums. Some authors have added a
fourth one called non verbal communication. You must note that these elements of the
communication process must be selected with wisdom and should be used appropriately. This
helps to make communication effective. The selection must suit the audience as well as the
purpose of your communication.

Channel
This is the physical means by which the message is transmitted or sent to the audience. For
example the message could be transmitted through postal services, radio, television, a meeting,
interviews, lectures, discussions etc.

The recipient / audience / receiver

This is the person or body for which the message is intended. The audience is expected to
interpret the message and act upon it as required or expected by the sender.

Decoding
The process of interpreting the meaning of the message. This is done by the audience and so
some authors refer to the audience as the decoder. One of two things can result from the
decoding process. The message can be interpreted correctly and resulting in mutual
understanding between the sender and the recipient. When this happens, communication is said
to be successful. The opposite can happen. The audience can also misinterpret the meaning of the
message due to a number of reasons like poor concentration, prejudice etc. This results in no
mutual understanding between the parties involved. When this happens, communication is said
to have failed or to be unsuccessful.
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Feedback
This is the message derived from the reaction of the audience to the message. It is not a message
in reply. Whereas a message in reply has to be deliberately thought through, feedback never
comes like that. It is spontaneous. Examples of feedback include gestures like head nods,
shaking the head, stroking the face, frowning etc. One does not have to think to perform these
actions as one does when sending a message or replying to the sender.

The Importance of Feedback in Communication

When feedback is positive, it shows the sender that communication is taking place and so is
encouraged to continue communicating and even to do it better. If the feedback is negative, it
tells the sender that there is a problem along the communication line and so the sender is made
to do something about it. Accordingly, the sender has to be on the lookout for feedback.

Motivation
This refers to the urge or driving force to communicate. Like in any other aspect, if motivation is
low, communication gets affected negatively. Sometimes motivation might be the desire to
engage in communion which is basically social connection to the people around us so that we do
not remain strangers to each other. And as we engage in this communion, we take into the
account etiquette. Etiquette has to do with rules that govern a particular social setting or
profession.

Context
This refers to the whole occasion within which the communication takes place. It is the setting of
the communication. It can be social, cultural time bound. If any message communicated is to be
understood fully, the context must be taken into account. Failure to take the context into account
results in missing the meaning of the message altogether.

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2.4: Barriers to Effective Communication

You may have communicated something to a colleague but it was not received as you
intended?Write down four reasons why this happened?

..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................

Things that cause people not to communicate as intended are called barriers to communication.
A communication barrier is anything that hinders communication. Communication barriers are
not exhaustible and vary from one place to another. A communication barrier in one area may
not necessarily be a barrier in another place. Communication barriers are classified into:
 Those that sender-audience oriented meaning those for which the sender or
receiver is to blame.
 And those the source of which is the environment outside the communication
cycle.

Examples of Communication Barriers

As you go through the following barriers, see which of the two categories above they belong to
and how they hinder communication.

 Distortion is failure to reflect the true nature of the idea to be communicated. It can
occur at either the encoding or decoding stage. At the encoding stage it is failure to put
the idea to be communicated in a form suitable for sending. At the decoding stage it is
failure to interpret the meaning of the message as intended by the sender. Overcoming it
depends on the cause of the barrier. For example, it might be caused by not understanding
or appreciating the true nature of the idea to be communicated. If this is the case, the
sender must make efforts to understand it properly. Equally whatever has caused
distortion at the decoding stage must be dealt with.

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 Inadequate Communication Skills refers to the inability to express ideas clearly in
writing or speech in language suitable to the intended purpose and audience of the
communication. It is also the inability to read not only words but also interpret signs and
symbols of all kinds that are presented in a communication exchange. To overcome this
barrier, one must know what exactly is responsible for the inadequacy in one’s
communication skills.

 Differences in Perception refers to the differences in the ways we perceive things,

arising from differences in nationalities, culture, education, occupation sex, personality,
personal experiences etc. Accordingly this may cause failure to reach mutual
understanding every time we communicate. To overcome it, one must take note of the
difference and bridge the gap.

 Jumping to Conclusions refers to hearing what you expect to hear rather than what is
actually communicated. It is putting words in the mouth of the speaker or sender. When
you do this, you close the message away and miss it altogether. To overcome it, you must
be open minded and allow the sender to communicate his or her point of view before
your turn comes to say something. You should do that even before you do not agree with
what the sender is saying.

 Stereotyping is treating people as if they were the same based on the behaviour of one of
them. Can you give examples of some the stereotypes you know or have heard about men
or women in general in society? When you stereotype or form a stereotype of any people,
you hinder effective communication with them or about them. You jump to conclusions
every time you communicate with them because of the stereotype you have about them.
To stop this barrier, you should be open minded and appreciate the fact that no one is
exactly the same as another person or other people no matter how they are closely related.

 Lack of Interest refers to not having interest in the subject under discussion. It results on
low or lack of concentration thereby causing one not to be effective in communicating

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 anything that concerns that subject. To overcome this barrier, you must cultivate the habit
of having interest in various things which get to be talked about. Find out why others
have interest in something.

 Emotions are generally strong feelings for example of love, hatred, anger, jealousy, etc.
They hinder communication when they get out of control. For example, when you are
angry, all people around you will notice is that you are angry and not the message you are
putting across. When emotions are controlled, it can actually enhance communication. To
overcome them, you must be self controlled and learn to stay composed.

 Personality becomes a communication barrier when it clashes with another personality.

It also hinders communication when it is unpleasant to the other party in the
communication exchange. To overcome it, you must develop a pleasant or attractive
personality.

 Bad Attitude refers to the feeling that one has towards something or someone. When
your attitude towards whatever is being communicated or the other party in the
communication exchange is bad, your participation in the communication will not be
effective.

 Difference in status between the sender and the receiver hinders communication when
any of the two parties fail to come to where the other one is. Sometimes this is motivated
by pride when one is higher than the other person. Sometimes it can stem from a feeling
of inferiority or inadequacy to interact with a person of a higher status.

 Information over Load refers to the amount of information one communicates at a

given moment. Too much information over a short period of time can cause this. It
hinders communication when it is more than what the audience can hear and digest. It
also becomes a barrier when the audience is given too many words technical words
(jargon) to comprehend rather than accessible language. It also hinders communication

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 especially future exchanges when it is also too little compared to what the purpose and
audience of the communication expected.

 Resistance to Change results from always wanting to keep the status quo for no reason.
Accordingly, anything that involves change in the way things are done in the organisation
for example, would not be accepted. And so any communication which is to bring change
would be resisted or handled ineffectively. To overcome this barrier, one must be open
minded and be ready to accept change as it comes or when it is necessary to do so.
Resistance to change can also be related to being dogmatic, which is a state of not being
willing to accept alternative beliefs because you think what you believe is true. Equally to
avoid being dogmatic, one must be open minded.

 Contradictory non verbal expressions are expressions that come through body
language. They always show how sincere you are every time you communicate. When
you say one thing and they say something else, it is an indication that you are being
insincere. As a result, your audience will be discouraged and their listening will be
hindered thereby causing the communication to be ineffective. To overcome this, you
must learn to be sincere and to tell the truth.

Communication Barriers Caused by Factors outside the Communication Cycle

You may have noticed that most if not all of the barriers we have talked about so far are
caused by either the sender or receiver in the communication exchange. Let us look at
those that come from the environment outside the communication cycle.

 Noise refers to any disturbing sound or any sound that drowns the message you are
supposed to hear and understand during communication. It can be physical noise from
within the room or from outside the room. It can also be technical noise which comes as a
result of a technical fault in the communication instrument being used for example, a
defective microphone or telephone receiver. It can also be identified as psychological

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 noise which is noise in one’s mind for example, music playing in the mind or hearing a
voice telling a story when you are supposed to be listening to a speech. Thoughts that
come when you are supposed to be listening are psychological noise. To overcome this
barrier, you must deal with the source of the noise.

 A Bad or Demotivating Environment. When you are in a dirty or squalid place,

communication can be made ineffective. Imagine being in a place that smells of all kinds
of rubbish and where things are not properly arranged. You are very likely not going to
be motivated and so will your participation in the communication exchanges.

2.5 Strategies of Effective Communication

These refer to what you should do to make your communication effective every time you
communicate.
One of these approaches can be summarised using the acronym PASSS. Let us look at
what each of the letters in the acronym stands for.

 ‘P’ stands for Purpose. This is what is to be achieved through the communication. You
must identify the purpose of your communication.
 ‘A’ stand for Audience. To communicate effectively, you must identify your audience
i.e. say who they are. This helps you to know how you can connect with them. When you
do that, you are able to meet their needs.

 ‘S’ stands for Style. To communicate effectively, you must use the appropriate style.
Style refers to use of language in a special way to appeal to an audience. It refers to use
of words for example. The language must suit the purpose and audience of your message.

 ‘S’ stands for Structure. This refers to the organisation of the communication material.
Organised things are always good to look at. Equally if our communication is to be
attractive to any one, it must be organised. For example, you know that no one likes to
listen to a disorganised speech or read poorly written document.
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  ‘S’ stands for subject matter knowledge. This basically refers to your knowledge of the
subject under discussion in the communication exchange you participate in. If your
knowledge is not very good, you will not communicate the truth or facts. This will make
your communication very unattractive and ineffective altogether.

The KISS Approach to Effective Communication

This basically stands for ‘keep it short and simple.’ It means the message must be kept short and
simple if the communication is to be effective.

The Seven Cs Approach of Effective Communication

These refer to the seven characteristics a message must have for communication to be effective.
Let us look at what each one is and what it implies regarding the message.

 Courtesy: This means the sender must be courteous. He/she must take into account the
feelings/needs of the audience.
 Clarity: The message must be clear.
 Concreteness: The message must carry specific information and not generalisations. For
example, say ‘the meeting will start at 10hours’ and not ‘the message will start in the
morning.’
 Convincing: The message must leave no room for doubt in the minds of the audience.
 Conciseness: The message must be concise i.e. brief and to the point.
 Correctness: The message must be factual or true.
 Completeness: The message must be complete. It must not leave any questions
unanswered about it.

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 If you were a headteacher, what can you do to reduce gossip in your school?
............................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................
Communication in Organisations
Communication in organisations flows among and between organizational units or groups. It
flows in various directions which include vertical and horizontal. These directions are referred to
as channels.
Vertical Communication: It is the communication that flows up and down the organization
hierarchy, usually along formal reporting lines. It takes place between employees and their
superiors and subordinates and may involves several different levels of the organization.
Vertical upwards communication: Consists of messages from subordinates to their direct
superior and then to that person’s direct superior, and so on, up the hierarchy. The typical content
of upward communication is requests, information, responses to requests, suggestions,
complaints and financial information.
At times, a message might miss a certain level. This is called a bypass communication. This
could be in order to get the message to the top as quickly as possible. A bypass should be used
with care as it might cause problems.
Vertical downward communication: This occurs when information flows down the hierarchy
from superiors to subordinates. The typical content of these messages is directives, assignments,
performance feedback and general information.
In order to be effective, vertical communication should be two-way in nature, with active
feedback.
Horizontal Communication: This is when colleagues who are at the same level in an
organisation communicate. It is sometimes called lateral communication. It may involve
members from different departments of the organisation who may get together to facilitate
ordination. It can also be used for problem solving. Examples are when heads of departments
communicate with each other or when teachers communicate with each other.
Diagonal Communication: The communication in this case flows across the departments in an
organization when a junior member in one department communicates with a senior member of

xxviii
another department and vice versa. This type of communication relays requests, suggestions and
solutions to problems. The best example is when the head of science department talks to the
teacher of English who is the class teacher of a particular class.
The Grapevine: This is an informal type of communication which has no proper direction and
involves every one in the organisation. It feeds on gossip and rumours. The sources of
information are letters and other written documents that are left carelessly, eavesdropping behind
closed doors and careless talk. Grapevine information has its advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:
 It is quick and information spreads quickly.
 It is used more frequently than formal channels.
 Management uses it to float ideas before they are made official.
 Grapevine information has often been found to be true.
Disadvantages:
 Source of information is usually unknown therefore difficult to verify.
 The message may change or get distorted as it is being passed on from one person to the
other.
 A lot of man hours are lost to gossip when it gets out of hand.
The grapevine thrives where communication is closed and members of staff are not often
informed on what is going on in an organisation.

Unit summary
We are now clear on what happens during the communication process. There is always a sender
and a receiver. These roles are interchangeable and simultaneous during the communication
process. There are other things that come in during this process that can hinder communication
from taking place. These are called barriers to communication. There are various steps you can
take to overcome these barriers.

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Further Reading
Woolcott, L.A. and W.R Unwin (1988) Mastering Business Communication. UK: Palgrave
Macmillan

Activity 2

1. What are the three essential elements in the communication process?

2. Name three main Medias of communication?
3. What is a barrier to communication?
4. Define noise?
5. List the four main ways information flows in an organization.

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UNIT 3: APPLYING STUDY SKILLS

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this unit, you will be able to:
3.1 Read effectively
3.2 Write an academic essay
3.3 Use listening and speaking skills in oral communication
3.4 Visual communication

Learning Conditions
You shall need a pencil and piece of paper.

Duration:
You will be expected to spend at least eight hours on this unit.
Introduction
You shall now look at reading, writing, speaking and listening skills. These are skills which are
taken for granted. A study of these skills will enable you to become a better student and a better
person to communicate with. Visual communication is interesting in that the eyes take in a lot of
information. As a teacher you must take advantage of this knowledge and make good use of it to
benefit both your teaching and learning situations.

______________________________________________________________________________
Content
______________________________________________________________________________

What do you read? Do you read the expiry dates on the tinned or bottled foods you
buy? When did you last read an expiry date?................................................................................
Do you write down anything when you are reading? Why do you do
it?..........................................................................................................................................................

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3.1 Reading
As a student, you need to read efficiently i.e. engage in reading that helps you capture the
maximum information in the shortest period of time. You need to be able to skim through and
scan the different written material from which you make your notes. When you skim, you go
through a text or piece of writing looking for something of interest, for example scanning
through a newspaper looking at the headlines and only reading what catches your eye. It involves
looking at the headings and subheadings to see if they are of interest or to see if the entire written
material is worth reading. When you scan, you go through the written material quickly to spot
the information you are looking for, for example, a date, a certain word or name. Focus is on the
information one is looking for and not the entire material (Akombo et al, 2007). Sometimes we
engage in intensive reading. This is reading in depth to understand the material being read. To
understand the material being read, we need to make notes. Note making is the process of
recording information from a written source. You do it when you read a book that you have
perhaps borrowed from the library or your colleague. There are several reasons why you should
make notes when you read. The following are some of them:
 Making notes forces you to read carefully and so you get the relevant information
 It helps one to become a better reader
 It helps one to improve one’s comprehension skills
 Notes help determine what is important in the text when you are reviewing
 Personal notes are usually easier to remember than the text
 It helps one to remember important points when studying
 It helps one to prepare adequately for one’s professional life

3.2 Writing skills

Your main interest here is in academic writing which is what will be required of you in your
academic life. Academic writing is continuous prose writing for the world of academics
comprising researchers, lecturers, students and teachers. For you to write an academic essay, you
have to follow the laid down rules and procedures or conventions of this kind of writing. It is
different from composition writing in that whereas the latter does not require research, is usually

xxxii
not long, and can be fictional, the former requires research, is usually long and is never fictional.
Essays are based on facts that can be proved.

Let us now look at the characteristics of an academic essay. We will firstly look at its style.

The Style of an Academic Essay

By style we mean the use of language or words in a special way to appeal to your audience.
Accordingly, the academic essay
 Tends to be passive. It tends to use the passive voice. For example, instead of saying ‘in
this essay, we will discuss the style of an academic essay’ we say ‘in this essay, the style
of an academic essay will be discussed.’
 An essay is objective and not subjective. This means that it is factual and should have no
bias whatsoever towards or against the topic under discussion or any person.
 Does not allow for the use of abbreviations, acronyms / initials, short forms of words like
can’t won’t etc, words of foreign origin which have English equivalents.
 An essay is to the point and does not beat about the bush.

Let us now turn to parts of an academic essay, having looked at the style thereof.

The Parts of an Academic Essay

The parts of an academic essay are
 The title. This shows what the essay is about. It should be brief but clear.
 The introduction. This states the aim of the essay, puts the subject under discussion into
context by providing the necessary background information. It also contains the
definition of important terms. The introduction contains the general introduction
statement (GIS).
 The Main Body. This is where the topic under discussion is brought to light in every
necessary detail. It is the heart of the essay where the ideas talking about the topic are
presented in a logical order. The whole information is presented in paragraphs. The
reason for writing in different paragraphs is to present the main ideas in the paragraph. As

xxxiii
 such, one paragraph contains one main idea carried by the topic sentence, which is
surrounded by supporting sentences carrying the supporting ideas. The paragraphs
themselves should be connected to one another in a logical order so that the whole essay
is coherent. The way ideas are related should be shown by use of appropriate expressions
like however, moreover, furthermore, in addition etc. However, these link words should
be used meaningfully and with care.
 The Conclusion. This is basically the summary of the essay. It shows the logical
implication of what has been presented in the essay. It may sound like this: ‘in this essay,
one has discussed the style of an academic essay...’ Note that the conclusion should not
contain any new ideas. If a new idea comes in your mind at the time you are writing the
conclusion, you need to reorganise your essay.
 References. This refers to the lists of books that you consulted (cited from) as you wrote
your essay.

Acknowledging sources of information

For every essay that you write, you must acknowledge the sources of the information you used
for consultation. This process helps you to show that the work you cited from is not yours but
other people’s. Not acknowledging sources of information is committing plagiarism or
plagiarising. It is academic theft since it is stealing other people’s ideas. You steal when you use
another person’s ideas without his / her permission. You steal when you use another person’s
idea making it look like it was your idea or work. Just imagine you discovered that a person
plagiarised your work after you worked hard to produce and publish it, and so gets all the
benefits that accrue from it. Stealing an idea is actually a crime and punishable by the courts of
law. So why should you acknowledge sources of information? The reasons are shown below.
 To avoid plagiarism and the guilt of committing it.
 To show that you read and researched to write your essay and so your work is credible.
 To direct your readers to further reading.

Avoiding Plagiarism

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Acknowledging sources of information is done by citing sources of information. It is indicating
the source of information used in the actual text. It is called in-text citation. There are two ways
of citing:
 Direct Quotation
This is the use of the exact words the author used. When you quote, you use the exact words the
author used. The quotation should be put between inverted marks. You should show the author’s
surname, the year of publication of his book and page number where the words appear in the
book. This is what you should do.
According to Woolcott and Unwin (1983:49), “Note-making has value as a memory aid.” You
could also put it as shown below.
Gates and Hunter (2006:38) say, “classification of materials is essential.”
If the quotation takes more than four lines, you should set it off from the rest of the text by
putting it in different font size and it should be indented. No quotation marks should be put in
this case.
 Paraphrasing
This is basically putting the author’s idea in your own words without changing the meaning of it.
Examples are shown below:
Forms have become a major way of communicating information in every area of human activity.
(Sillars 1988), can be paraphrased as;
According to Sillars (1988), using forms is a common way of communicating information these
days.

Referencing
After the whole essay is written with all the necessary citations, you are supposed to write a list
of all the books or documents you consulted directly or indirectly with all their details. The
books must be put in alphabetical order using the authors’ surnames. You must put this list on a
separate page with a title. The title can be references or bibliography. References refers to the list
of only the books that you directly consulted from whereas bibliography refers to a list of the
books (published and unpublished) that you consulted from and those you did not use but have
the same topic as the one you are writing on.

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Preparing Documents for References / Bibliographical Entry
The Harvard American Psychological Association (APA) style is recommended and commonly
used. The basic details of a book / document which you expected to include are:
 The authors’ or author’s surname followed by initials or first name(s).
 The year of publication of the book / document which maybe put between brackets.
 The title of the book / document in italics or in bold, if the work is typed.
 The place of publication of the book /document.
 The publisher of the book / document.

This is how the basic details of books / documents would look like when arranged or prepared
for bibliographical / references entry:

References
Ahuja, B.N. (1998). Theory and Practice of Journalism. Delhi: Surjeet Publications.
Achebe, Chinua.( 2008). Things Fall Apart. Pearson Education Limited.
MacAthur, Jr. (1992) Charismatic Chaos. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.
Sililo, M. M. (2003) Picking up the Pieces. Ndola: Mission Press.

Take note of the punctuation marks to be used between the different parts of the book. A comma
is put between the surname and the first name or initials. The comma is used to show that the
name appearing first is the surname. If you do not put the comma as shown above, it will mean
that the first name is not the surname but the first name. But remember the use of the surnames to
arrange the books in alphabetical order.

A book with two or and in a later edition:

List the authors in the order in which they appear on the book. Only the names that appear first
should be inverted, the names appearing after this are left as they are since they are not important
regarding arranging the documents in alphabetical order. An example is given below.

xxxvi
Phiri Alice and Mary Zaza. ( 1999). The Business of Teaching. (4th ed.). Lusaka:
Unza Press.

A book with more than three authors:

You put the author’s name appearing first followed by et al. The rest of the details should appear
as has been explained so far.

A book with no named individual(s) as author(s):

The name of the organisation which produced the document can be used. It would look as shown
below:
World Bank. 2001. Developing Government Bond Markets: A Handbook. Washington D.C:
Author
Note that ‘author’ above refers to the World Bank which authored the document.

Encyclopedia entries:
Blau, J.L.1967. Cabala. In P.Edwards. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (vol. 2, pp.1-3). London:
Macmillan.

Dictionary entries:
The Chambers Dictionary. 1998. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap

Using Journal Articles:

Journals are documents that are produced periodically and contain articles which are authored by
different people. When you use a journal, you put the following details:
 Name of the author of the article
 Year of publication of the journal
 Full title of the article
 Journal name (in italics)
 Journal volume number
 Journal issue number

xxxvii
  Page range across which the article is

Using magazines:
If it is a weekly magazine, put the exact date when it was published:

Pain, S. (2003, November 29). Mayhem After Midnight. New Scientist, 50-51.

For a monthly magazine, just the name of the month is put as shown below:
Barnett, A. (2003, November). Shrew’s Passage. BBC Wildlife, 29.
Note that page numbers are written without ‘p’ / ‘pp’
Use of newspaper articles:
Mushota, R. (2007, May 12). Conquering Challenges of Pediatric HIV Care. Times of Zambia,
p.6.
Note that page numbers are preceded by ‘p’ or ‘pp’

Use of Reports:
Zambia. Ministry of Labour and Social Services. Department of Social Welfare. 1978. Annual
Report for the Year 1976. Lusaka: Government Printer.

Use of internet materials include the following:

 Name of the author of the document
 Date of publication on the internet
 Title of the document in italics
 The word ‘retrieved’
 Exact date the document was accessed or retrieved
 The full and exact internet address

An example of the above is shown below:

Kelly, M.J. 2000. What HIV/AIDS Can Do to Education, and what Education Can Do to
HIV/AIDS. Retrieved 13 May 2009 from http://www.sedos.org/enlgish/kelly_1html

xxxviii
Using Television Programs:
TV and radio broadcasts are referenced like books are done. Where the name of the author
appears, you put the name of the producer, director, script writer etc (in brackets) depending on
the available information. The word television/radio should be added in square brackets after the
title. The reference should end with the place where the broadcast was transmitted followed by
the name of the broadcaster. It looks as shown below:

Chitanfya, K & Mulenga, D. (Producers). (26 January, 2009). Kwacha Good morning Zambia
[Television broadcast]. Lusaka: ZNBC.
Use of materials with more than one publication in one year:
You add ‘a’ after the year of publication of the first item you cite, ‘b’ to the second and so on if
necessary. This applies to in text citation as well as references or bibliography. An example of
this in, in text citation is shown below:

Two recent studies (Kelly, 2009a; Kelly, 2009b) have both concluded that...
Use of sources with no date:
You put n.d. in place of the date.

Note that there are times when you will cite from the same author a number of times as you write
your essay. In this case the terms ‘ibid’ and ‘op.cit’ are used. Ibid is used to mean ‘the same.’
This means you citing the same source that you just cited from (or the source immediately
preceding the current one). Op.cit is used in a similar way but it specifically refers to any citation
preceding the one immediately before the current one. Remember to include page numbers if it is
a quotation that is used.

Exercises on Preparing Documents for Bibliographical/Reference Entry.

The following books were consulted to write an essay. Rearrange the details of the books and
then put them on a ‘References’ page of an essay.
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  Leadership-Christina Osborne-London-2008-Dorling Kindersley Limited

 How to Overcome Shyness & be Successful Socially-Martin M. Anthony and Richard P.

Swinson-Oakland-1996-New Harbinger Publications-
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................

Writing the Essay

Let us get to the practicality of actually writing the essay. There are a number of things which
should be taken into consideration. These are:
 Researching / thinking through the question
 Organising / structuring your answer
 Writing the final draft of the essay
Before all the above things are done, you ought to first analyse the question and see what the
essay really requires you to do. Analysing the question means breaking up the question into the
components that make the question. For you to do this, you must understand the instructional or
command words used in the essay questions. These are the key words which carry the main idea
in the essay. Make sure you understand the context of the whole question. Here are some of the
command words and their meanings, you are likely to meet in your academic writing:

 Account for: Explain why or give reasons for.

 Give an account of: Give a detailed description of.
 Analyse: Identify and describe in detail the main characteristics (study in depth)
 Assess: Examine closely with the view of weighing up a situation. Consider in a balanced
way the strength and weaknesses or points for or against a proposition. Afterwards, you
state your judgement or conclusion.
 Comment: State clearly and in a moderate way your opinions on the question. Support
your views with reference to suitable evidence/explanations.
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  Compare: Look at similarities and differences between two or more things.
 Contrast: Deliberately single out and emphasise differences (while looking at the
similarities) between two or more things.
 Criticise: Give your judgement about a statement/body of work, explore its implications,
discussing all evidence available.
 Define: Show the precise meaning of something taking note of multiple definitions if
they exist. Be prepared to set limits.
 Describe : Give a detailed and comprehensive account of something-paint a clear picture
of something.
 Discuss: Investigate through careful argument
 Evaluate: Look at something with a view of putting a value to it.
 How far: To what extent
 Illustrate: Make clear and explicit through discussion of concrete examples.
 Justify: Show adequate grounds for decisions / conclusions made. Defend against or
refute any objections likely to made against a point
 Outline: Give the main features / general principles of something omitting minor details
and emphasising the structure or arrangement.
 Relate: Show the connection between things i.e. how they affect or resemble each other.
 Review: Make a survey of, examine critically
 State: Present the main points in a brief and clear form
 Summarise: Give a concise account of the main points of something leaving out the
details and examples.
 Trace: Follow the development or history of a topic from some point of origin.

Study skills

What is to study? ..............................................................................................................

xli
Study skills are the many methods of taking in information, organising time and ideas,
approaching and carrying out assignments and tests and improving your understanding and
retention of information. Study skills are very important because they help improve the quality of
your academic work which is attainment of good grades. Let us look at what having good study
skills involve. It involves:
 Effective participation in class which should include good note-taking and good
comprehension.
 Identifying good study materials from various sources.
 Identifying and avoiding anything that you know hinders effective studying.
 Planning to balance studying with other school commitments or tasks.
 Identifying the study time that best works for you. For example, some people study well
at night while others do well during the day.
 Developing the ability to summarise what you learn.
 Being able to predict questions that would come in the exams based on the material
learnt.

3.3 Listening and Speaking

Listening
Listening is an active skill in that you do it with intention by paying close attention to what is
being said so that it can be understood. The listener then retains the information for future use.
Hearing is different in that it is a passive activity. It happens naturally because your ears capture
the sound; it does not involve paying close attention. Both, listening and hearing are receptive
activities in that you receive and not produce. Speaking and writing are productive activities in
that you produce something. Let us look at listening skills;

Types of Listening
 Appreciative / Casual Listening
This is listening for pleasure or entertainment for example listening to comedy.
 Empathic/Empathetic Listening

xlii
 This is listening to identify with the speaker. It involves getting into the shoes of
the speaker so as that you have a good idea of or feel what they are feeling, for
example listening to someone who is heartbroken.
 Comprehensive Listening
This is listening in order to understand or comprehend for example listening to a
lecturer.
 Critical Listening
This is listening for the purpose of evaluating a message so that it may be
accepted or rejected for example, listening to politician at a political rally.

Factors that hinder effective listening

 Listening too hard
This is listening that involves paying close attention to unnecessary details at the expense of the
important points-the message being communicated.

 Paying attention to the appearance of the speaker rather than what is being
communicated
This prevents the listener from getting the message because the listener puts a barrier to the
communication by focusing on the speaker’s appearance.

 Paying attention to the way the speaker speaks (pronunciation of words/accent)

rather than what is being communicated
This puts a barrier to effective listening like does paying attention to speaker’s appearance rather
than what he/she says.

 Poor concentration/Lack of Concentration

This is failure to keep the mind focused on what is being communicated. The following can help
to keep the mind focused on what is being communicated.

 Jumping to conclusions

xliii
This is putting words in the mouth of the speaker. It blocks one from listening in that one is made
to hear what one expects rather than what is communicated.

What is needed for good listening to take place?

 Listen to get the idea being put across rather than unnecessary details
 Focus your listening
 Focus on what the speaker is communicating rather than his/her appearance,
pronunciation of words
 Keeping eye contact with the speaker
 Avoid all distractions
 Take notes

Note Taking
Note taking is the process of putting information that you listen to in a lecture, talk or oral
presentation in note form. It is putting a mass of information into main ideas put in point form.
Most lecturers will make an effort to speak at a pace good enough for you to take notes. In
addition, they will give you signals to help you know what to take note of and what to leave out.
This will help you to maximise your note taking every time you attend a lecture.

Here are some of the clues or signals lecturers or good speakers give to their audience to help
them take notes in an easy way:
 Writing the main points on the board.
 Giving summaries given at the beginning / end of the class
 Repetition / expressing the same idea in another way
 Showing emphasis which can be judged by tone of voice and gesture. Emphasis can also
be judged by the amount of time the instructor spends on points and the number of
examples used.
 Use of word signals (e.g. “There are two points of view on …” “The third reason is
that…” “In conclusion…”

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  Enumeration / alphabetising e.g. 1, 2, 3...or firstly, secondly, thirdly, or a, b, c, d...or
next...
 Asking rhetorical questions (those questions which do not require the listener)
 Slowing down speech

Having looked at the clues lecturers or speakers give you to enable you to take notes easily, you
need to know just how note taking can be done in practice. To help you know that, here are some
suggested strategies that you will useful in taking notes:
 Capture the topic of the lecture so that you give your notes the correct title
 Listen for headings representing major sections of the notes
 Listen for subheadings representing minor sections of the notes
 Pay attention to the signals/clues the lecturer gives you to take notes
 Listen for ideas and not words in isolation
 Focus more on using content words than on non content words
 Make your notes brief through: Using abbreviations i.e. personal and or conventional
abbreviations, use signs/symbols e.g. = ←, ≠, +, @, /, &, ↓, ↑, ˄, ˅...., initials e.g.
EHC, NRDC, USAID, acronyms (‘words’ made from the first letters of a group of
words and treated as words in their own right) e.g. NIPA, SACCORD (Southern
African Centre for Constructive Resolution of Disputes). Be consistent on your use of
personal abbreviations.
 Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a phrase where you can
use a word.
 Use outline form and/or a numbering system. Indention helps you distinguish major
from minor points.
 If you miss a statement write key words, skip a few spaces and get the information
later.
 Don’t try to use every space on the page, leave room for coordinating your notes with
the text after the lecture (you may want to list key terms in the summary or make a
summary of the contents of the page).

xlv
We may now look at the format your notes may take. They may look as shown below:

Title of the notes (showing what the notes are about)

 Heading
a. First subheading
i. Notes
ii. Notes
b. Second subheading
i. Notes
ii. Notes
 Second heading
a. First subheading
i. Notes
ii. Notes

b. Second subheading
i. Notes
ii. Notes

The title shows what the notes are about. It must be brief but clear. The headings represent the
major portions of the notes and the subheadings represent minor portions of the notes. You do
not have to include headings or subheadings. You only include them if the information from
which you are taking the notes is so much that you need to break it into major and minor portions
for easier understanding.

Please note that it is very important for you to organise your notes soon after the lecture ends. Do
not take long to do that as you will forget what the information meant since it is note form. Once
that happens, you will lose a lot because there will be no one to remind what exactly you meant
by using a certain abbreviation, for example.

xlvi
 Speaking

what are the qualities of a good speaker?

..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
Oral public presentations
As teachers, your job involves speaking to others as well as public presentations. A presentation
is a formal or planned talk to a specified audience at a planned time and place.
The purpose and content of each presentation you make will vary tremendously, but the skills
needed to ensure that it is effective will be the same. Too often we assume that because we
understand the importance/relevance of our plans or proposals, then so does everyone else. We
get bogged down in a mass of detail which disguises the simplicity of an idea. Sometimes we are
overawed by our audience, or we lack commitment in our ideas or judgment.

In order to present ourselves and our information effectively, we need to follow the 6 Ps of
presentation:

Planning
Purpose
Political sensitivity
Personal commitment
Personal communication skills (ability to speak and be heard)
Polish
We shall examine these in detail later.

Presentations will be affected by our audience and purpose. These determine the specific
requirements/criteria that have to be met. They will determine how you approach the planning,
design and execution of your presentation. Below are the prospective audience that you will find
in the world of business.
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  to prospective employers at a job interview
 to senior managers
 to actual and/or potential clients – learners in your case
 at exhibition stands/trade fairs
 at in-house training/staff development activities- to colleagues

Types of Presentations
 Extemporaneous presentation
This is a type that is based on adequate and careful preparation. Some speakers use cue cards
which helps them keep information on their finger tips. It is delivered in conversational style
without heavy reliance on the notes. It is centred on the message and the audience.

 Impromptu presentation
This is not based on adequate and careful preparation and planning. The speaker has little or no
time to prepare. It is delivered in conversational style (since there are no notes to rely on) and is
audience and message centred but can at times be poorly organized if the speaker is not
experienced.

 Manuscript presentation
This is delivered based on the script which has the exact words to be used. More attention is
given to the script rather than the audience. The presentation is based on reading word for word.
It is used mostly in formal occasions and when the presenter does not want to be misquoted.

 Memorised presentation
The delivery of this type of presentation is based on the aid of memory. The speech is well
prepared and committed to memory.

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 Have you ever been asked to say a prayer publiclywhenyou did not expect it?
Whatstyle of speech was your
prayer?.............................................................................................
Have you been asked to give a vote of thanks? What style of speech did you
use?..................................................................................................................................................
.
What style of speech do most politicians in zambia use?................................................................

Planning a Presentation
 You should identify the purpose of your presentation so that you have a sense of
direction, can monitor the effectiveness (progress) of your communication and
can choose the best means to achieve your communication goals. People will
largely speak for three reasons; to inform, to persuade and to entertain.
 Identify your audience so that you know how you can connect (identify) with
them. Know as much as possible about your audience by carrying out an audience
analysis; for example, background, culture, interests, fears, concerns, needs, age,
size etc.
 Choose the appropriate style (language) to use.
 Research on the subject matter. Look at it critically. Collect the necessary
information not forgetting to record all sources of information. The information
can be gathered using primary research or secondary research methods.
 Write a draft of the presentation giving it the three part structure which should
have an introduction which can be direct when you are sure the audience has
interest in the subject or indirect when you think or know that the audience has
little interest in the subject but need to hear the message. The draft should also
have a discussion (where you actually deliver your message. It should also have a
conclusion which you can use to leave a final lasting impression on the audience.

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  Prepare visual aids if necessary making sure they are in line with the message and
are appropriate for the audience.
 Practise delivery or rehearse. This will give you confidence to deliver your
presentation later. You can stand in front of a mirror and practise or ask someone
to act as an audience. Remember that the real audience will judge you on your
attitude, voice projection, posture, gestures, dressing and facial expressions. These
should be taken into consideration when doing rehearsals.

Factors That Are Important In the Successful Delivery of Presentation

 Start very well and with confidence from the minute you stand up to the end.
 Watch the audience mood and empathise with them.
 Use your voice skilfully, be clearly audible-keep your head up, speak at the
right pace and use good pitch.
 Mind your body language. Stand in good posture, do not pace around too
much, use appropriate gestures, avoid irritating mannerisms, do not put your
hands in your pockets and use eye contact (appropriately).
 Use visual aids properly for example, write from the sides of the white
board/flipchart, do not block the view of the audience, do not speak to the
visual, do not speak to the board. If you are using technical visual aid, make
sure you know how to operate it and it is in good condition. Rehearse with the
visual aid.

Managing anxiety
Preparing a speech is not enough. You will have to manage the actual speaking situation. Some
changes in the body will take place as you are about to speak such as increase in blood pressure
and pulse rate, sweating, increased breathing rate and disturbances in the stomach commonly
known as butterflies in the stomach. These are symptoms of nervousness. It should be viewed as
normal and gives the speaker great alertness and sensitivity to the needs of the situation. You as
the speaker need to take control as the speaking situation. Different individuals do this in
different ways.

l
  Impression Formation. This refers to the way people see you from the minute you stand
up to when you sit down. You must act in control and maintain eye contact.
 It can be done by taking a couple of deep breaths (but breathing at the right pace-not
too fast and not too slowly), gesturing appropriately and focusing on reaching out to the
audience.
 Have a positive speaking behaviour. This refers to believing in yourself and what you
are doing as being able to do a good job.

3.4 Visual Communication

This is the medium where messages are presented in a form which appeals to the sense of sight.
You do not have to read or hear for you to understand the message. It is most preferred to the
other mediums of communication because of its special attributes which makes it very effective
both in teaching and learning. Let us look at them.

Special Attributes / Advantages of Visual Communication

 It crosses language barriers, for example, you do not need a particular language to
understand a picture or road sign.
 It lasts long in the mind of the audience.
 Messages that come through it are more easily noticed than those that come through other
means.
 It makes work easy since you do not have to spend so much effort and time to create a
picture of what you are putting across through words. The audience can fill up all gaps
that you leave.
 It is relatively easy to use.
 It says much more than what words do, one picture is worth a thousand words it is said.

Disadvantages of Visual Communication

 It can be used to manipulate people.
 It can take the audiences’ attention away from the message.

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  If it takes the form of symbolism, it becomes prone to all kinds of interpretations
since different things symbolise or mean different things in different cultures.
 It might be expensive, for example the use of computers.
 It might not be easy to use.
 It might have destructive effects on a society or community.

Precautions to take when using visual communication

 Make sure a visual reflects the nature and purpose of the presentation
 When you are done with using a visual, remove it from sight.
 Ensure that everybody can see the visual by preparing the seating arrangements.
 Don’t give the audience your back; always stand on the side of your visual when pointing
out something.
 Write in legible handwriting if you write something on a board and stand on the side of
the board.
 Make sure diagrams are clear to see and should be well labelled with a key to interpret
the parts of the diagram.
 Opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and confusion
 Have sufficient technical back up in case a technical visual fails
 Always rehearse using the visual before so that you do not fumble.

Different types of visual communication

Information can be presented in visual form using different methods. They include some
presented below.
 White board and black boards
 Power point
 Flip chart
 Video
 Physical object
 Sound effects

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 Physical surroundings such as lighting, decor, seating lay out etc.
 Statistical information which would be presented in the following manner:
Tabulated Data is presenting information in form of tables. Tables present
information in an immediate and carefully ordered way but they rely on the reader
to interpret it.
Bar Charts are used to show comparisons, they may be displayed horizontally or
vertically. They can be made up of single or multiple bars.
Gantt Charts are used to show the comparison between work that has been
scheduled and work that has been completed in relation to time. Lines with
different colours can be used to show the work scheduled and that which has been
completed.
Scatter Graph is a type of visual used to display values for two variables for a set
of data. The data is displayed as a collection of points, each having the value of
one variable determining the position on the horizontal axis and the value of the
other variable determining the position on the vertical axis.
Pictograms show information represented in the form of figures or symbols. The
value of each figure is indicated by either the size or number of figures shown.
Flowchart is a diagram used to show a sequence of decisions or instructions
involved in a process. It shows the steps or procedures involved in a sequence of
events.
Planning chart This is used to show how a project is progressing
Statistical data must be handled with care. They can be used and manipulated to support
different types of arguments. Below are the basic principles to keep in mind as you use
statistical information.
General Principles
 Must be set in context
 The amount of detail needs to be kept to the minimum necessary to support
the arguments in the report.
 The source of data must always be stated.


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Unit Summary
Listening, speaking, reading, note taking and note making are very important aspects of not only
academic life for students but also the life of professionals. The benefits of developing these
skills cannot be overlooked. These include improvement in among other things, one’s ability to
listen, understand and remember what one learns during a lecture. You have also learnt that good
note taking is enhanced by making use of the clues lecturers give students as they conduct their
lectures. In addition there are strategies that have been suggested for use to make note taking
practically possible. One strategy for example, is using abbreviations and signs when taking
notes. You can not call yourself a student if you can not write an essay. This unit has made it
clear what you need to know in order to write an academic essay.

Extra Reading
Taylor, Shirley .( 2005). Communication for Business. 4th Ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited

Activity 3

1. Give the difference between an essay and a composition?

2. How is listening different from hearing?
3. Give three different types of presentation?

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ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES
Suggested Answers to activity 1
1. In a catalogue.
2. In alphabetical order.
3. Books that can not be taken out of the library.
4. Books that can be borrowed for home reading.

Suggested answers Activity 2

1. People, message and feedback

2. Written, oral, nonverbal

3. That which hinders communication from taking place

4. Unwanted sounds.

5. Vertical, horizontal, grapevine, diagonal.

Suggested Answers A
1. An essay is based on facts that can be proved. A composition need not be based on facts.
2. Listening is when you pay attention and you are actively involved. Hearing is passive
since you do not pay attention but sounds come to your ear.
3. Promptu, extemporaneous, memorised and manuscript or read style. (any 3)

END OF MODULE ONE

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