SMJC 4343

CHEMICAL PROCESS DESIGN

Group 11
Production of Ammonia from Methane
NAME MATRIC NO
FREDERICK JACOB A17MJ0186
JEEVANESWARAN A/L KUPPUSAMY A17MJ0192
KOK YU HUI A17MJ0053
NORAZIRAH BINTI MD RAZI A17MJ0102
NURUL NAZIRAH BINTI MOHD IZAN A17MJ0123

SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR DR. EZZAT CHAN BIN ABDULLAH

 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinct odour. Normally, it will be shipped

as a liquid under its vapor pressure. Most common uses of ammonia includes as a
fertilizer which help people to sustain food production. Ammonia is also used as a
refrigerant gas, for purification of water supplies, and in the manufacture of plastics,
explosives, textiles, pesticides, dyes and other chemicals. It is found in many
household and industrial-strength cleaning solutions. The ammonia production plant
is designed with capacity of 85 tonne per hour of feedstock intake and is estimated to
operate for 330 days per year. This plant will be built at Kerteh, Terengganu which is
near to Petronas Gas Berhad. The feedstock which is methane gas and nitrogen gas
will be supplid by Petronas. Generally, methane will undergo steam reforming in a
tubular reactor with water to form syngas (carbon monoxide and hydrogen) under
pressure 30 atm and temperature 700℃. The carbon monoxide in the stream is then
turned into carbon dioxide in water gas shift reactor. The unreacted water in the tubular
reactor will be separated through a flash column. While the carbon dioxide and
unreacted carbon monoxide will be separated from the stream by using absorber and
membrane separator respectively. A pure hydrogen stream will be obtained from the
outlet of membrane separator. The hydrogen gas will then react with nitrogen gas in
the ammonia synthesis reactor to form ammonia. The purity of the ammonia in the
plant is 99.999% with 93.90% of yield. Along the process, several by-products are
formed such as water, carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide and solid catalyst. This by-
product will then undergo waste treatment either by selling them to other companies,
disposed as scheduled waste or for reuse purpose. For heat integration, there are total
of 12 heat exchangers available for heat integration analysis which are 6 hot streams
and 6 cold streams. The main objective of the heat integration’s is to maximize the
energy recovery of the plant as well as to minimize the cost of project. The saving of
energy for cooling and heating are 98.89% and 13.39% respectively. The sizing and
costing for a total of 35 units of equipment were conducted. For a plant to operate in a
large scale, monitoring and controlling process is very essential. A complete Piping
and Instrument Diagram (P&ID) is proposed. There are three type of control system
implemented in the plant which are feedback control, ratio control and cascade control

ii
configuration. The process operability of several units are proposed to ensure the
operation are maintained at desired value. For the safety studies on the ammonia plant,
Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) are done for each equipment to predict the
possible cause of incident and its consequences. Possible action to be carried out is
determined to lower the risk. The equipment included in the design are reactors,
absorber, flash column, membrane separator, furnace, heater, cooler, heat exchanger,
expander, pump and compressor. The total bare module cost was calculated by using
a cost index of 619.2 from the year of 2019 and base cost index of 567 from the year
of 2013. The total bare module cost around RM 144 million. Lastly, profitability
analysis was conducted to measure the economic feasibility of the plant. The total
capital investment of the plant is around RM 307 million while the total production
cost RM 338 million. The net annual profit after taxes is RM551,745,577.17. The plant
spent 3 years for start-up and its operating life is assuming to be 20 years. For the cash
flow, the payback period is 5.2 years. For different discount rate decided, the payback
period increased. For discounted rate of 5%, 10% and 15%, the payback period is
5.3years, 5.4 year and 5.5years respectively. The rate of investment (ROI) is 179%
which proved that it will bring great amount of profit in a long run. According to the
series of task conducted, the proposed plant designed have a great potential for the
production of 4MTA of ammonia. The plant is economically feasible and it could
provide promising return on investment.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Executive Summary ii
Table of Content iv
List of Table x
List of Figure xviii
List of Abbreviation xxv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Chemical Background 1
1.1.1 Raw Material: Methane Gas 1
1.1.2 End Product: Ammonia 6
1.2 Market Survey 12
1.2.1 Availability of Methane gas 12
1.2.2 Global Market of Ammonia 15
1.2.3 Future Market Value of Ammonia 23
1.2.4 Potential Customer 24
1.2.5 Price of Chemical Used 25
1.3 Site Location 25
1.3.1 Introduction 25
1.3.2 Potential Site Location 30
1.3.3 Site Selection Criteria 32
1.3.4 Factors Considered in Site Selection 36
1.3.5 Justification for Site Selection 47
1.4 Sustainability 49
1.4.1 Circular Economy 50

CHAPTER 2 PROCESS SYNTHESIS 51

2.1 Process Route Selection 51
2.2 Process Route 1: Partial Oxidation of Methane + Haber
Process 51
2.2.1 Process Description 51

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 2.2.2 Chemical Equation 52
2.2.3 Gross Profit Margin 53
2.3 Process Route 2: Steam Reforming of Methane +
Haber Process 55
2.3.1 Process Description 55
2.3.2 Chemical Equation 56
2.3.3 Gross Profit Margin 57
2.4 Process Route 3: Auto-thermal of Methane + Haber
Process 59
2.4.1 Process Description 59
2.4.2 Chemical Equation 60
2.4.3 Gross Profit Margin 61
2.5 Process Route Selection 62
2.5.1 Block Flow Diagram for Selected Route 65
2.5.2 Overview of Process Flow Diagram 68
2.6 Basis for Equipment Selection 73
2.6.1 Reactors 73
2.6.2 Absorption Column (A-101) 79
2.6.3 Membrane Separator (D-101) 81
2.6.4 Flash Column 83
2.6.5 Splitter (S-101) 89
2.6.6 Auxiliary 90
2.7 Manual Calculation 95
2.7.1 Mass Balance 95
2.7.2 Energy Balance 128
2.7.3 Aspen Plus Simulation 162

CHAPTER 3 Waste Management 175

3.1 Waste Management 175
3.1.1 Waste Management Practices 176
3.1.2 Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 178
3.2 Sources of Waste from Ammonia Production Plant 178
3.3 Solid Waste 179

v
 3.3.1 Spent Catalyst 179
3.4 Liquid Waste 183
3.4.1 Waste Treatment of Waste Water 183
3.4.2 Waste Treatment of Diethanolamine (DEA) 187
3.5 Gas Waste 189
3.5.1 Unreacted Syngas 190
3.5.2 Waste Management for Carbon Dioxide 196

CHAPTER 4 ENERGY INTEGRATION 202

4.1 Introduction 202
4.2 Stream Identification 204
4.3 Composite Curves 207
4.4 Problem Table Algorithm 212
4.5 Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) for Maximum Energy
Recovery (MER) 219
4.5.1 Above Pinch and Below Pinch Design 219
4.5.2 Heat Integrated Process Flow Diagram 224
4.6 Comparison between Utilities Consumption before and
after MER 226
4.6.1 Total Utilities Consumption before and after
Heat Integration 226
4.6.2 Comparison between Utilities Consumption
before and after HEN 228

CHAPTER 5 Process Control 232

5.1 Introduction to Piping and Instrumentation (P&ID) 232
5.2 Process Control Variable 233
5.3 Control System Designs for Individual Operational
Equipment 235
5.4 Control System Unit for Equipment 240
5.4.1 Control System for Tubular Steam Reactor (R-
101) 240
5.4.2 Control System for Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-
102) 242
5.4.3 Control System for Ammonia Synthesis Fix
Bed Reactor (R-103) 244

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 5.4.4 Control System for Flash Column (F-101, F-
102, F-103) 246
5.4.5 Control System for Absorber (A-101) 250
5.4.6 Control System for Membrane Separator (D-
101) 252
5.4.7 Control System for Heat Exchanger 254
5.4.8 Control System for Splitter (S-101) 262
5.4.9 Control System for Mixer (M-101) 263
5.4.10 Control System for Expander (T-101) 264
5.4.11 Control System for Compressor 265
5.4.12 Process Operability for Valve (V-101) 270
5.4.13 Process Operability for Pump (P-101) 271
5.5 Overall P&ID Control System 273

CHAPTER 6 SAFETY PROCESS 276

6.1 Introduction 276
6.2 Plant Safety 280
6.2.1 Plant Location 280
6.2.2 Chemical Storage and Process Vessel 280
6.2.3 Transportation 282
6.2.4 Management of Chemical Substance 282
6.3 Worker Safety 283
6.3.1 General Personal Safety 283
6.3.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 284
6.3.3 First Aid 285
6.4 Fire Hazard 286
6.4.1 Fire Prevention 287
6.4.2 Fire Detection and Alarm System 288
6.5 Plant Emergency Response 289
6.6 HAZOP Sheet for Process Equipment 291
6.7 Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA) 342
6.8 Pressure Relief System 356
6.8.1 Pressure Relief Valve 356

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 6.9 Plant Start-Up and Shutdown Procedure 358
6.9.1 Plant Start-Up Procedure 358
6.9.2 Plant Shutdown Procedure 360
6.10 Plant Layout 363

CHAPTER 7 PROCESS ECONOMIC 366

7.1 Introduction 366
7.2 Equipment Costing 368
7.2.1 Reactors 368
7.2.2 Absorption Column (A-101) 376
7.2.3 Flash Column (F-101, F-102 and F-103) 381
7.2.4 Membrane Separator (D-101) 387
7.2.5 Furnaces (HT-01 and HT-02) 389
7.2.6 Heater (HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-07
and HT-08) 392
7.2.7 Cooler (CL-01, CL-02, CL-03 and CL-04) 402
7.2.8 Heat Exchanger (HE-01, HE-02, HE-04, HE-
05, HE-06 and HE-07) 410
7.2.9 Expander (T-101) 420
7.2.10 Compressor (C-101, C-102, C-103, C-104, C-
105, C-106) 424
7.2.11 Centrifugal Pump (P-101) 432
7.3 Utilities Cost 437
7.4 Estimation Land Cost 438
7.5 Total Labor Operating Cost 438
7.6 Profit Margin 440
7.7 Total Capital Investment 441
7.8 Total Depreciable Capital, 𝑪𝑻𝑫𝑪 444
7.9 Total Annual Production Cost 444
7.10 Cash Flow Analysis 447

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REFERENCES 454

APPENDIX I 462

APPENDIX II 466

APPENDIX III 503

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 LIST OF TABLE

Table 1.1 Physical and chemical properties of methane (Medicine,

2020) 2
Table 1.2 Physical properties of ammonia (Ullmann, F, 1998) 7
Table 1.3 Price of Chemical Used 25
Table 1.4 Existing Ammonia plant around the world 27
Table 1.5 Ammonia Competitor in Malaysia 29
Table 1.6 Potential site location 30
Table 1.7 Comparison of potential site location 36
Table 1.8 Site Criteria Indicator 47
Table 1.9 Comparison of the proposed site 48
Table 2.1 Gross profit margin for route 1 53
Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of route 1 54
Table 2.3 Gross profit margin for route 2 57
Table 2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of route 2 58
Table 2.5 Gross profit margin for route 3 61
Table 2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of route 3 62
Table 2.7 Process Route Comparison 62
Table 2.8 Operating Condition of Tubular Steam Reactor 74
Table 2.9 Operating Condition of Water Gas Shift Reactor 76
Table 2.10 Operating Condition of Water Gas Shift Reactor 78
Table 2.11 Operating Condition of Absorption Column 80
Table 2.12 Operating Condition of Membrane Separator 82
Table 2.13 Boiling Points of Components at Standard Temperature 84
Table 2.14 Operating Condition of Flash Column (F-101) 86
Table 2.15 Operating Condition of Flash Column (F-102) 87
Table 2.16 Operating Condition of Flash Column (F-103) 88

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Table 2.17 Operating Condition of Splitter (S-101) 89
Table 2.18 Operating Condition of Heat Exchanger 91
Table 2.19 Operating Condition of Compressor 92
Table 2.20 Operating Condition of Pump (P-101) 93
Table 2.21 Operating Condition of Expander (T-101) 94
Table 2.22 Operating Condition of Throttling Valve (V-101) 94
Table 2.23 Material Balance on C-101 97
Table 2.24 Material Balance on E-101 98
Table 2.25 Material Balance on C-102 99
Table 2.26 Material Balance on H-101 100
Table 2.27 Material Balance on P-101 101
Table 2.28 Material Balance on H-102 102
Table 2.29 Material Balance on R-101 103
Table 2.30 Material Balance on T-101 104
Table 2.31 Material Balance on E-102 105
Table 2.32 Material Balance on R-102 106
Table 2.33 Material Balance on E-103 107
Table 2.34 Material Balance on F-101 108
Table 2.35 Material Balance on A-101 109
Table 2.36 Material Balance on V-101 110
Table 2.37 Material Balance on E-104 111
Table 2.38 Material Balance on F-102 112
Table 2.39 Material Balance on C-103 113
Table 2.40 Material Balance on E-105 114
Table 2.41 Material Balance on C-104 115
Table 2.42 Material Balance on E-106 116
Table 2.43 Material Balance on D-101 117
Table 2.44 Material Balance on C-105 118
Table 2.45 Material Balance on E-107 119

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Table 2.46 Material Balance on C-106 120
Table 2.47 Material Balance on E-108 121
Table 2.48 Material Balance on M-101 122
Table 2.49 Material Balance on R-103 123
Table 2.50 Material Balance on E-109 124
Table 2.51 Material Balance on F-103 125
Table 2.52 Material Balance for S-101 126
Table 2.53 Material Balance for E-110 127
Table 2.54 Energy Balance for C-101 131
Table 2.55 Energy Balance of E-101 132
Table 2.56 Energy balance for C-102 133
Table 2.57 Energy Balance for H-101 134
Table 2.58 Energy Balance for P-101 135
Table 2.59 Energy Balance for H-102 136
Table 2.60 Energy Balance for R-101 137
Table 2.61 Energy Balance for T-101 138
Table 2.62 Energy Balance for E-102 139
Table 2.63 Energy Balance for R-102 140
Table 2.64 Energy Balance for E-103 141
Table 2.65 Energy Balance for F-101 142
Table 2.66 Energy Balance for A-101 143
Table 2.67 Energy Balance for V-101 144
Table 2.68 Energy Balance for E-104 145
Table 2.69 Energy Balance for F-102 146
Table 2.70 Energy Balance for C-101 147
Table 2.71 Energy Balance for E-105 148
Table 2.72 Energy Balance for C-104 149
Table 2.73 Energy Balance for E-106 150
Table 2.74 Energy Balance for D-101 151

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Table 2.75 Energy Balance for C-105 152
Table 2.76 Energy Balance for E-107 153
Table 2.77 Energy Balance for C-106 154
Table 2.78 Energy Balance for E-108 155
Table 2.79 Energy Balance for M-101 156
Table 2.80 Energy Balance for R-103 157
Table 2.81 Energy Balance for E-109 158
Table 2.82 Energy Balance for F-103 159
Table 2.83 Energy Balance for S-101 160
Table 2.84 Energy Balance for E-110 161
Table 2.85 List of components used in Aspen Plus V10 162
Table 2.86 Unit and Auxiliary Operation used in Aspen Plus V10 163
Table 2.87 Stream 1 – 20 table in Aspen Plus V10 167
Table 2.88 Stream 21 – 41 table in Aspen Plus V10 168
Table 2.89 Comparison of mass balance between manual calculation
and Aspen Plus 170
Table 3.1 Source of waste in the production plant 179
Table 3.2 Comparison of Methods for Solid Waste Management 182
Table 3.3 Comparison of Technologies for Wastewater Treatment 187
Table 3.4 Comparison of Methods for DEA Management 189
Table 3.5 Sources of gaseous waste 190
Table 3.6 Gaseous waste and their environmental impacts 190
Table 3.7 Permissible exposure limit of Carbon Monoxide and
methane 195
Table 3.8 Advantages and disadvantages of each alternative 196
Table 3.9 Technology comparison for carbon dioxide capture 201
Table 4.1 Summary of Streams Available for Heat Integration 205
Table 4.2 Hot Composite Curve Data 208
Table 4.3 Cold Composite Curve Data 209
Table 4.4 Actual and Shifted Temperature of the Process 214

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Table 4.5 Problem Table Algorithm with Arrow 215
Table 4.6 Problem Table Algorithm with Cumulative Utilities 217
Table 4.8 Summary for All Heat Exchangers, Heaters and Coolers 224
Table 4.9 Heating or Cooling Sequence for Each Stream 225
Table 4.10 Utilities Consumption before Heat Integration 227
Table 4.11 Utilities Consumption after Heat Integration 228
Table 4.12 Comparison of the utility consumption before and after
HEN 228
Table 5.1 Legends and functions of control instruments. 235
Table 5.2 Operating Condition of R-101 240
Table 5.3 Control System of Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101) 241
Table 5.4 Operating condition of water gas shift reactor 242
Table 5.5 Process Control for Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102) 243
Table 5.6 Operating Condition of Ammonia Synthesis Fix Bed
Reactor 244
Table 5.7 Process Control of Ammonia Synthesis Fix Bed Reactor
(R-103) 245
Table 5.8 Process Control of Flash Column (F-101) 247
Table 5.9 Process Control of Flash Column (F-102) 248
Table 5.10 Process Control of Flash Column (F-103) 249
Table 5.11 Process Control of Absorber (A-101) 251
Table 5.12 Process Control of Membrane Separator (D-101) 253
Table 5.13 Process Control of Furnace (HT-01, HT-02) 255
Table 5.14 Process Control of Heater (HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06,
HT-07, HT-08) 256
Table 5.15 Process Control of Cooler (CL-01, CL-02, CL-03, CL-04) 260
Table 5.16 Process Control of Splitter (S-101) 262
Table 5.17 Process Control of Mixer (M-101) 263
Table 5.18 Process Control of Expander (T-101) 264
Table 5.19 Operating Condition of Compressors 266

xiv
Table 5.20 Process Control of Compressor (C-101, C-102, C-103, C-
104, C-105, C-106) 267
Table 5.21 Process Operability of Valve (V-101) 271
Table 5.22 Process Operability of Pump (P-101) 272
Table 6.1 Standard guide-words used in HAZOP 278
Table 6.2 Parameters and their respective suitable guide-word 279
Table 6.3 Description of Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) 285
Table 6.4 Hazop Sheet of Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101) 292
Table 6.5 Hazop Sheet of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102) 296
Table 6.6 Hazop Sheet of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103) 299
Table 6.7 Hazop Sheet of Flash Column (F-101) 302
Table 6.8 Hazop Sheet of Flash Column (F-102) 305
Table 6.9 Hazop Sheet of Flash Column (F-103) 308
Table 6.10 Hazop Sheet of Absorption Column (A-101) 311
Table 6.11 Hazop Sheet of Membrane Separator (D-101) 315
Table 6.12 Hazop Sheet of Furnace (HT-01 & HT-02) 317
Table 6.13 Hazop Sheet of Heater (HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-
07 & HT-08) 319
Table 6.14 Hazop Sheet of Cooler (CL-01, CL-02, CL-03 & CL-04) 323
Table 6.15 Hazop Sheet of Splitter (S-101) 326
Table 6.16 Hazop Sheet of Mixer (M-101) 329
Table 6.17 Hazop Sheet of Expander (T-101) 332
Table 6.18 Hazop Sheet of Compressor (C-101, C-102, C-103, C-104,
C-105 and C-106) 334
Table 6.19 Hazop Sheet of Throttling Valve (V-101) 338
Table 6.20 Hazop Sheet of Centrifugal Pump (P-101) 340
Table 6.21 Chemicals Used in Work Units (Form B1) 343
Table 6.22 Chemicals Released by the Processes or Work Activities
(Form B2) 346
Table 6.23 Inhalation Exposure Assessment (Form C1) 350
Table 6.25 Preparation of Plant Shutdown Procedure 361

xv
Table 7.1 Equipment Specification Sheet of SMR Reactor (R-101) 370
Table 7.2 Equipment Specification Sheet of Water Gas Shift Reactor
(R-102) 371
Table 7.3 Equipment Specification Sheet of Ammonia Synthesis
Reactor (R-103) 372
Table 7.5 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-101) 382
Table 7.6 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-102) 383
Table 7.7 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-103) 384
Table 7.8 Equipment Specification Sheet of Membrane Separator (D-
101) 388
Table 7.9 Equipment Specification Sheet of Furnace (HT-01) 390
Table 7.10 Equipment Specification Sheet of Furnace (HT-02) 391
Table 7.11 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-03) 393
Table 7.12 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-04) 394
Table 7.13 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-05) 395
Table 7.14 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-06) 396
Table 7.15 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-07) 397
Table 7.16 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-08) 398
Table 7.17 Tube Length Factor 401
Table 7.18 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (CL-01) 403
Table 7.19 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (CL-02) 404
Table 7.20 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (CL-03) 405
Table 7.21 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (CL-04) 406
Table 7.22 Tube Length Factor 409
Table 7.23 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-01)
411
Table 7.24 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-02)
412
Table 7.25 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-03)
413
Table 7.26 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-04)
414

xvi
Table 7.27 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-05)
415
Table 7.28 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-06)
416
Table 7.29 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-07)
417
Table 7.30 Tube Length Factor 419
Table 7.31 Equipment Specification Sheet of Expander (T-101) 421
Table 7.32 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-101) 425
Table 7.33 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-102) 426
Table 7.34 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-103) 427
Table 7.35 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-104) 428
Table 7.36 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-105) 429
Table 7.37 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-106) 430
Table 7.38 Equipment Specification Sheet of Pump (P-101) with
Electric Motor 433
Table 7.40 Estimation of Utilities Cost 437
Table 7.41 Estimation Land Cost 438
Table 7.42 Operating Labor Estimation Cost 439
Table 7.43 Raw material cost (RM/year) 440
Table 7.44 Product Revenue (RM/year) 441
Table 7.45 Allocated Capital Costs for Utility Plants 442
Table 7.46 Summarization of Total Costs 443

Table 7.47 Total Depreciable Capital, 𝐶𝑇𝐷𝐶 444

Table 7.48 Summary of Total Annual Production Cost 446
Table 7.49 Cash Flow Analysis for Ammonia Production Plant (in
million of Ringgit Malaysia) 448
Table 7.50 Discounted Factor Cash Flow Analysis for 0%, 5% & 10%
&15% (in million of Ringgit Malaysia) 452

xvii
 LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1.1 Chemical structure of methane (Medicine, 2020) 1

Figure 1.2 Hazard Symbol of Methane (Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) Methane, 2017) 5
Figure 1.3 Chemical Structure of Ammonia 6
Figure 1.4 Pie Chart on uses of Ammonia (Greener Industry, 2019) 9
Figure 1.5 Labelling element Hazard Pictograms (AFROX, 2015) 11
Figure 1.6 Bar Chart of Sources of Methane Emission (IEA,2020) 14
Figure 1.7 Bar Chart of Malaysian Emission Sources (IEA,2020) 14
Figure 1.8 World nitrogen fertilizer demand forecast (Anynomys,
2019) 16
Figure 1.9 Bar chart of Ammonia Market Revenue (Grand View
Research, 2019) 17
Figure 1.10 Growth Rate of Ammonia (Mordor Intelligence, 2019) 18
Figure 1.11 Pie Chart of the top ten global ammonia producer (Mordor
Intelligence, 2019) 19
Figure 1.12 Pie Chart of world consumption of ammonia (HIS Markit,
2020) 19
Figure 1.13 Pie Chart of global ammonia demand by region (Merchant
Research & Consulting, Ltd, 2019) 20
Figure 1.14 Pie Chart of ammonia usage (Grand View Research, 2019) 21
Figure 1.15 Trend graph of fertilizer usage in Malaysia (CEIC Data,
2020) 21
Figure 1.16 Bar graph of fertilizer consumption in percentage in
Malaysia (Trading economics, 2020) 22
Figure 1.17 U.S Ammonia Market Revenue by Application, 2016-2030
(Market Research Future,2020) 23
Figure 1.18 Gas facilities and gas pipeline connectivity in Peninsular
Malaysia and ASEAN (Maggie Kumar, 2020) 29
Figure 1.19 Satellite view of KKIP, Sabah (Skun, 2020) 30
Figure 1.20 Satellite view of Polymer Park, Kerteh (Google map, 2020)
31

xviii
Figure 1.21 Satellite view of Kawasan Perindustrian Berat Gurun
(Google map, 2020) 31
Figure 1.22 Circular Economy of Methane and Ammonia 50
Figure 2.1 Block Flow Diagram for Selected Rout 67
Figure 2.2 Process Flow Diagram 71
Figure 2.3 Process Flow Diagram 72
Figure 2.4 Schematic Diagram of Tubular Steam Reactor (Nguyen,
2018) 73
Figure 2.5 Schematic Diagram of Packed Bed Water Gas Shift Reactor
(Mills et.al, 2007) 75
Figure 2.6 Schematic Diagram of Fixed Bed Ammonia Synthesis
Reactor (Hafeez et.al, 2019) 77
Figure 2.7 Schematic Diagram of Absorption Column (Majeed et.al,
2017) 79
Figure 2.8 Schematic Diagram of Membrane Separator (Mounir,
2007) 81
Figure 2.9 Schematic Diagram of Flash Column (Model et.al, 2012) 83
Figure 2.10 Schematic Diagram of Splitter 89
Figure 2.11 Symbol of C-101 in PFD 97
Figure 2.12 Symbol of E-101 in PFD 98
Figure 2.13 Symbol of C-102 in PFD 99
Figure 2.14 Symbol of H-101 in PFD 100
Figure 2.15 Symbol of P-101 in PFD 101
Figure 2.16 Symbol of H-102 in PFD 102
Figure 2.17 Symbol of R-101 in PFD 103
Figure 2.18 Symbol of T-101 in PFD 104
Figure 2.19 Symbol of E-102 in PFD 105
Figure 2.20 Symbol of R-102 in PFD 106
Figure 2.21 Symbol of E-103 in PFD 107
Figure 2.22 Symbol of F-101 in PFD 108
Figure 2.23 Symbol of A-101 in PFD 109
Figure 2.24 Symbol of V-101 in PFD 110

xix
Figure 2.25 Symbol of E-104 in PFD 111
Figure 2.26 Symbol of F-102 in PFD 112
Figure 2.27 Symbol of C-103 in PFD 113
Figure 2.28 Symbol of E-105 in PFD 114
Figure 2.29 Symbol of C-104 in PFD 115
Figure 2.30 Symbol of E-106 in PFD 116
Figure 2.31 Symbol of D-101 in PFD 117
Figure 2.32 Symbol of C-105 in PFD 118
Figure 2.33 Symbol of E-107 in PFD 119
Figure 2.34 Symbol of C-106 in PFD 120
Figure 2.35 Symbol of E-108 in PFD 121
Figure 2.36 Symbol of M-101 in PFD 122
Figure 2.37 Symbol of R-103 in PFD 123
Figure 2.38 Symbol of E-109 in PFD 124
Figure 2.39 Symbol of F-103 in PFD 125
Figure 2.40 Symbol of S-101 in PFD 126
Figure 2.41 Symbol of E-110 in PFD 127
Figure 2.42 Symbol of C-101 at PDF 131
Figure 2.43 Symbol of E-101 in PFD 132
Figure 2.44 Symbol of C-102 in PFD 133
Figure 2.45 Symbol of H-101 in PFD 134
Figure 2.46 Symbol of P-101 in PFD 135
Figure 2.47 Symbol of H-102 in PFD 136
Figure 2.48 Symbol of R-101 in PFD 137
Figure 2.49 Symbol of T-101 in PFD 138
Figure 2.50 Symbol of E-102 in PFD 139
Figure 2.51 Symbol of R-102 in PFD 140
Figure 2.52 Symbol of E-103 in PFD 141
Figure 2.53 Symbol of F-101 in PFD 142

xx
Figure 2.54 Symbol of A-101 in PFD 143
Figure 2.55 Symbol of V-101 in PFD 144
Figure 2.56 Symbol of E-104 in PFD 145
Figure 2.57 Symbol of F-102 in PFD 146
Figure 2.58 Symbol of C-101 in PFD 147
Figure 2.59 Symbol of E-105 in PFD 148
Figure 2.60 Symbol of C-104 in PFD 149
Figure 2.61 Symbol of E-106 in PFD 150
Figure 2.62 Symbol of D-101 in PFD 151
Figure 2.63 Symbol of C-105 in PFD 152
Figure 2.64 Symbol of E-107 in PFD 153
Figure 2.65 Symbol of C-106 in PFD 154
Figure 2.66 Symbol of E-108 in PFD 155
Figure 2.67 Symbol of M-101 in PFD 156
Figure 2.68 Symbol of R-103 in PFD 157
Figure 2.69 Symbol of E-109 in PFD 158
Figure 2.70 Symbol of F-103 in PFD 159
Figure 2.71 Symbol of S-101 at PFD 160
Figure 2.72 Symbol of E-110 at PFD 161
Figure 2.73 Flowsheet of Aspen Plus V10 166
Figure 3.1 Waste Management Process Hierarchy 177
Figure 3.2 Packed Counter Current Flow Stripping Tower
(Suezwaterhandbook, 2019) 184
Figure 3.3 Microbial Electrolytic Carbon Capture (Lu et.al, 2015) 186
Figure 3.4 Syngas Market Revenue source by CAGR 193
Figure 3.5 Global Syngas and derivative market, by region 2020 to
2027 194
Figure 3.6 Schematic of Gas Separation Membrane 199
Figure 4.1 “Onion Diagram” of Hierarchy in Process Design (Kemp,
2007) 203

xxi
Figure 4.2 Stream Identification of Process Flow Diagram of
Ammonia Production 206
Figure 4.3 Composite Curves of Hot and Cold Stream before Shifting 210
Figure 4.4 Shifted Composite Curves of Hot and Cold Stream 211
Figure 4.5 Grid Diagram for Heat Exchanger Network 221
Figure 4.6 Temperature Profile for Heat Exchanger H5 and C2 At
Upper Pinch 222
Figure 4.7 Heat Integrated Process Flow Diagram for Ammonia
Production 229
Figure 4.8 Heat Integrated Process Flow Diagram for Ammonia
Production (continued) 230
Figure 4.9 Heat Integrated Process Flow Diagram for Ammonia
Production (continued) 231
Figure 5.1 Control System Design of Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101) 242
Figure 5.2 Control System Design for Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-
102) 244
Figure 5.3 Control System Design of Ammonia Synthesis Fix Bed
Reactor (R-103) 246
Figure 5.4 Control System Design of Flash Column (F-101) 248
Figure 5.5 Control System Design of Flash Column (F-102) 249
Figure 5.6 Control System Design of Flash Column (F-103) 250
Figure 5.7 Control System Design of Absorber (A-101) 252
Figure 5.8 Control System Design of Membrane Separator (D-101) 253
Figure 5.9 Control System Design of Furnace (HT-01) 255
Figure 5.10 Control System Design of Furnace (HT-02) 255
Figure 5.11 Control System Design of Heater (HT-03) 257
Figure 5.12 Control System Design of Heater (HT-04) 257
Figure 5.13 Control System Design of Heater (HT-05) 257
Figure 5.14 Control System Design of Heater (HT-06) 258
Figure 5.15 Control System Design of Heater (HT-07) 258
Figure 5.16 Control System Design of Heater (HT-08) 258
Figure 5.17 Control System Design of Cooler (CL-04) 260

xxii
Figure 5.18 Control System Design of Cooler (CL-01) 261
Figure 5.19 Control System Design of Cooler (CL-02) 261
Figure 5.20 Control System Design of Cooler (CL-03) 261
Figure 5.21 Control System Design of Splitter (S-101) 262
Figure 5.22 Control System Design of Mixer (M-101) 264
Figure 5.23 Control System Design of Expander (T-101) 265
Figure 5.24 Control System Design of Compressor (C-101) 268
Figure 5.25 Control System Design of Compressor (C-102) 269
Figure 5.26 Control System Design of Compressor (C-103) 269
Figure 5.27 Control System Design of Compressor (C-104) 269
Figure 5.28 Control System Design of Compressor (C-105) 270
Figure 5.29 Control System Design of Compressor (C-106) 270
Figure 5.30 Process Operability Design for Valve (V-101) 271
Figure 5.31 Process Operability Design of Pump (P-101) 272
Figure 6.1 Flowchart of procedure to conduct Hazop 278
Figure 6.2 Fire and combustion triangle 287
Figure 6.3 Control System of Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101) 295
Figure 6.4 Control System of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102) 298
Figure 6.5 Control System of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103) 301
Figure 6.6 Control System of Flash Column (F-101) 304
Figure 6.7 Control System of Flash Column (F-102) 307
Figure 6.8 Control System of Flash Column (F-103) 310
Figure 6.9 Control System of Absorption Column (A-101) 314
Figure 6.10 Control System of Membrane Separator (D-101) 316
Figure 6.11 Control System of Furnace (HT-01) 318
Figure 6.12 Control System of Furnace (HT-02) 318
Figure 6.13 Control System of Heater (HT-03) 320
Figure 6.14 Control System of Heater (HT-04) 320
Figure 6.15 Control System of Heater (HT-05) 321
Figure 6.16 Control System of Heater (HT-06) 321
Figure 6.17 Control System of Heater (HT-07) 322
Figure 6.18 Control System of Heater (HT-08) 322
xxiii
Figure 6.19 Control System of Cooler (CL-01) 324
Figure 6.20 Control System of Cooler (CL-02) 324
Figure 6.21 Control System of Cooler (CL-03) 325
Figure 6.22 Control System of Cooler (CL-04) 325
Figure 6.23 Control System of Splitter (S-101) 328
Figure 6.24 Control System of Mixer (M-101) 331
Figure 6.25 Control System of Expander (T-101) 333
Figure 6.26 Control System of Compressor 1 (C-101) 335
Figure 6.27 Control System of Compressor 2 (C-102) 335
Figure 6.28 Control System of Compressor 3 (C-103) 336
Figure 6.29 Control System of Compressor 4 (C-104) 336
Figure 6.30 Control System of Compressor 5 (C-105) 337
Figure 6.31 Control System of Compressor 6 (C-106) 337
Figure 6.32 Control System of Throttling Valve (V-101) 339
Figure 6.33 Control System of Centrifugal Pump (P-101) 341
Figure 6.34 Pressure Relief Valve 357
Figure 6.35 Plant Layout Design of Ammonia Production Plan 365
Figure 7.1 Cumulative Cash Flow Diagram with 0% Interest 449
Figure 7.2 Discounted Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0%, 5% and 10% 453

xxiv
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

CAGR - Compound Annual Growth Rate

CDR - Carbon Dioxide Reforming
CEM - Cation Exchange Membrane
CNG - Compressed Natural Gas
CPR - Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
DOE - Department of Environment
EAB - Electroactive Bacteria
LFG - Landfill Gas
GWP - Global Warming Potential
LNG - Liquefied Natural Gas
LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas
MECC - Microbial Electrolytic Carbon Capture
MIDA - Malaysia Investment Development Authority
MSW - Municipal Solid Waste
NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
ODP - Ozone Depletion Potential
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PEL - Permissible Exposure Limit
POM - Partial Oxidation of Methane
SCBA - Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus
SDG - Sustainable Development Goal
SMR - Steam Methane Reforming

xxv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Chemical Background

1.1.1 Raw Material: Methane Gas

The Earth’s atmosphere contains a small amount of methane gas. It is the simplest
hydrocarbon. Methane is composed of one carbon compound and four hydrogen atoms which
are attached through a single bond like shown in Figure 1.1 (ChEBI, 2020). Methane is a non-
toxic, colourless, odourless but combustible gas. Methane gas is a distinguished raw material
for the production of fuels and chemicals like ammonia. Other than that, profitable chemicals
such as chloroform, methanol, nitromethane and carbon tetrachloride were also derived from
methane. Inadequate combustion of methane will result in the yields of carbon black which are
used as a reinforcing agent in rubber for automobile tires (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2020).
Although the amount of methane present in the atmosphere is little but due to its chemical
shape if more methane is added to the atmosphere it could be severe (BORUNDA, 2020). This
is because methane is adequate at trapping heat.

Figure 1.1 Chemical structure of methane (Medicine, 2020)

1
 It is easy to extract methane since it is the major component of natural gas. Methane
production is primarily generated from the processing and transport of coal, natural gas and oil
or the outcome from livestock or any other agricultural processes. Decomposition of organic
waste from landfills also resulting in the generation of methane gas. The bad thing about
methane is it is one of the main factors that lead toward the greenhouse effect as it is a vigorous
greenhouse gas. It was reported that since 2007, the concentration of methane in Earth’s
atmosphere has grown around 6.8-10 parts per billion (ppb) per year and by 2020 atmospheric
methane had hit 1873.5 ppb which is 2 to 3 times higher than preindustrial levels, which
hovered at 600-700 ppb (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2020). According to statistic provided from
the EPA, 10 per cent of the greenhouse gas emission in 2018 is made of methane (EPA, 2020).
Methane can also transform to value-added products such as syngas or C2 and higher
hydrocarbons (Kongzhai Li, 2013). Three routes have been identified for the generation of
syngas to methane which is water steam reforming (SMR), carbon dioxide reforming (CDR),
and partial oxidation of methane (POM) (Kongzhai Li, 2013).

1.1.1.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Methane

The physical and chemical properties of methane are important to understand when
handling it. Table 1.1 show the physical and chemical properties of methane.

Table 1.1 Physical and chemical properties of methane (Medicine, 2020)

Physical Properties Details

Molecular mass 16.04 g/mol
Colour Colourless
Odour Odourless
Physical state Gas at room temperature
Boiling point -161.5 °C
Melting point 0.657 kg/m³
Flash point −188 °C
Density 422.62 g·L−1 (liquid, −162 °C)

2
 Physical Properties Details
Vapour density 0.657 kg·m-3 (gas,25°C,1 atm) 0.717
kg·m-3 (gas, 0 °C, 1 atm)
Critical temperature 190.6 K (−82.6 °C)
Critical pressure 45.8 atm
Heat of fusion 1.1 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization 8.17 kJ/mol
Heat of combustion -890.8 Btu/lb or -2070.14kJ/kg
Chemical properties Details
Chemical formula CH4
Type of base Neutral (pH7)
Thermal stability Thermal stability of methane from 600-
1000°C
Solubility in water Methane reacts with water to produce
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. At
temperature 750-870°C (760-880°C) with
the help of catalysts
CH4 + H2O ⇆ CO + H2

1.1.1.2 Application of Raw Material

Methane is crucial for the use of a few industries such as for pulp and paper in the form
of gas. It is commonly used in fabric, plastic, anti-freeze and also fertilizer. Petroleum refineries
and industries which work with stone, clay and glass use the energy emitted. The combustion
of methane allows companies to heat, dehumidify, melt and sanitise their goods (Hadley, 2018).

To generate hydrogen gas on a large scale, methane that is a type of natural gas is used.
The most prevalent method of generating industrial bulk hydrogen gas is Steam Methane
Reforming (SMR), or known as Steam Reforming. Over 50 million metric tonnes, mainly from

3
SMR of natural gas, are produced worldwide annually (2013). In petroleum refineries,
chemical production, and food manufacturing, a lot of this hydrogen is used. In the industrial
synthesis of ammonia, significant amounts of hydrogen are used.

1.1.1.3 Storage and Handling of Raw Material

Methane gas is described as a highly flammable gas. Methane gas which should be
placed away from any ignition sources such as smoking, flares, sparks or blazes. Methane gas
should be store in a spot which is flame resistance, cool and have good ventilation on the floor
and ceiling. Equipment which consists of metal parts must be placed on the floor to avoid the
ignition of vapors by static electrical discharge. There is a high risk of fire if leakage happened
as vapors may form an explosive mixture with air (European Chemical Agency, 2020).
Electrical equipment and lightning which is explosion-proof also should be installed. Non-
sparking hand tools should be used while handling with methane gas (International Labour
Organization, 2000).

According to Emergency Response Guidebook Guide 115, while handling methane gas,
positive pressure, self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) should be worn. Other than that,
cold-insulating glove and safety goggles should be worn to avoid direct contact with skin and
eyes. Methane gas should be handled and refilled in a closed system. If spillage occurs,
evacuate the danger area and call emergency medical service. Do not handle the spilt chemical
with bared hands or walk through it. Direct water at spill or source of the leak should be avoided
(Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, 2020).

When disposing of in a large amount, it should be handled by the gas supplier. (Material
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Methane, 2017). The gas shall not release into any place where an
accumulation of the gas is dangerous. The emission level has to be ensured according to local
regulations.

4
1.1.1.4 Toxicity of Raw Material

The hazard symbol of methane gas is as shown in Figure 1.2. The symbol on the left
represents flame which indicates the flammable material or substances liable to self-ignite
when exposed to water or air while the symbol on the right represents gas cylinder which
indicates gases stored under pressure.

Figure 1.2 Hazard Symbol of Methane (Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Methane,
2017)

Methane gas can be absorbed into the body through inhalation. Suffocation may happen
when the concentration of methane in the air is high. This is due to the oxygen level in the air
will be lowered by methane gas. When methane gas contact with body and eye, frostbite may
happen (International Labour Organization, 2000).

If eyes are contacted with methane, the victim should be ensured not wearing contact
lenses. The contact lenses need to be removed if the victim is wearing and rinsed the victim’s
eyes with water for a few minutes. Do not apply any ointment or medication without doctors’
instruction and seek immediate medical attention (CAMEO Chemicals).

If the skin is contacted with methane, wash the affected area gently with cold water
immediately. Remove and isolate the clothes and shoes which are contaminated. Clothing
should not be removed if adhering to the skin. If inflammation or irritation occurs, seek
immediate medical treatment (CAMEO Chemicals).

5
 If inhale methane gas, the victim must be moved to a less contaminated area and take a
deep breath of fresh air. Artificial respiration or Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) may be
needed. Seek immediate medical attention (International Labour Organization, 2000).

1.1.2 End Product: Ammonia

For over 200 years, ammonia has been recognized. An English chemist, Joseph
Priestley, first isolated gaseous ammonia in 1774. In 1785, the French chemist Claude Louis
Berthollet confirmed its composition. Adolph Frank and Nikodem Caro discovered in 1898
that calcium carbide could fix N2 to form calcium cyanamide, which could then be hydrolyzed
with water to form ammonia (Slack & James, 1974). Ammonia is a natural material that exists
as a colourless gas or liquid. The chemical formula NH3 represents the central atom of nitrogen
surrounded by bonds of hydrogen as shown in Figure 1.3. As a readily available source of
nitrogen, ammonia plays a significant role in the manufacture of fertilizers; it is also used as a
disinfectant and a refrigerant (Ammonia, n.d.).

Figure 1.3 Chemical Structure of Ammonia

Although popular and widely used, ammonia is hazardous in its concentrated form. It
is classified in the United States as an extremely dangerous drug and is subject to stringent
reporting requirements for facilities that produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.
Ammonia is a compound that is derived from nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter present
in trace quantities in nature. Tiny amounts of ammonia and ammonium salts are also present

6
in rainwater, while in volcanic regions ammonium chloride (salt ammonia) and ammonium
sulphate are found whereas crystals of ammonium bicarbonate were found in Patagonia guano
(Kirschbaum et.al, 1999).

Ammonia can act as a geologically significant antifreeze on smaller, icy bodies such as
Pluto, as a mixture of water and ammonia can have a melting point as low as 173 K (-100 ° C;
-148 ° F) (Gardner, 2015).The Haber-Bosch process, which is also often referred to as the
Haber-Ammonia Process or Synthetic Ammonia Process, produces ammonia commercially.
The method was invented in 1909 by Fritz Haber, the German physical chemist, and was further
improved by Carl Bosch to make it commercially viable (Ammonia The history behind the gas,
n.d.).

1.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Ammonia

Ammonia is known as an important element in agricultural industries and commonly

used in many chemical industries. It is an organic compound which consists of nitrogen and
hydrogen mixture that have less weight than air. Ammonia usually appears as a gas at room
temperature and may turn into liquid form when it is been condensed. Ammonia is known as a
colourless gas or clear liquid at a condensed temperature which has a strong pungent smell to
the environment. Table 1.2 summarized table on the physical and chemical properties of
ammonia.

Table 1.2 Physical properties of ammonia (Ullmann, F, 1998)

Physical Properties Details

Molecular mass 17.93 g/mol
Colour Colourless
Odour Sharp pungent and suffocating odour
Physical state Gas at room temperature
Boiling point -33.5℃

7
 Physical Properties Details
Melting point -77.8℃
Flash point 11℃
Density 0.7710 g/L (in gas) and 0.681 g/L (in liquid)
Vapor density 0.569 g/L
Critical temperature 132.4℃
Critical pressure 111.3 atm
Heat of fusion 58.1 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization 23.3 kJ/mol
Heat of combustion -316 kJ/mol
Chemical Properties Details
Chemical formula NH3
Type of base Weak base
Even though ammonia is highly stable, but it
can decompose into hydrogen and nitrogen
Thermal stability by flowing over metallic catalysts or when
the electric discharge has flowed through it.
2NH3 → N2 + 3H2
It is highly soluble in water and may produce
Solubility in water ammonium hydroxide.
NH3 + H2O → NH4OH

1.1.2.2 Application of Ammonia

Nowadays, ammonia application has been increased globally especially in the

agricultural sector and also in chemical industries where ammonia is been used as one of the
main chemicals in their production lines.

8
 According to the pie chart in Figure 1.4, about 85% of the ammonia produced is been
used as fertilizer which helps billion of people all over the world to sustain food production.
Food crop production inevitably depletes the supply of soil nutrients. Most farmers rely on
fertilizers to keep their soils fertile and efficient to preserve healthy food crops. Fertilizers can
also help boost the levels of important nutrients such as zinc, selenium and boron in food crops.
(American Chemistry Council, 2019).

Figure 1.4 Pie Chart on uses of Ammonia (Greener Industry, 2019)

Another 15% of the ammonia produced is been used in explosive, textile and other
industries. Around 5% of it is been used in textiles industries where the ammonia is used in the
manufacturing of synthetic and it is been employed in the dyeing and scouring of cotton in the
textile industries. Besides that, another 5% of the ammonia is been used in explosive industries.
Explosives is where the nitric acid made from ammonia is used in the production of explosives.
(Greener Industry, 2019).

The remaining 5% of ammonia is been used for other purposes such as food production,
rubber production, cleaning purposes, refrigeration and others. Ammonia can be used to clean
a variety of household surfaces such as tubs, toilets, kitchen countertops and tiles as chemical
ingredients in many cleaning ingredients. (American Chemistry Council, 2019). Besides,
ammonia systems are also used in wide-scale refrigeration for bulk food storage to produce
chloramine (NH2Cl), an anti-bacterial compound more persistent than chlorine, water
purification is used to produce. (Greener Industry, 2019).

9
 In food and beverages industries, ammonium bicarbonate may use as a raising agent for
the biscuit making while for rubber industries, it uses ammonia and ammonium laurate to
preserve the raw latex. Other than that, manufacturing of vitamins, certain alkaline, certain
plastics such as polyurethanes and phenovios, nitric acid, acrylic, cosmetics and certain
industries such as pharmaceutical uses ammonia in their production line.

Apart from that, ammonia utilization is required in the petroleum industry to neutralize
the acid constituents of crude oil and act as corrosion prevention for equipment. While in
mining industry ammonia is been used for the extraction of metals such as nickel and
molybdenum from their ores. Other than that, certain areas and wastewater treatment utilizes
ammonia for pH control, regeneration weak anion exchange resins in the solution state,
portable water production in reaction with chlorine and act as an oxygen scavenger in boiler
water treatment process that can be implemented in the production plant. (Appl, 1998).

1.1.2.3 Storage and Handling of Product

Ammonia has to be stored in a cool place which is avoided from sunlight and do not
expose with temperature more than 50 °C. The cylinder has to be tightly closed in a dry and
well-ventilated place. Secure cylinder in an upright position at all time and avoid to be knocked
over (Safety Data Sheet, 2013). Cylinders should be stored in a well-ventilated area on a hard-
dry surface. Cylinders which are opened must be carefully resealed and kept upright to prevent
leakage. Avoid dragging, rolling or sliding cylinders. Use trolleys for handling (Material Safety
Data Sheet (MSDS) Ammonia , 2015).

When handling ammonia, inhalation and contact with ammonia gas should be avoided.
The recommended approach is a full-face respirator with a canister or cartridge approved for
NH3. Thermal protective gloves and appropriate chemical resistant clothes are recommended
to avoid any possibilities of contact with skin. Chemical respirator with particular cartridge and
facepiece which protect the compound problem is advised to be worn when handling ammonia
(Safety Data Sheet, 2013).

10
 Ammonia should be avoided to reach open water or sewage system. Federal state and
local regulations should be consulted to know the proper disposal of waste material that may
incorporate some amount of this product (Safety Data Sheet, 2014).

1.1.2.4 Toxicity of Ammonia

The primary potential health hazard of ammonia is the toxicity of the product itself
which take place during production, storage and supervision of ammonia. Ammonia itself is a
typical natural by-product in the human body. Ammonia toxicity towards a person’s health
arises when the human body is exposed to external sources of ammonia and the various
structure of its toxicity (Padappayil & Borger, 2020). Hence, this section focuses on this
particular topic. Figure 1.5 shows the labelling element hazard pictogram that is used to identify
harmful chemicals or substances.

Figure 1.5 Labelling element Hazard Pictograms (AFROX, 2015)

Skin contact or eye contact – The period of exposure and the concentration to
ammonia will determine the intensity of damage to the skin. Low concentration ranging from
100 ppm of ammonia will result in eyes irritation and rapid skin. While higher concentrations
will likely result in severe eye injury (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
2020). Exposure to Ammonia or ammonium hydroxide can pass through the cornea

11
immediately, leading to damage of the iris, keratitis, cataract, and glaucoma (Wiley-VCH
Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2006). Children are likely more sensitive of this toxicant due to
their relatively large surface area to body weight ratio.

Inhalation – The effect of ammonia is irritating and corrosive. Therefore, a high

concentration of ammonia present in the air will prompt to the development burning of the
nose, throat and respiratory tract. This will lead to the outcome of the condition such as alveolar
edema, bronchiolar and destruction of the airway caused by respiratory distress or
deterioration. While for the inhalation of lower concentration of ammonia will be brought into
account minor condition such as nose irritation, throat irritation, coughing, fatigue or adaptation
and lack of awareness. (Health, 2020).

Ingestion –The act of absorbing or taken into the body by swallowing of ammonia
solution lead to corrosive damage to the mouth, throat and stomach. As a strong local irritant,
alkaline ammonium hydroxide is formed on the mucous membranes in which it dissolves
cellular such as proteins and resulting in serious necrosis (corrosive issue) (Wiley-VCH Verlag
GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2006). However, ingestion of ammonia does not typically lead to
systemic poisoning (Health, 2020).

1.2 Market Survey

1.2.1 Availability of Methane gas

One of the trace gases in the atmosphere that is believed to play an enormous role in
the greenhouse effect is methane (CH4). Emissions of atmospheric methane from anaerobic
decomposition in natural wetlands, paddy rice fields, emissions from livestock processing
systems, combustion of biomass, anaerobic decomposition of organic waste at landfill sites and
emissions of fossil methane during the discovery and transport of fossil fuels are six major
sources. (Heilig, 1994).

12
 As an after-effect of organic material decomposition in landfills, landfill gas or LFG is
a natural by-product. The composition may consist of 50 per cent methane, which is the primary
component of natural gas, 50 per cent carbon dioxide, and a small number of organic
compounds that are non-methane. The third-largest source of human-related methane
emissions in the United States is municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills, accounting for about
15.1 per cent of these emissions in 2018. Methane emissions from landfills, at the same time,
reflect a missed opportunity to harness and use a major energy resource. As of August 2020,
there are 565 active LFG energy projects in the United States and about 475 landfills that are
great choices for projects. When MSW is first deposited in a landfill, it undergoes aerobic
decomposition stage when little methane is produced. Then, normally within less airway than
1-year, anaerobic conditions are formed, and the methane-producing bacteria begin to
decompose the waste and produce methane (EPA, 2020).

At present, the atmospheric concentration of methane is about two and a half times
higher than that of pre-industrial levels and continues to grow steadily. Methane emissions
figures are subject to high levels of uncertainty, but the most reliable comprehensive
calculation suggests that there are approximately 570 million tonnes of annual global methane
emissions. Agriculture, which accounts for about a quarter of the total, is the main source of
anthropogenic methane emissions, closely followed by the energy industry, which includes
emissions from coal, oil, natural gas, and biofuels (IEA, 2020). The source of methane emission
is as shown in Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7. The estimated total emissions in 2019 is 341 kt.

13
Figure 1.6 Bar Chart of Sources of Methane Emission (IEA,2020)

Figure 1.7 Bar Chart of Malaysian Emission Sources (IEA,2020)

14
  Fugitive methane emissions are caused by a leakage that is not intended, example due
to a defective seal or leaking valve.
 Due to the design of the facility, equipment or operating conditions, vented methane
emissions are the result of deliberate releases, often for safety purposes.
 Incomplete flaring methane emissions can occur when natural gas that cannot be
used or recovered economically is burned instead of sold or sold. Most of the natural
gas is converted to CO2 and water, but some parts of it may not be burned and
released into the atmosphere as methane.

1.2.2 Global Market of Ammonia

Ammonia (NH3) is a colourless compound which consists of one nitrogen and three
hydrogen atoms. It is commonly and widely used in many sectors especially in the agriculture
sector where ammonia used as a fertilizer. Besides that, ammonia also used as one of the major
chemicals in mining, fibre, pharmaceutical and plastic industries. The main feedstock used for
ammonia synthesis is natural gas, coal and fuel oil.

Increasing the demand for fertilizers in agriculture industries is known as one of the
major driving factors for the growth of the global ammonia market which leads to increasing
the production capacity of ammonia across the globe. According to International Fertilizer
Industry Association (IFA), around 70% of overall capacity growth in the forecast period
(2017-2021) are based on the North America and South Asia regions for the ammonia
production. The market demand for ammonia highly relies on the demand for the fertilizers.

Two types of ammonia are been marketed which are aqueous and anhydrous types.
Between this, anhydrous type of ammonia is expected to witness the largest growth over the
forecast period owing to high availability in gaseous form for easy processing. According to
Alkusayer et.al, (2017), global total nutrient capacity in 2014 was around 284 million tonnes,
with a total supply of 240 million tonnes in 2015, a 2.9 per cent increase in total capacity and

15
a 1.6 per cent increase in supply. Global fertiliser capacity and production will further increase
over the next five years (Alkusayer et.al, 2017). Figure 1.8 shows the world nitrogen demand
forecast from the year 2014 until the year 2019.

Figure 1.8 World nitrogen fertilizer demand forecast (Anynomys, 2019)

The global market size was worth around USD 48.65 billion in 2016. Increasing
demand for ammonia in the fertilizer industry is expected to boost the agriculture industry and
the product also building the block for the world nitrogen industries. According to Figure 1.9,
the U.S market was valued at USD 5.76 billion in 2016 and is expected to increase at a CAGR
of 5.2% from the year 2017 to the year 2025. Globally, the ammonia demand ratio is expected
to increase even higher, as the capabilities continue to increase which resulting in decreasing
utilization rates. Consequently, this phenomena is mostly increasing in the regions where the
ammonia product rate is low and the supply of the raw material is high, especially in the Middle
East and the U.S regions.

16
 Figure 1.9 Bar chart of Ammonia Market Revenue (Grand View Research, 2019)

Based on the Figure1.9, the ammonia can be segmented into three different types of
product form which are gas, liquid and powder. The liquid form of the product dominated the
market, in terms of revenue, with over 45% share in 2016 and keep on increasing for the coming
years and this phase is expected to increase at a CAGR of 5.7% from the year 2017 to the year
2025. The growth in demand in the global market is projected to grow higher over the forecast
period. Anhydrous ammonia is the purest form of ammonia which has an unpleasant smell that
mainly used in agricultural industries. It is compressed into a colourless and clear liquid when
used as fertilizer in the agriculture sectors. This diluted form of ammonia is readily used widely
in many industries as a cleaning and manufacturing agent.

1.2.2.1 Import and export value of ammonia

The ammonia growth rate has been increased in past years especially in the Asia Pacific
region. Based on Figure 1.10, the largest ammonia production and user of ammonia in 2016 is
Asia Pacific. China is one of the largest ammonia producers and the market of the country is
expected to increase at a CAGR of 6.3% from the year 2017 to the year 2025. Ammonia is
mostly produced in China from coal gasification, while globally it uses natural gas for ammonia
production. In term of production, China is the largest producer followed by India and
Indonesia. The largest capacity addition is been focused in the Middle East and Africa, Central
and South America and Southeast Asia. The largest addition is expected to be in China and

17
Indonesia. Besides that, globally, the capacity of production is to be expected to increase
significantly in the following years.

Figure 1.10 Growth Rate of Ammonia (Mordor Intelligence, 2019)

According to Figure 1.11 and Figure 1.12, China is considered as one of the major
consumers and exporter of all macronutrient fertilizers which are Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
Potassium. In the year 2017, around 70 million metric ton of macronutrient fertilizers have
been produced in China and expected to increase until the year 2025. The country exported
around USD 3.3 billion worth of these mixed chemical fertilizers in the year 2017, which
expected further increase through the year 2025. An average of 305 kilogrammes of nitrogen
per hectare per year is used by Chinese farmers, which is more than 4 times the global average.
From this, China had become one of the main contributors to fertilizer usage in the global
market.

18
Figure 1.11 Pie Chart of the top ten global ammonia producer (Mordor Intelligence, 2019)

Figure 1.12 Pie Chart of world consumption of ammonia (HIS Markit, 2020)

1.2.2.2 Global Demand for Ammonia

The global demand for ammonia is tremendously increased in many sector and
countries based on its usage benefits. According to the pie chart in Figure1.13, ammonia
expansion has been mainly focused on the Asia Pacific region where the mostly the ammonia
usage is for the crop fertilizers. The industry is witnessing continuous gain in prices on a
national scale. This is because of the high demand and supply in that region. The rise in supply
due to increased capacity and higher demand is the key reason for the consumer price increase.

19
This demand seems to increase due to higher crop & food prices, economic prospects,
fluctuating energy prices, and not much competition (Statista, 2018).

Figure 1.13 Pie Chart of global ammonia demand by region (Merchant Research &
Consulting, Ltd, 2019)

By referring to Figure 1.14, liquid fertilizer usage has strongly dominated the global
market with around 40% share in the year 2016 and expected to increase in the coming years.
It is considered as a main source of nitrogen, which is known as the essential element for plant
growth that may consist of urea.

20
 Figure 1.14 Pie Chart of ammonia usage (Grand View Research, 2019)

In the agricultural application, ammonia is commonly and widely used as it easily reacts
with organic matter, free hydrogen ions, and soil water which avoid the volatilization of
ammonia. Factors such as application rate, the texture of soil and the method used will help to
enhance the ammonia usage as a fertilizer to the crop. Based on Figure 1.15 and Figure 1.16,
the fertilizer usage percentage in Malaysia also are stable and keep rising for the following
years which results in the demand for ammonia also increases.

Figure 1.15 Trend graph of fertilizer usage in Malaysia (CEIC Data, 2020)

21
 Figure 1.16 Bar graph of fertilizer consumption in percentage in Malaysia (Trading
economics, 2020)

Other uses such as textiles, pharmaceuticals, industrial and household cleaning

supplement, food and beverages, metallurgical processes, water and wastewater treatment,
rubber, pulp & paper, and leather also use ammonia as one of the main chemicals in their
production. Ammonia is also able to use as a refrigerant owing which brings several benefits
such as high efficiency, environmentally friendly, smaller pipe size, better heat transfer
properties, and cost.

As a result, the global demand for ammonia especially in the Asia Pacific where
includes Malaysia tend to be high. Ammonia is known as an important factor in agriculture
industries as it serves as fertilizers in many crops for their healthy growth. Besides that, this
ammonia also has many applications in other industries as well. Thus, we choose ammonia as
our end product to meet the demand and also able to fulfil global needs.

22
1.2.3 Future Market Value of Ammonia

In recent decades, as the focus on ammonia as a liquid energy carrier has increased, an
increasingly wide variety of applications have also been explored. Global demand for ammonia
is mainly driven by the fertilizer industry's development. In recent years, the vision for
ammonia energy applications has grown dramatically to include its direct use as a fuel.
(Douglas, V. Cherepanov, and Jaecheol Choi, 2020). The fertilizer industry consumes about
60 per cent of the ammonia produced. Urea, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, ammonium
phosphate, diammonium phosphate, mono-ammonium phosphate, nitric acid, sodium
bicarbonate, and sodium carbonate are some of the popular fertilizers derived from ammonia.
By 2030, the population of the planet is likely to reach 8.6 billion, according to the United
Nations. Rising demand for food, combined with the increasing consumption of diets rich in
protein, fruits, and vegetables, is therefore expected to raise fertilizer demand in the agricultural
sector. Figure 1.17 shows the U.S. Ammonia Market Revenue by Application from 2016 to
2030.

Figure 1.17 U.S Ammonia Market Revenue by Application, 2016-2030 (Market Research
Future,2020)

Ammonia is used to make it one of the most widely developed inorganic chemicals in
the world for both industrial and household applications. The global demand is expected to be
powered by the plentiful use of ammonia in fertilizers and agricultural products. Besides,

23
China's large production capacity is expected to make the Asia Pacific one of the ammonia
industry's main market segments. Regions such as Russia, Germany, Ukraine, and other
countries in Eastern Europe are helping to make Europe the other big market segment of the
ammonia market. Segmentation, main players, Size, Dynamics, and Forecasts of the 2025
Ammonia Market, the global ammonia market is projected to hit USD 76.64 billion by 2025.
As the variety and its applications are growing tremendously across the globe, the ammonia
industry is expected to expand at a substantial CAGR of 5.3 per cent over the forecast period.

In developing countries such as Indonesia, India, and Brazil, increasing disposable

income and growing population that may lead to high lifestyle demand for agricultural products
and a propensity to dietary consumption in several developed regions are recorded as major
factors in the ammonia market that are projected to fuel growth in the coming years. Based on
applications such as textiles, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, refrigerants, and others that could be
explored in the forecast period, the market may be classified. The fertilize segment accounted
for a significant market share, and the overall market is expected to lead in the coming years.
This may be due to high agricultural industry demand, as it is a key source of nitrogen needed
for plant production and development in each country that they can be implemented.

1.2.4 Potential Customer

It requires much more than simply releasing the product to the market to create demand
for them. We need to conduct research, decide what the needs of customers are, develop
ourselves as a leader in our field, and prove the importance of our products repeatedly. In
general, industrial customers know what they want and why they need it. For example,
ammonia is used as fertilizer which helps to sustain the food production of billions of people
around the world so that ammonia has in high demand for the products in the industries.
Besides, ammonia is used to make it one of the most widely developed inorganic chemicals in
the world for both industrial and household applications. From that, we know that products of
ammonia have in high demand around the world. Consumers state their needs in opinions and
purchases. Knowing who our customers are also allowed organizations to create highly

24
personalized messaging that resonates with the customers. This means that 20 per cent of our
customers will make up 80 per cent of our revenue, or around that. To improve financial
efficiency as well as their customer base, many organizations use the strategy of maintaining
valuable customers. As a result, to motivate them to come back time and time again it is best
to approach our most valuable customers in our marketing. The key to success in a highly
competitive market can be regular loyal customers. If the business creates a strong brand image
that helps to maintain valuable customers, it can make it resistant to competitive forces.

1.2.5 Price of Chemical Used

Table 1.3 below shows the table of the price of the chemical used in our plant design.

Table 1.3 Price of Chemical Used

Chemical compound Chemical formula Molecular weight Cost (RM/MT)

Methane CH4 16.04 g/mol 618

Nitrogen N2 28.0134 g/mol 589.32

Ammonia NH3 17.031 g/mol 1445

Carbon dioxide CO2 44.01 g/mol 318

1.3 Site Location

1.3.1 Introduction

Site selection plays a significant role in a project. Several criteria need to be identified
that will influence determine which site is suitable for the selection of a site. To determine
which site is suitable for the development of a project is first by evaluating and comparing

25
which site satisfied the criteria most. We look into comparison from different perspectives like
internationally and local markets.

As there are many ammonia producers around the world like shown in Table 1.4 below.
We decided to choose Malaysia for our site location instead. The law and regulation in China
restrict and limit the uses of natural gas as feedstock for the development of new ammonia
project (Zeng, 2014). The Gulf Petrochemical and Chemicals Association reported that many
developments of current ammonia plant are ongoing especially in countries such as Indonesia,
the US and Russia (GPCA, 2018). Choosing to locate our plant site in the country which already
have a large amount of Ammonia Company will increase the competitors and reduce the
survival rate of our company to stay in the game. The ascending on environmental problems
for countries such as India is also why we avoid not to build our plant there. Based on a study
done by a team from the University of Maryland (UMD) found that from the data obtained
from NASA’s satellite it shows that from the year 2002 to 2016 there was a steadily increased
in the ammonia concentrations for countries like Europe, US, India and China (Menon, 2017).
The increase in ammonia concentration for India and China is mainly because of the country
produce a huge amount of fertilisers, poorly handle animal waste and no proper administer
policy (Menon, 2017). In 2014, Saudi Arabia as one of the world’s largest oil consumer had
already devoured a quarter of its supplies and was reported to the experienced natural gas
deficit (Woertz, 2014).

The reason why we choose to build our plant in Malaysia is because of the less number
of competitors. The largest ammonia producer in Malaysia consists of companies listed in
Table 1.5 which show ammonia competitors in Malaysia. Based on Figure 1.18, it shows the
strategic location of Malaysia and factor such as near to gas field resources also affect the
selection of the site. Malaysia is strategic because it is located along the Strait of Malacca which
is the main sea route that connects the Far East to Europe, the Middle East and Asia
(MALAYSIA, 2020).

26
 Table 1.4 Existing Ammonia plant around the world

Country/ Company Location Capacity References

Region (Thousand
Metric
Tonnes Per
Year)
China Ammonia Plant | KBR Yunnan (KBR, 2020)
605900
Russia TOGLIATTIAZOT 3 MTPA (Togliattyazot,
Russia 2020)

India Matix Fertilisers and Panagarh 3 MTPA (Matix Group,

Chemicals Ltd Industrial Park, n.d)
Panagarh, Purba
Bardhaman, West
Bengal 713169,
India
Australia Yara Pilbara Lot 564 Village 850000 metric (Yara Pilbara
Road tonnes per Fertilizer,
Burrup Peninsula, year 2018)
Western Australia
6714
PERDAMAN Level 17/58 2 MTPA (Perdaman
INDUSTRIES Mounts Bay Rd, Group, n.d)
(CHEMICALS & Perth WA 6000,
FERTILISERS) Australia

America CF Industries CF Industries 8.5 MTPA (CF Industries,

Headquarters n. d)
4 Parkway North,
Suite 400

27
Country/ Company Location Capacity References
Region (Thousand
Metric
Tonnes Per
Year)
Deerfield, Illinois
60015
Saudi Saudi Arabian Saudi Arabian 2.3 MTPA (SAFCO,2020)
Arabia Fertilizer Company Fertilizer
Company
(SAFCO)
P.O. Box 11044,
Jubail Industrial
City 391961
K.S.A
Canada Haldor Topsoe Canada Alberta 2190000 (Topsoe, 2020)
Limited
Qatar Qafco Mesaieed (John, 2019)
3.8 MTPA
Indonesia Pupuk Kaltim Bontang 985500 (Luther Sirait,
2016)
Malaysia Sabah Ammonia Urea Sipitang 740,000 mtpa (Petronas,
(SAMUR) 2020)

28
 Table 1.5 Ammonia Competitor in Malaysia

Capacity
Company Location Reference
(MTPA)

Sabah Ammonia Urea (SAMUR) Sipitang 740,000 (Petronas, 2020)

Bintulu MLNG Bintulu 400,000 Petronas, 2020)

PETRONAS Chemicals Ammonia

Kerteh 400,000 (Berhad P. C., 2020)
Sdn Bhd

Petronas Fertilizer (Kedah) Sdn

Gurun 375,000 (Berhad P. C., 2020)
Bhd

Figure 1.18 Gas facilities and gas pipeline connectivity in Peninsular Malaysia and
ASEAN (Maggie Kumar, 2020)

29
1.3.2 Potential Site Location

For this project, we have identified three possible locations that meet the conditions of
an industrial plant, which is KKIP (Sabah), Kerteh (Terengganu), and Gurun (Kedah). The
information of three possible locations is provided as shown in Table 1.6, while Figure 1.19 to
Figure 1.21 illustrate the satellite view of the location.

Table 1.6 Potential site location

Location KKIP LOT 18 & No Plot 2, Lot Q, Kawasan

LOT 19, KOTA Kerteh Polymer Perindustrian Berat
KINABALU, Park, 23000 Gurun, Kedah
SABAH Kemaman,
Terengganu
Address KKIP Timur No Plot 2, Lot Q, Gurun Industrial
Industrial Land (Lot Kerteh Polymer Area. 08300 Gurun,
18 & Lot 19) KKIP, Park, 23000 Kedah
Kota Kinabalu, Kemaman,
Sabah Terengganu
source (Low, 2020), (Qareem, 2020), (iProperty, 2020)

Figure 1.19 Satellite view of KKIP, Sabah (Skun, 2020)

30
 Figure 1.20 Satellite view of Polymer Park, Kerteh (Google map, 2020)

Figure 1.21 Satellite view of Kawasan Perindustrian Berat Gurun (Google map, 2020)

31
1.3.3 Site Selection Criteria

Based on the three locations proposed above, as to have a clear vision on which criteria
satisfied the most, we look into comparison from different perspectives such as international
and local markets. There are several criteria which were examined in order for us to determine
the most reasonable site location for the plant.

(a) Marketing Area

Preferably the site should be located near the main market to cut down the
transportation cost for the delivery of raw material. Unless the production of the plant is high
and the product is in high price. High price products can cover back the cost of transportation.

(b) Raw Material Availability

Among the factors that need consideration is the availability of raw material, methane.
As stated in the LOI, the raw materials for our company is 85 tonnes per hour meaning our
yearly production is 744600 tonnes per annum (tpa) which is more than the production of Sabah
Ammonia Urea (SAMUR). Sabah Ammonia Urea (SAMUR) has a production capacity of
740,000 mtpa of liquid ammonia and one of the largest ammonia producers in Malaysia
(Technology, 2020). A shorter distance from the supplier can lower the transportation cost and
storage facilities at the site. To ensure smooth production of our plant and to avoid running low
on feedstock it is better to select the site which can easily obtain supply for raw material as
well as reducing the cost for transportation.

(c) Transportation

Transportation plays an important role in site selection. Better and equipped

transportation facilities will ensure a convenient, competent and agile operation of goods from
one place to another. The variety of modes of transportation available near the site also will
contribute to business development. Transportation service such as bus, taxi, group and other
land vehicles will help to connect workers and customers easily. Airport availability near the

32
site will make it easier for potential overseas investors to visit the plant site as it will reduce
the time for travel and less tiring. The availability of ports for importing raw materials and
exporting various types of polished goods give access to global markets (SOGDC, 2020). Easy
access to a variety of modes for transportation and the short distance between the site and
transport facilities will have a significant impact on the business.

(d) Availability of Labour

To ensure the smooth operation of the plant a huge amount of labour is required which
consist of skilled and unskilled workers. Skilled workers such as electricians, welders and
pipefitters are required for the maintenance and construction works. Well trained and
experienced workers can be obtained from a nearby training centre or university. While
unskilled workers that are necessary to ensure enough manpower can be hired from local labour
or resident living nearby the site.

(e) Availability of Utilities

As electricity and water source is a basic requirement for the operation of a plant
therefore the plant should be located near electricity and water source. If the plant requires a
huge amount of supplies of utilities for their process therefore it is preferable to select a site
where cheap rates of electricity and water are available.

(f) Availability of suitable land

Suitable land is important as it is the first factor that needs to be considered before
constructing the site. Keep in mind the surface of the land, type of the land and suitable of land
bearing characteristic of the land is very important. Available land should be sufficient for the
building of the plant and office area. A further consideration for expansion of office and plant
is also important. Hence, the land area should always greater than expected. Besides choosing
a strategic location, the land price should also be considered to ensure from over-budget.

33
(g) Waste disposal

All type of industries is confirmed to produce waste either liquid waste, solid waste,
hazardous waste or organic waste from their process. These waste need to be handle properly
to avoid affecting the environment and also the risk to human health. Therefore, it is crucial to
bear in mind the method on how to manage and dispose the waste. The proposed site should
have proper and enough facilities for waste disposal. The waste disposal must have authorised
local authority which is in charge of monitoring and facilitating the waste disposal. It is a good
move to consult relevant authorities to prevent from violating the laws and regulations and to
assure the waste management is up to standard.

(h) Local Community Consideration

The local community living nearby the proposed site should be okay with the process
of constructing the plant in the proposed site. The location of the plant must not impose an
additional risk to the health of the local population nearby. Sufficient basic facilities for the
workers such as residence area, bank, school, hospital and other is preferred.

(i) Political and strategic considerations.

The particular harmony and peace in a particular region encouraged the establishment
of industrial units. As an example, the government of Malaysia offered many incentives for
growth to Malaysian and investor from overseas. Incentives are the benefits offered by the
government to attract more investor to invest in their region. The incentive offered such as a
corporate tax rate of 24% applies to both local and foreign-owned companies in Malaysia.
Other incentives include Incentives for Manufacturing Companies, Incentives for High
Technology Companies, Incentives for Strategic Projects, Pre-packaged Incentives
(Customised packages that cover tax and non-tax), Industrial Building Allowance, and Tariff
Related Incentives (MIDA, 2019). Since there are many incentives provided by the
government, hence make it the right option to choose our plant location in Malaysia. Investors
are keener to invest in a location where there are incentives provided by the government. The
Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA) stated that the reason why investors
choose Malaysia is because of its strategic position, gateway to ASEAN and AFTA, economic

34
stability, government engagement, rich natural gas reserves, competitive raw materials supply,
world-class facilities, integrated infrastructure, qualified technical manpower, and quality of
life. (MIDA, 2019).

(j) Climate

Climate also contributes to the selectivity in choosing for the site selection. Extreme
conditions of certain places need to be considered as extreme humidity or extreme weather
conditions will influence the plant to have specific consideration on the plant equipment. It is
best to avoid low climate condition such as low temperature as some equipment needs
additional maintenance to sustain.

35
1.3.4 Factors Considered in Site Selection

Table 1.7 shows the criteria comparison of potential site location for KKIP (Sabah), Polymer Park (Kerteh) and Gurun (Kedah):

Table 1.7 Comparison of potential site location

Kawasan Perindustrian Berat

KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Gurun, Kedah
Location/Marketing Central Business District of Kota  Kuala Terengganu (105 km) Alor Setar (44 km)
Area Kinabalu (20 km)  Kemaman town (46.7 km)
 K.K.I.P. SDN. BHD.
 Perbadanan Kemajuan
 Address: P.O Box 21955, 88777  Minconsult Sdn Bhd (58835-P)
Negeri Kedah
Luyang  Address: Lot 6,
 Address: Tingkat 14, Wisma
Kota Kinabalu, Jalan 51A/223, 46100 Petaling
PKNK, Jalan Sultan
Sabah, Malaysia. Jaya,
Authority Involved Badlishah, 05000 Alor Setar,
 Telephone: +6-088-498001,02- Selangor, Malaysia.
Kedah Darul Aman
05  Telephone: (603) 7952 5757
 Telephone: +604-775 2455
 Fax: +6-088-498011/14  Email: [email protected]
 Fax: +604-731 2957
 Email:[email protected]
 Email: [email protected]

36
 Kawasan Perindustrian
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Berat Gurun, Kedah

SEPANGAR
Sabah Linde
CHEMICAL PETRONAS Gas
Supplier Industrial Gases PETRONAS Gas Berhad (5 km)
INDUSTRY SDN. Berhad (1.3 km)
(18 km)
BHD. (7 km)

No. 9, Lot 5,
Raw Taman KM 105, Jalan Kuantan-Kuala
Material Perindustrian Sepangar Industrial
Terengganu
Availability Realton Park, Estate Jalan Teluk Pejabat Operasi
24300 Kertih Kemaman
Jalan Burung Sepangar Serantau Gurun, Jalan
Location Terengganu Darul Iman
Keleto，Inanam KOTA Jeniang Km 1, Kedah,
KINABALU, Sabah 08300 Gurun
Laut, Off Jalan
88993, MY
Tuaran By Pass,
88450 Kota
Kinabalu, Sabah,
Contact number +6088421166 088-311 290 +6098312345 +6044683161

37
 Kawasan Perindustrian Berat
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Gurun, Kedah

Stesen Keretapi Gurun,

Land Railways (25 km) Railways (25 km)
Kedah (3.6 km)

Kota Kinabalu International Sultan Abdul Halim Airport

Airport Kerteh Airport (16.8 km)
Airport (28 km) (62.6 km)

Transportation

 Konsortium Pelabuhan
Kemaman Sdn Bhd East
Sepanggar Container Port (7 Wharf (44 km)
Port km)
 West Wharf, Kemaman,
Sukma Samudera Sdn
Bhd (45 km)

38
 Kawasan Perindustrian Berat
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Gurun, Kedah

Training Centre: Manpower: Manpower:

o Akademi Binaan Malaysia (ABM) o Kolej Komuniti o KISMEC (Kedah
Sabah Kemaman Industrial Skills and
o Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park (KKIP) Management
Aerospace Training Centre Training Centre Development Centre)
o Institut Kemahiran Belia
University: Negara (IKBN) Kemasik Training Centre:
o Institut Kemahiran MARA Kota o Institut Latihan o Naza Academy Sdn. Bhd.
Availability of
Kinabalu, Sabah Perindustrian
Labour
o Politeknik Kota Kinabalu University:
University: o UiTM Kedah
o Politeknik Sultan Mizan
Zainal Abidin
o TATI University College
o Universiti Teknologi
MARA Kampus Dungun,
Terengganu

39
 Kawasan Perindustrian Berat Gurun,
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Kedah

Electricity supply: Electric Supply: Electric Supply:

o K.K.I.P. Power Sdn Bhd is the sole o Tenaga Nasional o Tenaga Nasional Berhad: High
electricity distribution licensee in the Berhad: Voltage Industrial Tariff
Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park o High Voltage Industrial o All kWh during peak period –
(KKIP) to supplement the K.K.I.P. Tariff 33.70 sen/ kWh
Sdn Bhd (a wholly-owned company o All kWh during peak o Minimum monthly charge –
of the Sabah State Government) period – 33.70 sen/ RM600.00
o Electrical infrastructures in KKIP kWh
Availability of
have been planned with sufficient o Minimum monthly Water supply: Syarikat Air Darul
Utilities
redundancy to cater for reliability charge – RM600.00 Aman Sdn. Bhd. (SADA)
required by industrial consumers. Industrial Consumption:
o System Peak Power Demand Water Supply: Terengganu o Band 1: 0 – 1,000m³ @
dominated by Night Peak of Water Company (SATU): RM1.40/m³ 0 – 50m³ @
o Industrial sectors are RM1.76/m³ RM1.15/m³
charge RM1.15 per m³ o Band 2: > 1,000 – 10,000m@
with a rm 50.00 RM1.60/m³ > 50m³ @
minimum charge. RM1.80/m³

40
 Kawasan Perindustrian Berat Gurun,
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Kedah
Water supply: o Band 3: > 10,000 – 50,000m³
 Telibong Water Treatment Plant @ RM1.80/m³
o Capacity 17.6 million gallons o Band 4: > 50,000m³ @
o Quality up to World Health RM2.10/m³
Organization Standards Minimum Charge RM15.00
o Industrial water rate 0 – 70
(m³): RM 1.60
> 70 (m³): RM 2.00 Subject to RM70.00
minimum charge
Availability of 4.5 acres (total 24.85 acres 11.2 acres
suitable land &  1 acre = RM 1 960 200  1 acre = RM 800 000  1 acre = RM 772 727
price (RM/acre)

All fields of the industry cannot avoid environmental problems such as air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution,
waste and more. Besides, some industrial plants can seriously pollute the atmosphere or the ecosystem and may indirectly
Environment
harm the ecological system if they are located in an inadequate area. The site chosen for the plant should have the necessary
impact
waste disposal capability and facilities. The challenges and costs of industrial disposal must be thoroughly taken into
account. This is necessary so that the local community and the environment are not harmed by untreated waste.

41
 Kawasan Perindustrian Berat
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Gurun, Kedah

 Waste disposal:  Waste disposal: Waste disposal:

The centralized sewerage treatment Terengganu uses an integrated, environmentally Environment Idaman Sdn.
plant is provided to treat domestic sustainable industrial waste management scheme that Bhd (37.5 km)
waste which complies with follows international best practices. The following are
Department of Environment (DOE) the prices of various waste per tonne:
Effluent Standards  Packaged wastes:
Waste o Pumpable Liquid per tonne: RM810.00
Disposal  Kayu Madang landfill – 145 – RM3,150.00
hectares o Solid Waste per tonne: RM2,790.00 –
RM3,600.00
 Bulk wastes:
o Pumpable Liquid per tonne: RM630.00
– RM1,800.00
o Solid Wastes per tonne: RM2,700.00
o Waste Management Paka - 10.7 km

42
 Kawasan Perindustrian Berat Gurun,
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Kedah

 Clinic/hospital:  Clinic/hospital:  Clinic/hospital:

o Medisinar Klinik & o Dungun Hospital (26.9 o Klinik Gurun (3.3 km)
Surgeri Sepangar (3 km) km) o Woo's Hospital (K) Sdn.
 Residence area for workers: o Klinik Primer Paka (5.8 Bhd (4.9 km)
o Taman Salut Perdana km)  Residence area for workers:
(3.8 km) o Kerteh Health Clinic  School:
Local
o Apartment Malawa Ria (13.1 km) o Sekolah Kebangsaan
Community
(3.5 km)  Residence area for workers: Gurun Pusat (3.3 km)
Consideration
 Other: o Kerteh Damansara o Pondok At-Taqwa (4.9
o ATM Bank Islam @ Resident km)
Politeknik Kota  Other:  Other:
Kinabalu (2.4 km) o Fire and rescue station o ATM RHB (400 m)
o Bank Rakyat Kerteh o Balai Polis Gurun (3.2
o Masjid Jamek Kerteh km)

43
 Kawasan Perindustrian Berat
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Gurun, Kedah

Tax Incentives:  Stable political condition  Political and economic

o Full tax exemption  Incentives for Manufacturing Companies: stability
on statutory income o Pioneer Status: 70% or 100%  Incentives provided by
for 10 years; or exemption from income tax on MIDA:
Investment Tax statutory income for a period of o Pioneer status (PS)
Allowance of 100% five years; or o Investment tax

on qualifying capital o Investment Tax Allowance: allowance

Political and expenditure for 5 o Exemption import

60 % or 100% investment tax
years - can be offset duty and sales tax
strategic credit on the qualified capital
(machinery and
considerations. against 100% of expenditure for five years. One
equipment) and
statutory income, may use the deduction to cover
import duty for raw
subject to qualifying 70% or 100% of the statutory
materials.
activities/ products income.
o Reinvestment
under the Promotion o Reinvestment Allowance:
Allowance (RA) or
of Investment Act Reinvestment allowance of 60
round incentives.
1986. percent on the qualified capital
expenditure for 15 years. The
allowance may be offset against

44
 Kawasan Perindustrian Berat
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Gurun, Kedah
o For shipbuilding and the statutory profits of 70% or
repairs industry, 100%.
incentives are o Accelerated Capital Allowance: An
offered under the accelerated capital allowance
Income Tax Act consisting of an initial allowance
1967 as follows: of 40% and an annual allowance of
20% is available for three years
o Full tax exemption after the reinvestment allowance
on statutory income period.
for 5 years; or  ECER Incentive package:

o Investment Tax
Allowance of 100%
on qualifying capital
expenditure for 5
years - can be offset
against 100% of
statutory income

45
 Kawasan Perindustrian Berat
KKIP, Sabah Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh
Gurun, Kedah

 Equatorial climate  Places with a frequent rainfall (even in the  Average monthly rainfall:
 Average monthly rainfall: 200 driest month, there is still a lot of rain) 207.5 mm
mm  Average monthly rainfall: 250 mm Average monthly
 Average monthly  Average monthly temperature: 28 °C temperature: 27.5 °C
temperature: 27.5 °C  Average monthly wind speed and wind gust:  Average monthly wind
Climate  Average monthly wind speed 11.4 kmph speed and wind gust: 10.7
and gust: 15.8 kmph  Average monthly pressure: 1008.6 mb kmph
 Average monthly pressure:  Average monthly humidity: 78 %  Average monthly pressure:
1009 mb 1008.9 mb
 Average monthly humidity:  Average monthly humidity:
77 % 80 %

(Yaakub, 2016), (Kota Kinabalu (Kerteh Historical Weather, 2020), (Google Map, (Gurun Historical Weather,
Monthly Climate Averages, 2020), 2020), (Berhad, 2020) 2020), (E-Idaman, 2020), (SPAN,
(KKIP, KKIP, 2020), (BHD, 2018), 2020)
Sources
(Linde, 2020), (Energy, 2020),
(Geraldine, 2020), (Chin, 2017),
(KPM, 2020), (IKM, 2020)

46
1.3.5 Justification for Site Selection

Based on Table 1.9 criteria comparison of the proposed site below it shows that overall
criteria fit the proposed site for Kerteh. Therefore, Kerteh is the most suitable for the production
of Ammonia from Methane. Table 1.8 show the site criteria indicator which was used to
determine which site is better to construct our plant. Kerteh were identified as the most suitable
potential site as it fulfils most of the criteria for site selection. The reason Kerteh was chosen
is because of the cheaper land price, more option to market product, easier to get methane
supplies, more access to transportation, large amount of well trained of labour, proper waste
disposal with low cost of disposal, more facilities nearby, better climate and temperature and
last but not least interesting incentives and benefits offered b offered by the government.

Table 1.8 Site Criteria Indicator

Number Description
5 Excellent
4 Good
3 Moderate
2 Bad
1 Worst

47
 Table 1.9 Comparison of the proposed site

Aspect KKIP, Sabah Polymer Park, Gurun, Kedah

Kerteh
Location/ Marketing 3 4 3
Area
Raw Material 3 5 3
Availability
Transportation 4 5 3
Availability of 4 5 4
Labour
Availability of 4 4 5
Utilities
Suitable land and 3 4 4
price
Waste Disposal 3 4 3
Local Community 4 5 4
Consideration
Climate 5 5 5
Political and 4 5 4
Strategical
Consideration
Total points 37 46 38

48
1.4 Sustainability

In terms of sustainability, the raw material and product, methane and ammonia have
their advantages and disadvantages respectively from environment, economy and safety
perspectives. Firstly, the advantage of methane towards the environment is that it could supply
more heat and also light energy by mass than most hydrocarbons or even fossil fuels while
giving out lesser carbon dioxide and emissions that could lead to air pollution. This shows that
if more natural gas is used in many aspects such as replacing gasoline for vehicles, lesser
greenhouse gases and smog are emitted to the surrounding. Nevertheless, methane emitted to
the atmosphere without it being burned could be harmful to the ecosystem due to its ability to
trap more heat in the atmosphere compared to other gases. Thus, contributing to climate change
even though it has relatively short (SoCalGas, n.d.). As for the economy, methane has a boiling
point of -161℃ and a density of 422.2 kg/m3. This means that more gas could be store in smaller
tanks that do not have to be insulated as well as hydrogen. Furthermore, LNG is a standard
product and is transported by ship and road today and is very well understood. In short, methane
is easier to store and can store greater quantities in smaller cheaper tanks (Scoop News, 2004).
Through safety perspective, the benefit is methane is not a toxic gas that could create hazard
when inhaled in a limited amount of number but if a large amount of methane is allowed to
displace air, the lack of oxygen could lead to suffocation (SoCalGas, n.d.).

For the product, ammonia, where it acts as a refrigerant, is safe for the environment
with both ozone depletion potential (ODP) and global warming potential (GWP) ratings of zero
but the disadvantage for it is it emits more carbon dioxide than other reactions involving
chemical-making (Boerner, 2019). Next is in terms of economy, the ammonia market is
monopolized by the agriculture industry with an estimated market exceeding 80% in the year
2018 where it is used in fertilizers. The usage shows an increase through the years, driving its
usage in agriculture market (Global Ammonia Market, 2019). Handling of ammonia must
prioritize safety by wear goggles, rubber gloves and also chemical resistant protective clothing
because ammonia is a hazardous substance that could lead to death if inhaled in concentrated
volume (Ammonia, 2020).

49
1.4.1 Circular Economy

The process of the circular economy is as shown in Figure 1.22. It shows that when
methane used for the production ammonia which will then be in fertilizers for crops, there will
be wastes as the after effect from crop usage. As mentioned earlier, methane could be retrieved
from wastes. Thus, this process ensures full utilization of the product for the next cycle of the
process.

Waste CH4

Ammonia
Crop usage
Production

Fertilizer

Figure 1.22 Circular Economy of Methane and Ammonia

As for by-product, the process produced carbon dioxide and water. For carbon dioxide,
the gas is treated to be reused back as a source of electricity for our plant or utilities purposes.
Water will be treated for a few times. The first treatment will be used for the second time at the
plant and it will be treated again for toilet usage before final discharge.

50
 CHAPTER 2

PROCESS SYNTHESIS

2.1 Process Route Selection

There are three different types of process routes that have been proposed to produce
ammonia from methane gas. Among these three routes, the best process route for ammonia
production is been chosen by considering the economic, environmental and safety aspects of
the process route.

2.2 Process Route 1: Partial Oxidation of Methane + Haber Process

2.2.1 Process Description

In this process route, the synthesis of ammonia will be divided into two stages which
are partial oxidation of methane gas and synthesis of ammonia. Syngas will be produced as an
intermediate product which will be further processed for ammonia synthesis.

In the first section, methane gas as feedstock will undergo gasification process to
produce syngas which majorly consists of hydrogen, carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon
monoxide (CO) and water (H2O) with the use of air as an oxidizer (Albrecht, 2004). Less than
10 mole percent of methane content on a dry basis is been produced (Albrecht, 2004). In the
feed gas, air is used instead of pure oxygen. This is to reduce the investment and operating cost
of the system (Supat et.al, 2003). Other than that, the exergetic of the partial oxidation
efficiency could increase up to 90 % (Albrecht, 2004). The operating condition of this reaction
is 1200°C and 150 atm which able to produce 1.7-2.4 (H2+CO)/N2 ratio. This temperature

51
condition of gasification is preferable as it produces less excess nitrogen which must be
removed downstream of the synthesis loop. (Iaquaniello, 2012).

The syngas produced from reactor 1 will be then fed to reactor 2 and water gas shift
reaction will take place. This reaction is favoured at the lower temperature where it able to
convert most of the carbon monoxide, CO to hydrogen, H2 and carbon dioxide, CO2 with an
excess of steam. The low-temperature shift conversion is filled with copper zinc oxide as the
catalyst with the temperature of 280°C and pressure at 6 atm. Then the gas is sent to the vapour-
vapour separator to separate in order to obtain a purified hydrogen. Thus, the purified synthesis
gas containing H2 ratio of less than 2.4 is obtained. About 92% of carbon dioxide conversion
into hydrogen can be obtained at this favourable condition. (Twing, 2015).

Then, the nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are been mixed and injected into reactor 3 for
ammonia synthesis. The temperature of this reactor is around 425°C with reduced iron oxide.
Ammonia production is more suitable in lower temperature and high pressure. Pressure of 150
atm is required to achieve a conversion of 15.20% ammonia per pass. However, the conversion
of ammonia is still very low. Thus, this process needs to recycle stream to recycle the unreacted
gases. Lastly, the ammonia produced in the reactor 3 will be cooled by a refrigerator unit to
convert the ammonia gas into liquid ammonia and been separated by using a vapour-liquid
separator.

2.2.2 Chemical Equation

Ammonia synthesis can be achieved through the Haber process by reacting the
hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas at specific temperature and pressure. After the syngas is been
produced from reactor 1, it is sent to reactor 2 for water gas shift reaction and finally enters
reactor 3 for ammonia synthesis. Below are the chemical equations involved in each reactors.

52
First Reaction: Partial Oxidation of Methane gas (Reactor 1)

CH4 (g) + 0.5O2 (g)  CO (g) + 2H2 (g)

Second Reaction: Water Gas Shift Reaction (Reactor 2)

CO (g) + H2O (l)  CO2 (g) + H2 (g)

Third Reaction: Ammonia Reaction (Reactor 3)

3H2 (g) + N2 (g) ⇆ 2NH3 (g)

Overall Equation:

0.5O2 (g) + CH4 (g) + N2 (g)  2NH3 (g) + H20 (l) + CO2 (g)

2.2.3 Gross Profit Margin

The overall gross profit margin for Partial Oxidation and Haber process have been
shown below in Table 2.1. The gross profit margin of route 1 is RM 1,080.36. The advantages
and disadvantages of route 1 is shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.1 Gross profit margin for route 1

Raw Material Product

Chemicals
O2 CH4 N2 NH3 H2O CO2
Stoichiometry
0.5 1 1 2 3 1
ratio (kmol)
Molecular weight
31.998 16.043 28.014 17.031 18.015 44.010
(kg/kmol)

Weight (kg) 15.999 16.043 28.014 34.062 54.045 44.010

53
 Weight (MT) 0.015999 0.016043 0.028014 0.034062 0.054045 0.04401

MT/MT ammonia 0.470 0.471 0.822 1 1.587 1.292

Price (RM/MT) - 618 589.32 1445 - 318

Price (RM/MT) - 291.078 484.421 1445 - 410.856

Gross Profit Margin = Sum of Product – Sum of Raw Material

= (RM 1,445 + RM 410.856) – (RM 291.078 + RM484.421)
= RM 1,080.36

Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of route 1

Advantages Disadvantages
 Mild exothermic reaction  Hot spot may occur in the
catalyst bed
 Energy Saving  H2/CO ratio is 2
 Avoid the need for a large  Limitation in the synthesis gas
amount of expensive superheated yield from direct oxidation
steam
 Low ammonia yield
 Release of CO and CO2 gases
 High pressure and temperature of
the reactor

54
2.3 Process Route 2: Steam Reforming of Methane + Haber Process

2.3.1 Process Description

Basically, the process route 2 is quite similar to the process route 1 where the first part
deals with the syngas production while the second part deals with the ammonia synthesis. The
main difference between these two routes is how the syngas is been produced in the first part
and the type of catalyst is been used in the ammonia reaction in the second part. A steam
reforming method has been used in this process route in order to produce the syngas.

According to Rostrup and Christiansen (2011), steam reforming is a process of

converting hydrocarbons into syngas by using steam as partially or completely burning agent.
Methane can react with steam at 700℃ with a pressure of 20atm to convert the hydrocarbon
into syngas. (Jalibert et.al, 2001). A nickel-based catalyst is preferable in this reaction to fully
convert the methane gas and also to speed up the process (William, 2013). This steam
reforming is known as an endothermic process since energy is required to convert the
hydrocarbon. This operating condition is able to produce a ratio of 1.9 H2/CO which is slightly
higher than in process route 1. (William, 2013).

Subsequently, the produced syngas will be passed to reactor 2 in order to maximize the
ratio of hydrogen present in the syngas by using the carbon monoxide so that the amount of
hydrogen can be optimized in the ammonia synthesis. Besides that, the conversion of carbon
monoxide into carbon dioxide also will be achieved at the same time where it able to reduce
the greenhouse gas emission. About 92% of carbon dioxide will be converted into hydrogen.
(Twing, 2015). The low-temperature shift conversion is filled with copper zinc oxide as the
catalyst with the temperature of 280℃ and pressure at 6atm. Then, the water, converted carbon
dioxide and unreacted carbon monoxide will be separated after the reactor 2 by using vapor-
liquid separator and vapor- vapor separator respectively.

55
 Continuously, the nitrogen gas is mixed with hydrogen gas and then been fed to reactor
3 for ammonia synthesis to take place. In this reactor, wustite catalyst is been used as a
replacement if iron-based catalyst. According to the study done by Liu et.al (2019), wustite
catalyst has the capacity to reduce the temperature and pressure required for the ammonia
synthesis. Usually, ammonia synthesis requires iron-based catalyst at a temperature around
425℃ and pressure at 150atm as in process route 1 to produce ammonia at acceptable yield.
But, this pressure is quite high which might be a risk for the plant and it is hard to handle. (York
et.al, 2003). Thus, by using the wustite catalyst it might reduce the pressure to around 30atm
and temperature at 400℃ which may able to achieve a conversion of 18.28% per pass. (Liu
et.al, 2019). Since the conversion is still low, a recycle stream is been fed with unreacted
hydrogen and nitrogen that helps to enhance the conversion. Finally, the ammonia gas is passed
through the refrigeration unit to convert into liquid ammonia and been separated by using a
vapour-liquid separator.

2.3.2 Chemical Equation

By using the Haber process, ammonia is been produced by reacting the hydrogen gas
and nitrogen gas at required temperature and pressure. After the syngas is been produced from
steam reforming, it is sent to water gas shift reactor and finally enters the ammonia synthesis
reactor. Below are the chemical equations involved in each reactors.

First Reaction: Steam Reforming of Methane gas (Reactor 1)

CH4 (g) + H2O (l)  CO (g) + 2H2 (g)

Second Reaction: Water Gas Shift Reaction (Reactor 2)

CO (g) + H2O (l)  CO2 (g) + H2 (g)

Third Reaction: Ammonia Reaction (Reactor 3)

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇆ 2NH3 (g)

56
Overall Equation:
CH4 (g) + N2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)  2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)

2.3.3 Gross Profit Margin

The overall gross profit margin for Steam Reforming and Haber process have been
shown below in Table 2.3. The overall gross profit margin of route 2 is RM 1,201.80. The
advantages and disadvantages of route 2 is shown in Table 2.4.

Table 2.3 Gross profit margin for route 2

Raw Material Product
Chemicals
CH4 N2 H2O NH3 CO2
Stoichiometry
ratio 1 1 2 2 1
(kmol)
Molecular
weight 16.043 28.0134 18.015 17.031 44.010
(kg/kmol)
Weight (kg) 16.043 28.0134 36.030 51.093 44.010

weight
0.016043 0.0280134 0.036030 0.051093 0.044010
(MT)

MT/MT
0.314 0.548 0.705 1 0.861
ammonia
Price
618 589.32 - 1445 318
(RM/MT)
Price
194.052 322.948 - 1445 273.798
(RM/MT)

57
Gross Profit Margin = Sum of Product – Sum of Raw Material
= (RM 1,445 + RM273.798) – (RM 194.052 + 322.948)
= RM 1,201.80

Table 2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of route 2

Advantages Disadvantages
 Good availability of steam  Highly endothermic process
 Commercially available  Controlled by heat transfer
 No oxygen required which may
cut the cost
 Stable during the operation
 High H2/CO ratio

58
2.4 Process Route 3: Auto-thermal of Methane + Haber Process

2.4.1 Process Description

Another route of producing ammonia is by combining the auto-thermal process and

Haber reaction. This auto-thermal, an endothermic process, is quite similar to the gasification
process where it uses a gasifier with help of oxygen to produce the syngas at the operation
parameter of 1000℃ and pressure of 80atm. (James, 2014). On the other hand, this auto-
thermal process is also known as a combination of partial oxidation and catalytic reforming
process. (Speight, 2015). The main difference between route 1 and route 3 is that auto-thermal
reforming uses catalyst which is nickel while partial oxidation is not catalyst preferable.

Then, the syngas enters the second part of the process. After the syngas is been
produced by the auto-thermal reactor, it passed to the reactor 2, water gas shift reactor, where
the same step as in the previous route. The carbon monoxide, CO is been converted to hydrogen
gas, H2 and been removed by the vapour-vapour separator. In this process route, an additional
reactor which is methanation reactor has been included as reactor 3 to convert the unreacted
carbon monoxide to methane gas where it almost achieved the inert state. (Woo and Ki, 2013).
Then, this methane gas is been separated by using the vapour-vapour separator.

After that, it is been sent for ammonia synthesis reactor where ammonia is been
produced. In this reactor, ruthenium catalyst has been used as a substituent for the iron-based
catalyst and wustite catalyst. Based on Mubler et.al (2017), by using this catalyst it might
reduce the pressure required for ammonia synthesis from 150atm to 50atm at 400℃ as well as
increasing the conversion rate to 24.43% per pass. However, the ruthenium-based catalyst is
known as a very expensive catalyst and less preferable in most of the industries even though it
has a higher conversion rate. Then, this liquid ammonia produced with unreacted gas will be
separated by using vapour-liquid separation after it passed through the refrigeration unit.

59
2.4.2 Chemical Equation

The syngas is been produced from auto-thermal reforming is sent to water gas shift
reactor and then sent to methanation reactor. After this, the pure hydrogen and nitrogen enter
the ammonia synthesis reactor. Below are the chemical equations involved in each reactor.

First Reaction: Auto-Thermal of Methane gas (Reactor 1)

2CH4 (g) + CO2 (g) + O2 (g)  3H2 (g) + 3CO (g) + H2O (l)

Second Reaction: Water Gas Shift Reaction (Reactor 2)

CO (g) + H2O (l)  CO2 (g) + H2 (g)

Third Reaction: Methanation Reaction (Reactor 3)

CO (g) + 3H2 (g)  CH4 (g) + H2O (l)

Fourth Reaction: Ammonia Reaction (Reactor 4)

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇆ 2NH3 (g)

Overall Equation:
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) + N2 (g) + 2H2 (g)  2NH3 (g) + CO (g) + H2O (l)

60
2.4.3 Gross Profit Margin

The overall gross profit margin for Auto-Thermal Reforming and Haber process have
been shown below in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 Gross profit margin for route 3

Raw Material Product

Chemicals
CH4 O2 H2 N2 H2O NH3 CO

Stoichiometry
1 1 2 1 1 2 1
ratio (kmol)

Molecular
weight 16.043 31.998 1.008 28.014 18.015 17.031 28.01
(kg/kmol)

Weight (kg) 80.215 63.996 5.04 56.028 18.014 68.124 140.05

Weight (MT) 0.08012 0.064 0.00504 0.05603 0.01801 0.06812 0.14005

MT/MT
1.177 0.939 0.0739 0.822 0.264 1 2.056
ammonia

Price
618 - - 589.32 - 1445 206
(RM/MT)
Price
727.386 - - 484.421 - 1445 423.536
(RM/MT)

Gross Profit Margin = Sum of Product – Sum of Raw Material

= (RM 1,445 + RM423.536) – (RM 727.386 + RM484.421)
= RM 656.73

61
 Table 2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of route 3

Advantages Disadvantages
 High ammonia yield  Compact in design
 Less methane slip  H2/CO ratio is 2.5:1
 Lower carbon emission  Not much practicable in
industries
 High temperature and pressure
required
 Expensive catalyst usage

2.5 Process Route Selection

After the three types of process, route has been proposed, it been compared to each
other in terms of economic, environment and safety in order to choose the best route. Table 2.7
shows the comparison between the process routes.

Table 2.7 Process Route Comparison

Aspect Process Route 1 Process Route 2 Process Route 3

Reaction Step 3 step reaction 3 step reaction 4 step reaction

Reactor 1: Reactor 1: Reactor 1:
Operating
1200°C 700°C 1000°C
temperature
Economic Reactor 2: 200- Reactor 2: Reactor 2: 230-
of each
230°C 280°C 250°C
reactor
Reactor 3: Reactor 3: Reactor 3:
425°C 400°C 450°C
Reactor 4/5:
400°C

62
 Aspect Process Route 1 Process Route 2 Process Route 3

H2/CO 2/1 3/1 2.5/1

selectivity

Capital Cost Low Low Extremely high

of Catalyst (Fe3O4) (FeO) cost
(Ru/C)

Ammonia 15% 30% 40%

Yield (%)
Economic
Ammonia 15.20 18.24 24.43
conversion
(NH3/%vol)

Gross Profit 1080.36 1201.80 656.73

(RM/MT)

By-products CO2, H2O CO2, H2O CH4, CO2, H2O

Environmental Recovery of CO2, H2O CO2, H2O CO2, H2O

By-products

Operating Reactor 1: Reactor 1: Reactor 1:

pressure of 150atm 20atm 80atm
each reactor
Reactor 2: Reactor 2: Reactor 2:
6atm 6atm 6atm

Safety
Reactor 3: Reactor 3: Reactor 3:
150atm 30atm 150atm

Reactor 4/5:
50atm

Corrosive No No No
chemical

63
 According to the process route comparison in Table 2.7, there are a total of three
different aspects to be discussed which are economic, environmental and safety. Route 2
requires the lower capacity cost as the catalyst used is cheaper in price and requires only 3
reactions.

Ruthenium based catalyst in process route 3 is a very efficient catalyst for ammonia
synthesis where it can operate under the same temperature and may reduce the pressure into
half. It also may achieve 5 times higher activity compared to others. (Puspitasari & Yahya,
2011). Moreover, this ruthenium-based catalyst has potential due to its long-term stability and
activity. However, the major problem of this ruthenium catalyst is the cost where it is extremely
high and have a strong inhibition of H2 and the carbon in support and hydrogen present in the
stream may lead to methanation reaction. The loss of carbon during the methanation process
would affect the service life of the catalyst (Liu et.al, 2019). Process route 2 which consists of
Wustite phase alone has a lower operating temperature than Magnetite phase catalyst in Reactor
1. The activity of reactor 2 is 70% higher and the reduction rate is 3 to 4 times faster than the
catalyst used in Reactor 1. Moreover, it is resistance to poison, stable to heat and can be used
in a wide ratio of H2/N2. Most importantly, Wustite phase catalyst is cheap for ammonia. (Liu
et.al, 2019).

Formation of syngas through partial oxidation in process route 1 is slightly exothermic

where much energy will be saved than the energy steam reforming process (Bharadwaj &
Schmidt, 1995). However, the H2/CO ratio is 2 which is not desired for the synthesis of
ammonia (Albrecht, 2004). The H2/CO ratio for the auto-thermal reforming in process route 3
is 2.5:1. While by using the steam reforming process it able to the desired 3:1 ratio required for
ammonia synthesis. Thus, from the economic aspect, process route 2 is chosen as the H2/CO
ratio is desirable and the cost of catalyst used to synthesis ammonia is low.

64
 In terms of the environmental aspect, reactor 2 in process route 2 has a comparatively
lower pressure as compared to process route 1 and 3. High pressure and temperature conditions
are not encouraged for a green environment (Puspitasari & Yahya, 2011). Besides that, in each
process route all the by-products will be recovered and reduces the effects to the environment.

In terms of the safety aspect, process route 2 is been chosen. The higher pressure of the
reactor will increase risk where thicker-walled equipment is needed. Moreover, the catalyst
used is nontoxic.

As a conclusion, process route 2 is been selected as the best route for the ammonia
production as it possessed the most advantages compared to other reaction paths proposed
which is the process route 1 and 3 in terms of economic, environment and safety.

2.5.1 Block Flow Diagram for Selected Route

After the process route have been selected, a block flow diagram is drawn in order to
understand the flow of the process. Figure 2.1 below shows the block flow diagram of the
selected process.

Based on the process block diagram, methane gas is been fed into the reactor 1which is
steam reforming in order to produce the syngas. This syngas, later on, will be fed into reactor
2 to convert most of the carbon monoxide, CO into the hydrogen, H2. In reactor 2, water gas
shift reactor, not only most of the carbon monoxide, CO will be converted into hydrogen, H2
but at the same time it also helps to convert it into carbon dioxide, CO2 where it able to reduce
the greenhouse gas emission. After the reaction in reactor 2 took place, the water, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide produced will be separated by using vapour-liquid and vapour-
vapour separator respectively in order to obtain the pure hydrogen gas. Then, this hydrogen gas
will be sent to a mixer along with the nitrogen gas to get a proper proportion of nitrogen and

65
hydrogen gas required for the ammonia synthesis. Then, these gases will be sent to reactor 3
where the ammonia synthesis takes place. Out of this reactor, ammonia gas and unreacted gas,
hydrogen and nitrogen, will be produced and continuously send to the condenser in order to
convert the ammonia gas into liquid ammonia. Lastly, the unreacted gas and liquid ammonia
will be separated by using a vapour-liquid separator while the unreacted gas will be recycled
back for further usage.

66
 H2O (l) CO2 (g)
H2 (g)
H2 (g) CO (g) H2 (g)
Reactor 1 CO2 (g) Reactor 2 CO2 (g) CO (g)
CH4 (g) Temp: 700 Temp: 280 Vapor-Liquid Vapor-Vapor
H2O (g) H2O (g) CO2 (g)
Pressure: 20atm Pressure: 6atm Separator Separator
Catalyst: Ni Catalyst: CuZnO

Steam
H2 (g)
CO (g)

H2 (g)
N2 (g) Reactor 3 H2 (g)
NH3 (g) Temp: 400 N2 (g) H2(g) Vapor-Vapor
Condenser Pressure: 30atm Mixer
Separator
Catalyst:FeO

CO (g)

N2(g)
H2 (g)
N2 (g) H2 (g)
NH3 (l) Vapor-Liquid N2 (g)
Separator

NH3 (l)

Figure 2.1 Block Flow Diagram for Selected Rout

67
2.5.2 Overview of Process Flow Diagram

Based on the proposed route selected and the block diagram, a process flow diagram
have been drawn as shown in figure 2.2 and 2.3 below for the production of ammonia from
methane gas. In our plant, the feedstock which is the methane gas is been processed in order to
obtain a value-added product such as ammonia. There are three main reactions are involved in
this plant which are steam reforming, water gas shift reaction and ammonia synthesis.

This process is begins with the compression of methane gas from 5atm to 30atm by
using reciprocating compressor, C-101 and C-102, as the multistage compression. An
intercooler have been placed in between the compressor in order to reduce the discharge
temperature of the compressor into the next compressor. This is because to prevent the
compression malfunction as the compressor are unable to withstand a higher temperature.
Then, the methane gas is heated to a temperature of 700℃ by using a furnce (H-101). At the
same time, water is being pump by using the centrifugal pump (P-101) to transfer the water
into the tubular steam Reactor (R-101). A furnace (H-102) is also included in this stream to
increase the temperature to 700℃.

After the methane gas and water reached the optimum temperature and pressure for the
process, it is then passed into the Tubular Steam Reactor in order to produce the syngas by
reacting the methane gas with the water. A syngas mixture which consists of CO, H2O, H2 and
unreacted CH4 is produced at the end of the process. Then, this syngas will be passed into an
expander (T-101) with a purpose of reducing the pressure from 30atm to 6atm in order to
enhance the reaction in the next reactor. After reducing the pressure, the syngas will passed to
the syngas cooler (E-102) to reduce the temperature of the syngas from 700℃ to 280℃ as per
required for the shift reaction in the next reactor.

Once the desired parameters for next reactor is achieved, the syngas will passed into
water gas shift reactor (R-102) in order to carry out the shift reaction to increase the ratio of
H2:CO in the syngas. The targeted ratio in this reaction is 3:1 to H2:CO under the operation

68
condition of 6atm and 280℃. A by-product of CO2 will be produced from the reaction as well.
Then, this syngas which consist of CO, CO2, H2, H2O and unreacted CH4 is passed through the
shell and tube condenser where the syngas from the water gas shift reactor is partially
condensed in order to separate the liquid H2O from the syngas. A flash column (F-101), which
operates based on the boiling point of components, is been included after the condenser to
separate the water from the syngas before it is been proceeded for the ammonia synthesis. A
mixture of syngas which consists of CO, CO2, H2 and unreacted CH4 are released at the top of
the separator while the water been separated at the bottom of the separator.

This gas mixture are then fed to the absorber (A-101) to separate the CO2 from the
syngas mixture. In order to carry out this separation, a solvent of diethnolamine (DEA) is been
introduced into the absorption column where it flows in counter-current flow to absorb the CO2
in terms of mass transfer concept, where it moves from high concentration gradient into less
concentration gradient. Then, the dissolved CO2 in the DEA solvent is been separated at bottom
of the absorbent and passed through the throttling valve (V-101) to reduce its pressure from
6atm to 4atm to enhance the separation in next flash column. Since, this separation process is
efficient at temperature of 300℃, thus a heater (E-104) is been introduced after the throttling
valve to increase the temperature to 300℃. Then, the CO2 is been separated from the DEA
solvent in flash column (F-102) where the DEA is recycled back.

In order to obtain a purified hydrogen from other syngas, a membrane separator (D-
101) is been used as it could increase the efficiency of the separation process. Before is it been
feed to the separator, a multistage compression (C-103) and (C-104) is included in order to
increase the pressure of the syngas from 4atm to 30atm. At the same time, a heater (E-106) is
also been included to increase the temperature of the syngas from 300℃ to 400℃. A separation
of hydrogen from CO and unreacted CH4 is done by using the membrane separator with a
higher purity of hydrogen is obtained. A nitrogen gas is also been compressed by using the
multistage compression (C-105) and (C-106) with an intercooler in between (E-107) and a
heater (E-108) to increase the pressure of nitrogen to 30atm and temperature from 25℃ to
400℃ respectively.

69
 Then, this two gases are been fed to a mixer (M-101) which is known as a non-reactive
process in order to adjust the composition of nitrogen and hydrogen to a desired composition
of 3:1 of H2 to N2 as required for the ammonia synthesis. Finally, after the required composition
and desired operating conditions are obtained, the hydrogen and nitrogen component are feed
into fixed bed reactor (R-103) to carry out the ammonia synthesis process at a temperature and
pressure of 400℃ and 30atm respectively. A yield of 18.9% of ammonia gas is obtained from
the reaction with unreacted mixture of H2 and N2 as well. Since the required product must be
in liquid form, thus a condenser (E-109) is included to reduce the temperature of the ammonia
to 50℃, where is will be a liquid at this stage. In order to separate the desired product, a flash
column (F-103) is been used to separate the liquid ammonia from the unreacted gas. The
separated liquid are then kept for storage purposes while the unreacted gas will be recycled
back with a purpose of increasing the ammonia yield.

This recycle stream is then passed to a splitter (S-101), which is considered as the
purging system. This splitter works by purging some of the unreacted gases from the stream to
prevent any accumulation occurrences in both reactor and flash column. About 1% of unreacted
gas is been purged out while another 99% is been recycled back. Finally, the unreacted gases
enters the heater (E-110) to increase the temperature of the stream from 50℃ to 400℃ in order
to recycle it back to the reactor. Besides that, it will passed through the mixer as well to adjust
the composition of the gases to 3:1 to H2:N2 ratio. Thus a yield of 93.90% is obtained by
recycling this unreacted gas.

70
 Equipment C-101 E-101 C-102 H-101 P-101 H-102 R-101 T-101 E-102 R-102 E-103 F-101 A-101 V-101 E-104 F-102
tag
Equipment Reciprocating Intercooler Reciprocating Furnace Centrifugal Furnace Tubular Expander Syngas Cooler Water Gas Shell and Flash Column Absorber Throttling Heater Flash Column
name Compressor Compressor Pump Steam Reactor Shift Reactor Tube valve
Condenser

16
To C-103
Diethanolamine 22 DWG. BG2020
SHEET 2 OF 2

Methane
C-101
2 3
C-102
4
E-101

H-101 5 14

7 A-101
6 8
20
Water P-101 R-101
9 17
H-102 Carbon dioxide
10 11 12 13
18 19
T-101 E-103
E-102 V-101
E-104
R-102 F-101
15 F-102 21

Diethanolamine
water
Stream ID S101 S102 S103 S104 S105 S106 S107 S108 S109 S110 S111 S112 S113 S114 S115 S116 S117 S118 S119 S120 S121 S122 OWNER

Temperature 25 97.34 25 97.34 700 25 25 700 700 398.09 280 280 40 40 40 40 40 40 300 300 300 40
(°C)
Pressure (atm) 5 12.25 12.25 30 30 1 30 30 30 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 6
Phase vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor liquid liquid vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor mix vapor liquid liquid liquid liquid mix vapor liquid vapor Chemica Engineering Sdn.
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr) Bhd

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 CLIENT
Nitrogen, N2
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8205.47 8205.47 8205.47 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10721.82 MJIIT CHEMICALS
Ammonia, 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 SDN BHD
NH3
Carbon 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 38004.67 38004.67 38004.67 3040.37 3040.37 3040.37 0.00 0.00 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 0.00 3024.63 TITLE
Monoxide, PROCESS FLOW
CO
Carbon 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 54935.73 54935.73 54930.72 5.02 0.00 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 0.00 1005.02 DIAGRAM
Dioxide, CO2 PRODUCTION OF
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 38231.73 38231.73 38231.73 15743.95 15743.95 1574.40 14169.56 0.00 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.06 0.33 0.00 AMMONIA
Methane, 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.12 0.01 0.00 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 0.00 474.88
CH4
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1505704 1505704 1505704 1505704 120456.3 1493658 0.00 SIZE DRAWI SHEET
Diethanolamine
1.74 1.74 1.74 1.74 A3 -NG 1 OF 2
DEA 3 5.41
NO
22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 85000 85000 85000 85000 85000 70825.42 14174.58 1505704 1511264 1511264 1511264 176055.0 1493658 15226.35 BG202
Total 1.74 0.81 0.81 0.81 7 5.74
0

Figure2.2 ProcessFlowDiagram
71
 Equipment tag C-103 E-105 C-104 E-106 D-101 C-105 E-107 C-106 E-108 M-101 R-103 E-109 F-103 S-101 E-110
Ammonia
Membrane Reciprocating Reciprocating Shell and Tube
Equipment name Compressor Intercooler Compressor Heater Intercooler Heater Mixer Synthesis Flash Column Splitter Heater
Separator Compressor Compressor Condenser
Reactor

29
Nitrogen gas
31
C-105
30 C-106
32 33

E-108
E-107

From A-101
DWG. BG2020 22
SHEET 1 OF 2
28 41 40
24
M-101 E-110

C-103 23 25 26 39
C-104

E-105 E-106 Purge gas

S-101
D-101 38
27

Carbon Monoxide,
Carbon Dioxide, Methane 34 35 36

E-109
R-103
F-103 37

Ammonia
Liquid
Stream ID S123 S124 S125 S126 S127 S128 S129 S130 S131 S132 S133 S134 S135 S136 S137 S138 S139 S140 S141 OWNER
Temperature (°C) 122.56 40 122.56 400 400 400 25 113.72 25 113.72 400 400 400 50 50 50 50 50 400
Pressure (atm) 13.41 13.42 30 30 30 30 5 12.25 12.25 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
Phase vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor mix liquid vapor vapor vapor vapor
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
Chemica Engineering Sdn. Bhd

Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 45601.08 912.02 912.02 0.13 911.89 9.12 902.77 902.77 CLIENT
Hydrogen, H2 10721.82 10721.82 3024.63 10721.82 1072.18 9649.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9844.77 197.16 197.16 0.00 197.16 1.97 195.19 195.19 MJIIT CHEMICALS
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5970.33 60307.00 60307.00 54276.30 6030.70 60.31 5970.39 5970.39 SDN BHD
Carbon Monoxide, CO 3024.63 3024.63 3024.63 3024.63 3024.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 TITLE
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 1005.02 1005.02 1005.02 1005.02 1005.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 PROCESS FLOW
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
DIAGRAM
474.88 474.88 474.88 474.88 474.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane,
PRODUCTION OF
CH4
AMMONIA
Diethanolamine, 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 SIZE DRAWING SHEET
DEA A3 NO 2 OF 2
Total 15226.35 15226.35 15226.35 15226.35 5576.71 9649.64 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 61416.18 61416.18 61416.18 54276.44 7139.75 71.40 7068.35 7068.35 BG2020

Figure2.3 ProcessFlowDiagram

72
2.6 Basis for Equipment Selection

There are total of 9 major unit operations are involved in designing the ammonia
production which includes reactors (tubular steam reactor, water gas-shift reactor and packed
bed reactor), absorption column, membrane separator, flash column (for water, carbon dioxide
and ammonia separation) and splitter. Auxiliary equipment such as heat exchanger,
compressor, pump, expander and throttling valve also will be discussed in this section.

2.6.1 Reactors

2.6.1.1 Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101)

In this process, steam methane reforming (SMR) reactor which acts as a furnace
containing a burner and also a chemical reactor is been used. The main function of this reactor
is to produce syngas such as carbon monoxide, CO, hydrogen, H2 and unreacted water, H2O.
Steam reforming of natural gas and other hydrocarbon is the most favourable route for the
syngas production. (Nielsen, 2009). The diagram of the tubular steam reactor is as shown in
Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Schematic Diagram of Tubular Steam Reactor (Nguyen, 2018)

73
 About 85000kg/hr of feed is been fed to this reactor to produce the syngas. A nickel-
based catalyst is used in this reactor to increase the reaction rate of the process. This steam
reforming process is known as an endothermic reaction, where heat must be supplied to the
process in order for the reaction to proceed. Table 2.8 summarizes the operating conditions for
the reactor.

Table 2.8 Operating Condition of Tubular Steam Reactor

Aspects Description

Type of Reactor Tubular Steam Reactor

Reactant Methane and water

Product Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen

Conversion 97.5% (Chen, 2020)

Temperature 700℃

Pressure 30atm

Catalyst Nickel Based

Equation CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2

74
2.6.1.2 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

Water gas shift reaction is being carried out in this process in order to increase the ratio
of hydrogen present in the syngas produced by using the carbon monoxide, CO so that the
amount of hydrogen can be optimized in the ammonia synthesis reaction where it will affect
the yield of ammonia produced. In this reaction, CO reacts with H2O to produce additional
hydrogen targeting a H2: CO ratio of 3:1. This is known as an exothermic reaction where some
of the heat will be released to the surroundings. The schematic diagram of packed bed water
gas shift reactor is as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5 Schematic Diagram of Packed Bed Water Gas Shift Reactor (Mills et.al, 2007)

A packed bed reactor is used in this reaction as it is able to operate at vapour

phase. The raw syngas consisting of CO, H2O, H2 and CH4 is fed to the reactor and passed
through the packed bed of Cu-ZnO catalyst to alter the chemical reaction. This reactor operates
at a temperature of 280℃ and 6atm with an addition of copper zinc oxide as a catalyst to
increase the process rate of reaction. Table 2.9 summarizes the operating conditions of the
reactor.

75
Table 2.9 Operating Condition of Water Gas Shift Reactor

Aspects Description

Type of Reactor Packed Bed Reactor

Reactant Carbon Monoxide and Water

Product Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen

Conversion 92% (Lie and Toshinori, 2019)

Temperature 280℃

Pressure 6atm

Catalyst Copper Zinc Oxide

Equation CO + H2O CO2 + H2

76
2.6.1.3 Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103)

In this plant, a fixed bed reactor has been used to synthesis the ammonia by reacting
one mole of nitrogen with 3 mole of hydrogen. This fixed bed reactor have the ability to
increase the conversion per unit mass of catalyst and able to operate at high pressure and
temperature with highest scale production. The nitrogen and hydrogen are fed into the reactor
and passed through a fixed bed of wustite, FeO catalyst to alter the chemical reaction for
ammonia production. The schematic diagram of fixed bed ammonia synthesis reactor is as
shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 Schematic Diagram of Fixed Bed Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (Hafeez et.al,
2019)

Due to the use of FeO catalyst, the pressure of the reactor is able to be lowered
compared to the conventional catalyst and at the same it able to increases the process efficiency.
The conversion of NH3 is 18.4% in a single pass which is considered as very low. (Liu, Han,
Huo, & Cen, 2019). Thus, a recycle stream is added where the conversion of nitrogen is
increased to be 98% under the operating condition. (Tripodi, et.al,2018). Table 2.10 below
summarizes the operating conditions of the reactor.

77
Table 2.10 Operating Condition of Water Gas Shift Reactor

Aspects Description

Type of Reactor Fixed Bed Reactor

Reactant Nitrogen and Hydrogen

Product Ammonia Gas

Conversion 98% (Tripodi, et.al,2018, 2019)

Temperature 400℃

Pressure 30atm

Catalyst Wustite

Equation N2 + 3H2 2NH3

78
2.6.2 Absorption Column (A-101)

Absorption column in Figure 2.7 is used to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from feed gas
which contains hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Liquid solvent used for the absorption process is
the Diethanolamine (DEA) which acts as an absorbent to remove CO2 from feed gas. A pure
syngas that containing major of H2, CO and CH4 will be released at top of outlet while at the
bottom outlet solvent rich with CO2 will be let out. Next, the rich solvent will enter the
following equipment to fully separate the CO2 from the absorbent solvent. Table 2.11
summarizes the operating conditions required for the absorption column to carry out a high
efficiency gas separation process.

Clean Gas

Lean Solvent

Acidic Gas
Gas

Acidic Gas Rich

Figure 2.7 Schematic Diagram of Absorption Column (Majeed et.al, 2017)

79
 Table 2.11 Operating Condition of Absorption Column

Aspects Description

Column Efficiency 95%

Key Component CO2

Solvent Temperature 313.15 K

Pressure 4560 mmHg

Ae 1.2

Minimum Solvent Rate Required 1432.1360 kg/hr

Number of Stages 8

The number of stages of the absorber, N was then calculated by Equation 2.1 using the CO2
recovery and effective absorption factor.

𝒓 − 𝑨𝒆 (2.1)
𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝑨𝒆 (𝒓 − 𝟏)
𝑵=
𝐥𝐧 𝑨𝒆

Where
N = number of stage
𝐴𝑒 = effective absorption factor
r = recovery rate of key component

The calculation for the minimum solvent rate is calculated as shown in Equation 2.2.
𝑷𝟎 𝒌 (2.2)
𝑳𝒐 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × × 𝑽𝑵+𝟏 × 𝒓
𝑷

Where
𝐿𝑜 = solvent flow rate (kmol/hr)
𝑃0 𝑘 = vapor pressure of key component (mmHg)
P = pressure of the absorber (mmHg)
𝑉𝑁+1 = inlet flow rate ( kmol/hr)

80
2.6.3 Membrane Separator (D-101)

In order to purify the hydrogen from other types of syngas, a membrane separator (D-
101) is been used after the absorption column.The schematic diagram of membrane separator
is as shown in Figure 2.8.

Feed Retentate

Permeant

Figure 2.8 Schematic Diagram of Membrane Separator (Mounir, 2007)

A membrane separator is known as a method that uses microspores of the membranes

to separate component with the presence of semi-permeable membranes. A membrane is a thin
section of material that acts as a phase separator where it is permeable to the components in
solution such as gas mixture and liquid solutions. (Thomas and Douglas, 2012). The common
transport processes of this separator are by the transfer of mass by the action of a free energy
driving force and it has a capacity to alter the mixture composition by virtue of the ability of
the membrane barrier to pass one component faster than others, despite the equality of driving
force. (Thomas and Douglas, 2012). This type of separator is also commonly used for the
hydrogen separation in many industries. As the feed gas mixture entered the membrane
separator unit, the separation of gas mixture into a stream of enriched component and another
stream which is lead to the first component can be achieved. In our plant, a mixture of H2, CO
and CH4 will be fed to the separator unit in order to obtain the enriched component of H2 at the
top of the separator. This separation is also known as an efficient process as it has a separation
efficiency of 90% and able to operate at high temperature and pressure. Table 2.12 show the
operating conditions of the membrane separator.

81
 Table 2.12 Operating Condition of Membrane Separator

Aspects Description

Separator Efficiency 90%

Pressure 30atm

Temperature 400℃

Desired Product H2

By-product CO, CH4

82
2.6.4 Flash Column

Flash separator is one of the unit separator used in the process. Separating volatile
components is one of the easiest separation methods used in industries. At a certain pressure
and temperature, a liquid flow containing many components is partially vaporized by an
external heat exchanger. This results in two phases which are vapor phase, enriched in the more
volatile components and liquid phase, enriched in the less volatile components. The schematic
diagram of the flash column is as shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9 Schematic

Diagram of Flash Column (Model et.al, 2012)

In this process, there are 3 flash column are involved which are used to separate the
components that have a difference of boiling point between the components. The heavy key
component and the light key component are identified based on the boiling points and the
desired recovery fraction of the key components. The boiling points of each component are
listed as in table 2.13 below.

83
 Table 2.13 Boiling Points of Components at Standard Temperature

Components Boiling Point (℃)

CH4 -161.6

CO2 -78.46

CO -191.5

H2 -252.8

H2O 100.0

DEA 56.0

NH3 -33.34

The method for manual material balance calculation of the multicomponent flash separator is
stated as below. The first step is finding the partial vapor pressure of each component inside
the flash column by using the Equation 2.3.

𝑪𝟐 (2.3)
𝒍𝒏𝑷° 𝒌 = 𝑪𝟏 + + 𝑪𝟑 𝒍𝒏𝑻 + 𝑪𝟒 𝑻𝑪𝟓
𝑻

Where,
𝑃° 𝑘 = Vapor pressure of the component;
C1, C2, C3, C4 and C5 = Constant obtained from the Perry’s Hand Book
T = Temperature of the flash column

The relative volatility is obtained from Equation 2.4

𝑷° 𝒊
𝒂𝒊/𝒏 = (2.4)
𝑷𝒏

Where,
𝑎𝑖/𝑛 = relative volatility of the component i
𝑃° 𝑖 = vapour pressure of component i
𝑃𝑛 = vapour pressure of the key component

84
The calculation for the split fraction of the component ɛ in the stream is calculated by using
Fenske equation. The split fraction for light key component is as shown in Equation 2.5 while
the split fraction for heavy key component is as shown in Equation 2.6.

Split fraction for light key component:

𝒂𝝃𝒍𝒌
𝝃𝒍𝒌 = (2.5)
𝟏 + (𝒂 − 𝟏)𝝃𝒍𝒌

Split fraction for heavy key component:

𝒂𝝃𝒉𝒌 (2.6)
𝝃𝒉𝒌 =
𝟏 + (𝒂 − 𝟏)𝝃𝒉𝒌

Where,
𝝃𝑙𝑘 = split fraction for light key component
𝝃ℎ𝑘 = split fraction of heavy key component

The molar flowrate of each component at the distillate stream was calculated using the
Equation 2.7.
𝒗𝒌𝒊 = 𝝃𝒌 × 𝒏𝒊 (2.7)

Where,
𝒗𝑘𝑖 = molar flowrate of component i at the distillate stream (kmol/h)
𝒏𝒊 = molar flowrate of the component i (kmol/h)
The mole fraction, 𝑦𝑘 of each distillate component was calculated using Equation 2.8.

𝒗𝒌 (2.8)
𝒚𝒌 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒌 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔

The molar flow rate of the bottom product was 𝑙𝑘 which was calculated using Equation 2.9.
𝒍𝒌 = 𝒏 − 𝒗𝒌 (2.9)

The mole fraction, 𝑥𝑘 of each bottom component was calculated using Equation 2.10.
𝒍𝒌 (2.10)
𝒙𝒌 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒌 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔

85
2.6.4.1 Flash Column (F-101)

To remove all the water content from the syngas, flash column (F-101) is being used to
remove all the water available from the syngas before entering the absorber (A-101). The
temperature of F-101 operates at 40℃ with a pressure at 6atm, where the water (H2O) as heavy
key component can be condensed easily below 100℃. The operating condition of the flash
column is summarized as table 2.14 below.

Table 2.14 Operating Condition of Flash Column (F-101)

Aspects Description

Pressure 6atm

Temperature 40℃

Column Efficiency 90%

ξ for Light Key 0.9

ξ for Heavy Key 0.1

Light Key Component CH4, CO, CO2, H2

Heavy Key Component H2O

86
2.6.4.2 Flash Column (F-102)

To recover the used diethanolamine (DEA) and carbon dioxide, CO2, the mixture is
then fed to the separator of F-102 for the CO2 removal and the DEA recovery. The operating
temperature of this column is operated at 300℃ as the boiling point of heavy key component,
which is diethanollamine is 56℃. The operating condition of this flash column is summarized
as table 2.15.

Table 2.15 Operating Condition of Flash Column (F-102)

Aspects Description

Pressure 4atm

Temperature 300℃

Column Efficiency 99.5%

ξ for Light Key 0.995

ξ for Heavy Key 0.005

Light Key Component CH4, CO, CO2, H2

Heavy Key Component DEA

87
2.6.4.3 Flash Column (F-103)

In order to separate our final product which is the liquid ammonia from the unreacted
mixture of H2 and N2, this ammonia and unreacted gas mixture will be sent to F-103 to recover
the liquid ammonia which will be then stored for supply purposes. The operating temperature
of this column is operated at 50 ℃ where it starts to become liquid phase and is applicable to
operate at this temperature for the separation to take place. The operating condition of this flash
column is summarized as Table 2.16.

Table 2.16 Operating Condition of Flash Column (F-103)

Aspects Description

Pressure 30atm

Temperature 50℃

Column Efficiency 90%

ξ for Light Key 0.9

ξ for Heavy Key 0.1

Light Key Component N2, H2

Heavy Key Component NH3

88
2.6.5 Splitter (S-101)

A splitter is one of the unit operations used in our plant and it is known as an ideal
separation device. The main function of a splitter is to splits a line into two or more directions
same as a separator except the split product lines is homogenous and no reaction occur happen
during splitting. The schematic diagram of the splitter is as shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10 Schematic Diagram of Splitter

In our operation plant, the component that is being split into two lines with the split
fraction of 0.99% is a mixture of N2, H2, that will be recycled back to the process line while
the balance will be purged out with a purpose of preventing accumulation in both reactor and
separator unit. This unit operates isothermally with defined pressure and temperature. The
operating condition of this flash column is summarized as Table 2.17.

Table 2.17 Operating Condition of Splitter (S-101)

Aspects Description

Temperature 50℃

Pressure 30atm

Purge Amount 1%

Purging Elements Mixture of N2 , H2

89
2.6.6 Auxiliary

In order to enhance the properties and processing of the production line of the ammonia
production, auxiliary equipment such as heat exchanger, compressor, pump, expander and
throttling valve also being used in the our processing plant in order to produce the ammonia.

2.6.6.1 Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger is a tool that is used to transfer heat from one medium to another
without compromising that medium's integrity. Heat exchanger is the most typical energy
recovery device for heating a cold flow or vice versa. In this plant different type of heat
exchanger is used in order to meet the desired temperature for a process. There are a total of
12 heat exchanger are used in the process to maintain their temperature requirements. Table
2.18 summarized the operating condition of the heat exchangers that have been used throughout
the process.

90
 Table 2.18 Operating Condition of Heat Exchanger

Inlet Outlet
Type of Heat Tag No Purpose Temperature (℃) Temperature
Exchanger (℃)

Compressor Stage E-101 To reduce the 97 25

Intercooler discharge temperature

Furnace H-101 To heat up the 97 700

methane gas

Furnace H-102 To heat up the water 25 700

Syngas Cooler E-102 To cool down the 398 280

syngas

Condenser E-103 To cool down the 280 40

water temperature

Heater E-104 To heat up the syngas 40 300

Compressor Stage E-105 To reduce the 123 40

Intercooler discharge temperature

Heater E-106 To heat up the syngas 123 400

Compressor Stage E-107 To reduce the 114 25

Intercooler discharge temperature

Heater E-108 To heat up the 114 400

nitrogen gas

Condenser E-109 To cool down 400 50

ammonia temperature

Heater E-110 To heat up the recycle 50 400

stream gas

91
2.6.6.2 Compressor

Compressors are mechanical devices that increase the pressure of different

compressible fluids or gases, the air being the most common. According to Heuristics 34 in
Process Design Heuristics, use a compressor to increase the gauge pressure to as high as 206
kPa or 30 psig. Use a compressor or staged compressor to produce a pressure greater than 206
kPa or 30 psig. Moreover, referring to Heuristic 36, we can estimate the number of gas
compression stages, N. In the process, there are six compressors have been used which are C-
101, C-102, C-103, C-104, C-105, C-106. The first four compressors used are normal
compressors while the other two compressors are multistage compressors. Table 2.19
summarized the operating condition of the compressors that have been used throughout the
process.

Table 2.19 Operating Condition of Compressor

Type of Tag No Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet

Compressor Pressure Pressure Temperature Temperature
(atm) (atm) (℃) (℃)

Reciprocating C-101 5 12 25 97
Compressor

Reciprocating C-102 12 30 25 97
Compressor

Compressor C-103 6 13 40 123

Compressor C-104 13 30 40 123

Reciprocating C-105 5 12 25 114

Compressor

Reciprocating C-106 12 30 25 114

Compressor

92
2.6.6.3 Centrifugal Pump (P-101)

Centrifugal pump is one of the most common type of pump that have being
using in most of the industries. It is used to induce the flow or give rise to a liquid that is from
a lower level to a higher level. This centrifugal pump converts rotary energy, often from a
motor to energy in a moving fluid. Centrifugal pumps are useful because they can typically
handle large amounts of fluids, have very high flow rates, and have the capacity to vary their
flow rates over a wide range. Centrifugal pumps are typically built and ideal for liquids with a
relatively low viscosity that is poured such as the water. Table 2.20 summarized the operating
condition of the pump.

Table 2.20 Operating Condition of Pump (P-101)

Aspects Inlet Outlet

Temperature 15℃ 441℃

Pressure 1atm 30atm

Function To pump the water into the reactor

2.6.6.4 Expander (T-101)

Generally, expander is known as a type of valve that used to reduce the pressure of fluid
but it is commonly used in a gas phase. By using an expander, the process is able to reduce the
pressure in a large amount and able to withstand higher pressure. An expander type of valve is
been selected to decrease the pressure of the syngas based on the heuristic 40. There are many
types of expander are available for reducing the pressure of gas however in this plant, a turbo-
expander is been selected and used to reduce the pressure of the syngas from 30atm to 6atm
before it is been feed to the R-102. At the same time, some heat has also been released to the
surroundings where it leads to the temperature drop. Table 2.21 summarized the operating
condition of the expander.

93
 Table 2.21 Operating Condition of Expander (T-101)

Aspects Inlet Outlet

Temperature 700℃ 398℃

Pressure 30atm 6atm

Function To reduce the pressure of syngas

2.6.6.5 Throttling Valve (V-101)

Throttling valve is a type of valve that can be used to control and restrict the flow rate
of feed which eventually decreases the pressure in the flow. In this process, a butterfly type of
valve is been used as it is more efficient for throttling process. In this production plant, it is
used to reduce the pressure of the diethanolamide, DEA containing CO2 product from absorber,
A-101 from 6atm to 4atm before it is been proceeded for the separation process in F-102. The
fluid flow in the throttling valve can be considered is at adiabatic condition as the fluid flow
through it is so fast where it could not spend much time for the heat transfer to occur. Table
2.22 summarized the operating condition of the throttling valve.

Table 2.22 Operating Condition of Throttling Valve (V-101)

Aspects Inlet Outlet

Temperature 40℃ 40℃

Pressure 6atm 4atm

Function To reduce the pressure of DEA

94
2.7 Manual Calculation

2.7.1 Mass Balance

Mass balance or material balance is a form of material balancing and a mass

conservation application. Mass balance allows and makes it possible to keep track of any
substance as it passes through or transforms in the process, including the amount of reactant or
product stored in the system and the maximum concentration that can be absorbed or generated
by a reactant or product. Mass balance is very helpful for plant design and troubleshooting, as
this application is commonly used in engineering and environmental analysis. It is possible to
write the mass balance equation in the following general manner. The basic material balance
assumption is shown as below where the system is assumed as in steady-state and non-reactive:

Input + Generation = Output + Accumulation + Consumption (2.11)

Since there is no generation, accumulation and consumption occurred in this system, thus
the equation can be simplified as below:

Input + Generation = Output + Accumulation + Consumption (2.12)

Input = Output (2.13)

Mass balance takes many forms when no material enters or leaves the control volume
(CV) in certain systems, and the rate of change is not considered important. It can be plainly
stated that at all later times, perhaps in various ways, anything that was present in the system
at some initial moment must be there. Other than that, in the analysis of the different phases of
the operation, energy balance is used. It can be inferred that in an industry, mass and energy
balance are very crucial.

95
 Several unit operations for the production of ammonia from methane have been selected
and have their own mass and energy balance measurements. In addition, each unit operation
has its own unique operating state in order to experience the reaction that occurs in it.

The unit process that is used in this case is separation, condensation, mixing and many
more. Therefore, there are several types of reactors that aid in the design of ammonia formation.
Thus, each reactor has its own basic operating conditions, as well as mass and energy balance
measurements. To measure the mass balance of each equipment, several assumptions are being
made, which are:

1) Raw material used as Methane, its rate of feed is given 85,000 ton/hr.
2) The purify yield in this plant is 98%
3) All units of mass balance calculation for each equipment are in kg/hr
4) The whole process is designed as continuous process.
5) All of the processes are operating at steady state.
6) All components will be in ideal condition
7) The behaviour of all the components in the system in ideal condition
8) No leakage in piping system and joint connection between equipment
9) There is no pressure drop occurrence

96
2.7.1.1 Reciprocating Compressor (C-101)

Figure 2.11 below shows the symbol of a reciprocating compressor (C-101) in the
process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of C-101 is tabulated as shown in
Table 2.23.

Figure 2.11 Symbol of C-101 in PFD

Table 2.23 Material Balance on C-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S101 S102
Pressure (atm) 5 12.247
Pressure (psia) 73.48 179.988
Temperature (℃ ) 25 97.343
Temperature (K) 536.67 666.888
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CH4 22325.035 22325.035
Total 22325.035 22325.035

97
2.7.1.2 Intercooler Heat Exchanger (E-101)

Figure 2.12 below shows the symbol of a compressor stage intercooler (E-101) in
the process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of E-101 is tabulated as shown
in Table 2.24.

Figure 2.12 Symbol of E-101 in PFD

Table 2.24 Material Balance on E-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream S102 S103
Pressure (atm) 12.247 12.247
Temperature (℃ ) 97.343 25.000
Temperature (K) 666.888 298.150
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CH4 22325.035 22325.035
Total 22325.035 22325.035

98
2.7.1.3 Reciprocating Compressor (C-102)

Figure 2.13 below shows the symbol of a reciprocating compressor (C-102) in the
process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of C-102 is tabulated as shown in
Table 2.25.

Figure 2.13 Symbol of C-102 in PFD

Table 2.25 Material Balance on C-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream S103 S104
Pressure (atm) 12.247 30.000
Pressure (psia) 179.988 440.880
Temperature (℃ ) 25.000 97.344
Temperature (K) 536.670 666.890
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CH4 22325.035 22325.035
Total 22325.035 22325.035

99
2.7.1.4 Furnace (H-101)

Figure 2.14 below shows the symbol of a furnace (H-101) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the mass balance of H-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.26.

Figure 2.14 Symbol of H-101 in PFD

Table 2.26 Material Balance on H-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream S104 S105
Pressure (atm) 30.000 30.000
Temperature (℃ ) 97.344 700.000
Temperature (K) 370.494 973.150
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CH4 22325.035 22325.035
Total 22325.035 22325.035

100
2.7.1.5 Centrifugal Pump (P-101)

Figure 2.15 below shows the symbol of a centrifugal pump (P-101) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of P-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.27.

Figure 2.15 Symbol of P-101 in PFD

Table 2.27 Material Balance on P-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream S106 S107
Pressure (atm) 1 30
Pressure (psia) 14.696 440.880
Temperature (℃ ) 25 25
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
H2O 62674.965 62674.965
Total 62674.965 62674.965

101
2.7.1.6 Furnace (H-102)

Figure 2.16 below shows the symbol of a furnace (H-102) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the mass balance of H-102 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.28.

Figure 2.16 Symbol of H-102 in PFD

Table 2.28 Material Balance on H-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream S107 S108
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Pressure (psia) 25 700
Temperature (℃ ) 298.15 973.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
H2O 62674.965 62674.965
Total 62674.965 62674.965

102
2.7.1.7 Tubular Steam Reactor (R101)

Figure 2.17 below shows the symbol of a tubular steam reactor (R-101) in the process
flow diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of R-101 is tabulated as shown in Table
2.29.

Figure 2.17 Symbol of R-101 in PFD

Table 2.29 Material Balance on R-101

Inlet Inlet Outlet

Stream S105 S108 S109
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 700 700 700
Temperature (K) 973.15 973.15 973.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CH4 22325.035 0 558.126
H2O 0 62674.965 38231.728
CO 0 0 38004.673
H2 0 0 8205.473
Total 22325.035 62674.965 85000

103
2.7.1.8 Expander (T-101)

Figure 2.18 below shows the symbol of an expander (T-101) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of T-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.30.

Figure 2.18 Symbol of T-101 in PFD

Table 2.30 Material Balance on T-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream S109 S110
Pressure (atm) 30 6
Pressure (psia) 440.88 88.176
Temperature (℃ ) 700 398.092
Temperature (K) 1751.67 1208.235
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CH4 558.126 558.126
H2O 38231.728 38231.728
CO 38004.673 38004.673
H2 8205.473 8205.473
Total 85000.000 85000.000

104
2.7.1.9 Syngas Cooler (E-102)

Figure 2.19 below shows the symbol of a syngas cooler (E-102) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of E-102 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.31.

Figure 2.19 Symbol of E-102 in PFD

Table 2.31 Material Balance on E-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream S110 S111
Pressure (atm) 6 6
Temperature (℃ ) 398.092 280
Temperature (K) 671.242 553.150
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CH4 558.126 558.126
H2O 38231.728 38231.728
CO 38004.673 38004.673
H2 8205.473 8205.473
Total 85000.000 85000.000

105
2.7.1.10 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

Figure 2.20 below shows the symbol of a water gas shift reactor (R-102) in the process
flow diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of R-102 is tabulated as shown in Table
2.32.

Figure 2.20 Symbol of R-102 in PFD

Table 2.32 Material Balance on R-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream S111 S112
Pressure (atm) 6 6
Temperature (℃ ) 280 280
Temperature (K) 553.15 553.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 38004.673 3040.374
CO2 0.000 54935.731
H2O 38231.728 15743.951
H2 8205.473 10721.818
CH4 558.126 558.126
Total 85000.000 85000.000

106
2.7.1.11 Condenser (E-103)

Figure 2.21 below shows the symbol of a condenser (E-103) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of E-103 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.33.

Figure 2.21 Symbol of E-103 in PFD

Table 2.33 Material Balance on E-103

Inlet Outlet
Stream S112 S113
Pressure (atm) 6 6
Temperature (℃ ) 280 40
Temperature (K) 553.15 313.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 3040.374 3040.374
CO2 54935.731 54935.731
H2O 15743.951 15743.951
H2 10721.818 10721.818
CH4 558.126 558.126
Total 85000.000 85000.000

107
2.7.1.12 Flash Column (F-101)

Figure 2.22 below shows the symbol of a flash column (F-101) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of F-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.34.

Figure 2.22 Symbol of F-101 in PFD

Table 2.34 Material Balance on F-101

Inlet Outlet Outlet

Stream
S113 S114 S115
Pressure (atm) 6 6 6
Temperature (℃ ) 40 40 40
Temperature (K) 313.15 313.15 313.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 3040.374 3040.373 0.001
CO2 54935.731 54930.716 5.016
H2O 15743.951 1574.395 14169.556
H2 10721.818 10721.818 0.000
CH4 558.126 558.121 0.005
Total 85000.000 70825.422 14174.578

108
2.7.1.13 Absorption column (A-101)

Figure 2.23 below shows the symbol of an absorption column (A-101) in the process
flow diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of A-101 is tabulated as shown in Table
2.35.

Figure 2.23 Symbol of A-101 in PFD

Table 2.35 Material Balance on A-101

Inlet Outlet Outlet Outlet

Stream
S114 S116 S122 S117
Pressure (atm) 6 6 6 6
Temperature (℃ ) 40 40 40 40
Temperature (K) 313 313 313 313
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 3040.373 0.000 3024.629 15.744
CO2 54930.716 0.000 1005.022 53925.694
H2O 1574.395 0.000 0.000 1574.395
H2 10721.818 0.000 10721.818 0.000
CH4 558.121 0.000 474.882 83.239
DEA 0.000 143213.701 0.000 15057041.742
Total 70825.422 143213.701 15226.350 15112640.814

109
2.7.1.14 Throttling Valve (V-101)

Figure 2.24 below shows the symbol of a throttling valve (V-101) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of V-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.36.

Figure 2.24 Symbol of V-101 in PFD

Table 2.36 Material Balance on V-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S117 S118
Pressure (atm) 6 4
Temperature (℃ ) 40 40
Temperature (K) 313.15 313.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 15.744 15.744
CO2 53925.694 53925.694
H2O 1574.395 1574.395
H2 0.000 0.000
CH4 83.239 83.239
DEA 15057041.742 15057041.742
Total 15112640.814 15112640.814

110
2.7.1.15 Heater (E-104)

Figure 2.25 below shows the symbol of a heater (E-104) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the mass balance of E-104 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.37.

Figure 2.25 Symbol of E-104 in PFD

Table 2.37 Material Balance on E-104

Inlet Outlet
Stream S118 S119
Pressure (atm) 4 4
Temperature (℃ ) 40 300
Temperature (K) 313.15 573.15

Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)

CO 15.744 15.744
CO2 53925.694 53925.694
H2O 1574.395 1574.395
H2 0.000 0.000
CH4 83.239 83.239
DEA 15057041.742 15057041.742
Total 15112640.814 15112640.814

111
2.7.1.16 Flash Column (F-102)

Figure 2.26 below shows the symbol of a flash column (F-102) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of F-102 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.38.

Figure 2.26 Symbol of F-102 in PFD

Table 2.38 Material Balance on F-102

Inlet Outlet Outlet

Stream
S119 S120 S121
Pressure (atm) 4 4 4
Temperature (℃ ) 300 300 300
Temperature (K) 573.15 573.15 573.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 15.744 15.744 0.000
CO2 53925.694 53925.694 0.000
H2O 1574.395 1574.063 0.332
H2 0.000 0.000 0.0000
CH4 83.239 83.239 0.0000
DEA 15057041.742 120456.334 14936585.408
Total 15112640.814 176055.073 14936585.740

112
2.7.1.17 Compressor C-103

Figure 2.27 below shows the symbol of a compressor (C-103) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of C-103 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.39.

Figure 2.27 Symbol of C-103 in PFD

Table 2.39 Material Balance on C-103

Inlet Outlet
Stream S122 S123
Pressure (atm) 6 13.416
Pressure (psia) 88.176 197.162
Temperature (℃ ) 40 122.5349
Temperature (K) 563.67 711.916
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 3024.629 3024.629
CO2 1005.022 1005.022
H2O 0.000 0.000
H2 10721.818 10721.818
CH4 474.882 474.882
DEA 0.000 0.000
Total 15226.350 15226.350

113
2.7.1.18 Intercooler (E-105)

Figure 2.28 below shows the symbol of an intercooler (E-105) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of F-102 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.40

Figure 2.28 Symbol of E-105 in PFD

Table 2.40 Material Balance on E-105

Inlet Outlet
Stream S123 S124
Pressure (atm) 13.416 13.416
Temperature (℃ ) 122.555 40
Temperature (K) 395.705 313.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 3024.629 3024.629
CO2 1005.022 1005.022
H2O 0.000 0.000
H2 10721.818 10721.818
CH4 474.882 474.882
DEA 0.000 0.000
Total 15226.350 15226.350

114
2.7.1.19 Compressor (C-104)

Figure 2.29 below shows the symbol of a compressor (C-104) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of C-104 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.41.

Figure 2.29 Symbol of C-104 in PFD

Table 2.41 Material Balance on C-104

Inlet Outlet
Stream S124 S125
Pressure (atm) 13.416 30
Pressure (psia) 197.162 440.88
Temperature (℃ ) 40 122.562
Temperature (K) 563.67 712.282
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 3024.629 3024.629
CO2 1005.022 1005.022
H2O 0.000 0.000
H2 10721.818 10721.818
CH4 474.882 474.882
DEA 0.000 0.000
Total 15226.350 15226.350

115
2.7.1.20 Heater (E-106)

Figure 2.30 below shows the symbol of a heater (E-106) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the mass balance of E-106 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.42.

Figure 2.30 Symbol of E-106 in PFD

Table 2.42 Material Balance on E-106

Inlet Outlet
Stream S125 S126
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 122.562 400
Temperature (K) 395.712 673.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 3024.629 3024.629
CO2 1005.022 1005.022
H2O 0.000 0.000
H2 10721.818 10721.818
CH4 474.882 474.882
DEA 0.000 0.000
Total 15226.350 15226.350

116
2.7.1.21 Membrane Separator (D-101)

Figure 2.31 below shows the symbol of a membrane separator (D-101) in the process
flow diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of D-101 is tabulated as shown in Table
2.43.

Figure 2.31 Symbol of D-101 in PFD

Table 2.43 Material Balance on D-101

Inlet Outlet Outlet

Stream
S126 S128 S127
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 400 400 400
Temperature (K) 673.15 673.15 673.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CO 3024.629 0.000 3024.629
CO2 1005.022 0.000 1005.022
H2O 0.000 0.000 0.000
H2 10721.818 9649.636 1072.182
CH4 474.882 0.000 474.882
DEA 0.000 0.000 0.000
Total 15226.350 9649.636 5576.714

117
2.7.1.22 Reciprocating Compressor (C-105)

Figure 2.32 below shows the symbol of a reciprocating compressor (C-105) in the
process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of C-105 is tabulated as shown in
Table 2.44.

Figure 2.32 Symbol of C-105 in PFD

Table 2.44 Material Balance on C-105

Inlet Outlet
Stream S129 S130
Pressure (atm) 5 12.247
Pressure (psia) 73.48 179.989
Temperature (℃ ) 25 113.725
Temperature (K) 536.67 696.374
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 44698.309 44698.309
Total 44698.309 44698.309

118
2.7.1.23 Intercooler (E-107)

Figure 2.33 below shows the symbol of an intercooler (E-105) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of E-105 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.45.

Figure 2.33 Symbol of E-107 in PFD

Table 2.45 Material Balance on E-107

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S130 S131
Pressure (atm) 12.247 12.247
Temperature (℃ ) 113.725 25
Temperature (K) 386.875 298.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 44698.309 44698.309
Total 44698.309 44698.309

119
2.7.1.24 Reciprocating Compressor (C-106)

Figure 2.34 below shows the symbol of a reciprocating compressor (C-106) in the
process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of C-106 is tabulated as shown in
Table 2.46.

Figure 2.34 Symbol of C-106 in PFD

Table 2.46 Material Balance on C-106

Inlet Outlet
Stream S131 S132
Pressure (atm) 12.247 30
Pressure (psia) 179.989 440.880
Temperature (℃ ) 25 113.725
Temperature (K) 536.670 696.374
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 44698.309 44698.309
Total 44698.309 44698.309

120
2.7.1.25 Heater (E-108)

Figure 2.35 below shows the symbol of a heater (E-106) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the mass balance of E-106 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.47.

Figure 2.35 Symbol of E-108 in PFD

Table 2.47 Material Balance on E-108

Inlet Outlet
Stream S132 S133
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 113.725 400
Temperature (K) 386.875 673.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 44698.309 44698.309
Total 44698.309 44698.309

121
2.7.1.26 Mixer (M-101)

Figure 2.36 below shows the symbol of a mixer (M-101) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the mass balance of M-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.48.

Figure 2.36 Symbol of M-101 in PFD

Table 2.48 Material Balance on M-101

Inlet Inlet Inlet Outlet

Stream
S128 S133 S141 S134
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 400 400 400 400
Temperature (K) 673.15 673.15 673.15 673.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 0.000 44698.309 902.768 45601.077
H2 9649.636 0.000 195.139 9844.775
NH3 0.000 0.000 5970.331 5970.331
CO 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
CO2 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
H2O 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
CH4 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
DEA 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Total 9649.636 44698.309 7068.237 61416.182

122
2.7.1.27 Ammonia Synthesis Fix Bed Reactor (R-103)

Figure 2.37 below shows the symbol of a fixed bed reactor (R-103) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of R-103 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.49.

Figure 2.37 Symbol of R-103 in PFD

Table 2.49 Material Balance on R-103

Inlet Outlet
Stream S134 S135
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 400 400
Temperature (K) 673.15 673.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 45601.077 912.022
H2 9844.775 197.158
NH3 5970.331 60307.002
CO 0.000 0.000
CO2 0.000 0.000
H2O 0.000 0.000
CH4 0.000 0.000
DEA 0.000 0.000
Total 61416.182 61416.182

123
2.7.1.28 Condenser (E-109)

Figure 2.38 below shows the symbol of a condenser (E-109) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of R-103 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.50.

Figure 2.38 Symbol of E-109 in PFD

Table 2.50 Material Balance on E-109

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S135 S136
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 400 50
Temperature (K) 673.15 323.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 912.022 912.022
H2 197.158 197.158
NH3 60307.002 60307.002
CO 0.000 0.000
CO2 0.000 0.000
H2O 0.000 0.000
CH4 0.000 0.000
DEA 0.000 0.000
Total 61416.182 61416.182

124
2.7.1.29 Flash Column (F-103)

Figure 2.39 below shows the symbol of a flash column (F-103) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the mass balance of R-103 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.51.

Figure 2.39 Symbol of F-103 in PFD

Table 2.51 Material Balance on F-103

Inlet Outlet Outlet

Stream S136 S138 S137
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 50 50 50
Temperature (K) 323.15 323.15 323.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 912.022 911.887 0.135
H2 197.158 197.158 0.000
NH3 60307.002 6030.700 54276.302
CO 0.000 0.000 0.000
CO2 0.000 0.000 0.000
H2O 0.000 0.000 0.000
CH4 0.000 0.000 0.000
DEA 0.000 0.000 0.000
Total 61416.182 7139.745 54276.437

125
2.7.1.30 Splitter (S-101)

Figure 2.40 below shows the symbol of a splitter (S-101) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the mass balance of S-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.52.

Figure 2.40 Symbol of S-101 in PFD

Table 2.52 Material Balance for S-101

Inlet Outlet Outlet

Stream S138 S139 S140
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 50 50 50
Temperature (K) 323.15 323.15 323.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 911.887 9.119 902.768
H2 197.158 1.972 195.187
NH3 6030.700 60.307 5970.393
CO 0.000 0.000 0.000
CO2 0.000 0.000 0.000
H2O 0.000 0.000 0.000
CH4 0.000 0.000 0.000
DEA 0.000 0.000 0.000
Total 7139.745 71.397 7068.348

126
2.7.1.31 Heater (E-110)

Figure 2.41 below shows the symbol of a heater (E-110) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the mass balance of E-110 are tabulated as shown in Table 2.53

Figure 2.41 Symbol of E-110 in PFD

Table 2.53 Material Balance for E-110

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S140 S141
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃ ) 50 400
Temperature (K) 323.15 673.15
Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
N2 902.768 902.768
H2 195.187 195.187
NH3 5970.393 5970.393
CO 0.000 0.000
CO2 0.000 0.000
H2O 0.000 0.000
CH4 0.000 0.000
DEA 0.000 0.000
Total 7068.348 7068.3498

127
2.7.2 Energy Balance

This energy balance was done after completing the overall mass balance. The process
of Ammonia Production from Methane is considered as a continuous process. The law of
conservation of energy is applied throughout the calculation of the energy balance. It states that
the energy can be transformed from one form to another form neither created nor destroyed.
This law of conservation of energy can be written as:

The general formula used as shown below:

Energy Accumulated Energy In through Energy Out through

= +
within the system system boundary System boundary

The general energy balance equation is as shown in Equation 2.4.

ΔH + ΔEP + ΔEk = Q – W (2.14)

Therefore, the calculation for energy balance for all equipment is respected to the heat
capacities and the enthalpies of the stream. For the open steady-state system, there are no
energy is transferred into the system, so W = 0. There is also no significant vertical distance
separates the inlet and outlet streams, and no potential energy amd kinetic energy in the system,
so ΔEP ≈ 0 and ΔEk ≈ 0, respectively (Felder & Rousseau, 2015).

Thus, the equations used to calculate the energy balance for the equipment with respect
to the heat capacities and the enthalpies of the stream is as shown in Equation 2.5.

Q = nCpΔT = nΔH (2.15)

where n was obtained from the mass balance calculation.

In order to calculate the energy balance, several assumptions are being made for each
equipment in the processing plant which are:

128
 1. Used ideal gas properties to calculate stream energy.
2. Reference temperature, Tref is set at 25°C (298.15K) and pressure at 1 atm.
3. All equipment and unit operations are in a steady state.
4. The kinetic and potential energy is negligible.
5. No heat of mixing and pressure effect on ∆H.

To determine the specific enthalpy, the equation used is:

𝑻
𝑯𝒋 = 𝑯𝒇,𝒋 + ∫ 𝑪𝒑 𝒅𝑻 (2.16)
𝑻𝒓𝒆𝒇

Where,
𝑯𝒋 = specific enthalpy of component j (kJ/mol)
𝑯𝒇,𝒋 = specific heat formation of the component j (kJ/mol)
𝑪𝒑 = specific heat capacity at constant pressure for component j (kJ/mol)
T = Temperature of the stream
𝑻𝒓𝒆𝒇 = Reference temperature, 298.15 K

Heat capacity of inorganic and organic liquids (Don & Marylee, 2019) is stated as below:

𝑪𝒑𝑳 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑻 + 𝑪𝟑 𝑻𝟐 + 𝑪𝟒 𝑻𝟑 + 𝑪𝟓 𝑻𝟒 (2.17)

Heat capacities of inorganic and organic compound in the ideal gas state (Don & Marylee,
2019) is stated as below:

𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟓 (2.18)
∫ 𝑪𝒑 𝒅𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑻 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 ( ) − 𝑪𝟒 𝑪𝟓 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉 ( )
𝑻 𝑻

In this process, the ΔH was defined as the desired change of enthalpy from the standard
state. Heat energy can be produced in 3 forms, i.e., heat of formation, heat of vaporisation for
the component and heat of reactions. In the manual calculation of the energy balance, the heat
of vaporization is considered and determined using the value of the constants in the Perry
Chemical Engineers Handbook (Don & Marylee, 2019). The heat of vaporization is determined
from the equation below:

129
 𝟐
∆𝑯𝒗 = 𝑪𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝑻𝒓 )(𝑪𝟐 +𝑪𝟑 𝑻𝒓+𝑪𝟒 𝑻𝒓 ) (2.19)

𝑻𝒓 = 𝑻/𝑻𝒄 (2.20)

Where,
T = saturation temperature, K
𝑻𝒄 = critical temperature for the component

Vapor pressure of inorganic and organic compound (Don & Marylee, 2019), is stated below:

𝑪𝟐
𝐥𝐧 𝑷 = 𝑪𝟏 + + 𝑪𝟑 𝒍𝒏𝑻 + 𝑪𝟒 𝑻𝑪𝟓 (2.21)
𝑻

For the production of Ammonia from Methane gas, the energy used for each unit
operations are shown in this chapter. Heat Duty is calculated using the information of the
change in enthalpy:

Heat Duty = Enthalpy of outlet stream(s) - Enthalpy of inlet stream(s) (2.22)

130
2.7.2.1 Reciprocating Compressor (C-101)

Figure 2.42 below shows the symbol of a reciprocating compressor (C-101) in the
process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of C-101 is tabulated as shown
in table 2.54.

Figure 2.42 Symbol of C-101 at PDF

Table 2.54 Energy Balance for C-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S101 S102
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 5 12.247
Temperature (℃) 25 97.343
Temperature (K) 298 370.343
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 1.04E+08 -1.00E+08
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -1.04E+08 -1.00E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 3.75E+06

131
2.7.2.2 Intercooler Heat Exchanger (E-101)

Figure 2.43 below shows the symbol of a compressor stage intercooler (E-101) in the
process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of E-101 is tabulated as shown
in Table 2.55.

Figure 2.43 Symbol of E-101 in PFD

Table 2.55 Energy Balance of E-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S102 S103
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 12.2474 12.247
Temperature (℃) 97.343 25
Temperature (K) 370.493 298.150
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 -1.00E+08 -1.04E+08
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -1.00E+08 -1.04E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -3.74E+06

132
2.7.2.3 Reciprocating Compressor (C-102)

Figure 2.44 below shows the symbol of a reciprocating compressor (C-102) in the
process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of C-102 is tabulated as shown
in Table 2.56.

Figure 2.44 Symbol of C-102 in PFD

Table 2.56 Energy balance for C-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S103 S104
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 12.247 30
Temperature (℃) 25 97.344
Temperature (K) 298.15 370.494
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 -1.04E+08 -1.00E+08
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -1.04E+08 -1.00E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 3.75E+06

133
2.7.2.4 Furnace (H-101)

Figure 2.45 below shows the symbol of a furnace (H-101) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the energy balance of H-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.57.

Figure 2.45 Symbol of H-101 in PFD

Table 2.57 Energy Balance for H-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S104 S105
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃) 97.344 700
Temperature (K) 370.494 973.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 -1.00E+08 -5.33E+07
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -1.00E+08 -5.33E+07

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 4.71E+07

134
2.7.2.5 Centrifugal Pump (P-101)

Figure 2.46 below shows the symbol of a centrifugal pump (P-101) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of P-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.58.

Figure 2.46 Symbol of P-101 in PFD

Table 2.58 Energy Balance for P-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream S106 S107
Phase liquid liquid
Pressure (atm) 1 30
Temperature (℃) 25 25
Temperature (K) 298.15 298.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O -9.94E+08 -9.94E+08
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -9.94E+08 -9.94E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 0

135
2.7.2.6 Furnace (H-102)

Figure 2.47 below shows the symbol of a furnace (H-102) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the energy balance of H-102 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.59.

Figure 2.47 Symbol of H-102 in PFD

Table 2.59 Energy Balance for H-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream S107 S108
Phase liquid vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃) 25 700
Temperature (K) 298.15 973.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O -9.94E+08 -7.55E+08
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -9.94E+08 -7.55E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 2.40E+08

136
2.7.2.7 Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101)

Figure 2.48 below shows the symbol of a tubular steam reactor (R-101) in the process
flow diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of R-101 is tabulated as shown in Table
2.60.

Figure 2.48 Symbol of R-101 in PFD

Table 2.60 Energy Balance for R-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S105 S108 S109
Phase vapor vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30
Temperature (℃) 700 700 700
Temperature (K) 973.15 973.15 973.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00 8.08E+07
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00 0.000
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00 -1.23E+08
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.000 -7.55E+08 -4.60E+08
Methane, CH4 -5.33E+07 0.00 -1.33E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total -5.33E+07 -7.55E+08 -5.04E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 3.04E+08

137
2.7.2.8 Expander (T-101)

Figure 2.49 below shows the symbol of an expander (T-101) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of T-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.61.

Figure 2.49 Symbol of T-101 in PFD

Table 2.61 Energy Balance for T-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream S109 S110
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 6
Temperature (℃) 700 398.092
Temperature (K) 973.15 671.242
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 8.08E+07 4.44E+07
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -1.23E+08 -1.35E+08
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O -4.60E+08 -4.85E+08
Methane, CH4 -1.33E+06 -2.01E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -5.04E+08 -5.78E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -7.42E+07

138
2.7.2.9 Syngas Cooler (E-102)

Figure 2.50 below shows the symbol of a syngas cooler (E-102) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of E-102 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.62.

Figure 2.50 Symbol of E-102 in PFD

Table 2.62 Energy Balance for E-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S110 S111
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 6 6
Temperature (℃) 398.092 280
Temperature (K) 671.242 553.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 4.44E+07 3.03E+07
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 1.35E+08 1.40E+08
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 4.85E+08 4.95E+08
Methane, CH4 2.01E+06 2.23E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -5.78E+08 -6.06E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -2.81E+07

139
2.7.2.10 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

Figure 2.51 below shows the symbol of a water gas shift reactor (R-102) in the process
flow diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of R-102 is tabulated as shown in Table
2.63.

Figure 2.51 Symbol of R-102 in PFD

Table 2.63 Energy Balance for R-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream S111 S112
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 6 6
Temperature (℃) 280 280
Temperature (K) 553.15 553.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 3.03E+07 3.96E+07
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -5.33E+08 -1.12E+07
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 -4.78E+08
Water, H2O -4.95E+08 -2.04E+08
Methane, CH4 -2.23E+06 -2.23E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -9.99E+08 -6.55E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 3.44E+08

140
2.7.2.11 Condenser (E-103)

Figure 2.52 below shows the symbol of a condenser (E-103) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of E-103 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.64.

Figure 2.52 Symbol of E-103 in PFD

Table 2.64 Energy Balance for E-103

Inlet Outlet
Stream S112 S113
Phase vapor mix
Pressure (atm) 6 6
Temperature (℃) 280 40
Temperature (K) 553.15 313.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 3.96E+07 2.30E+06
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -1.12E+07 -1.19E+07
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -4.78E+08 -4.90E+08
Water, H2O -2.04E+08 -2.46E+08
Methane, CH4 -2.23E+06 -2.59E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -6.55E+08 -7.49E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -9.39E+07

141
2.7.2.12 Flash Column (F-101)

Figure 2.53 below shows the symbol of a flash column (F-101) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of F-101 is tabulated as shown in Table
2.65.

Figure 2.53 Symbol of F-101 in PFD

Table 2.65 Energy Balance for F-101

Inlet Distillate Bottom

Stream S113 S114 S115
Phase mix vapor liquid
Pressure (atm) 6 6 6
Temperature (℃) 40 40 40
Temperature (K) 313.15 313.15 313.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 2.30E+06 2.30E+06 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -1.19E+07 -1.19E+07 -3.96E+00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -4.90E+08 -4.90E+08 -4.48E+04
Water, H2O -2.46E+08 -2.11E+07 -2.22E+08
Methane, CH4 -2.59E+06 -2.59E+06 -2.47E+01
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total -7.49E+08 -5.24E+08 -2.22E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 3.55E+06

142
2.7.2.13 Absorption Column (A-101)

Figure 2.54 below shows the symbol of an absorption column (A-101) in the process
flow diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of A-101 is tabulated as shown in Table
2.66.

Figure 2.54 Symbol of A-101 in PFD

Table 2.66 Energy Balance for A-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S114 S116 S122 S117
Phase vapor liquid vapor liquid
Pressure (atm) 6 6 6 6
Temperature (℃) 40 40 40 40
Temperature (K) 313.15 313.15 313.15 313.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 2.30E+06 0.00 2.30E+06 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide,
-1.19E+07 0.00 -1.19E+07 -6.19E+04
CO
Carbon Dioxide,
-4.90E+08 0.00 -8.97E+06 -4.81E+08
CO2
Water, H2O -2.11E+07 0.00 0.00 -2.46E+07
Methane, CH4 -2.59E+06 0.00 -2.20E+06 -3.86E+05
Diethanolamine,
0.00 -7.03E+10 0.00 -7.03E+10
C4H11NO2
Total -5.24E+08 -7.03E+10 -2.08E+07 -7.08E+10

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -3.55E+06

143
2.7.2.14 Throttling Valve (V-101)

Figure 2.55 below shows the symbol of a throttling valve (V-101) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of V-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.67.

Figure 2.55 Symbol of V-101 in PFD

Table 2.67 Energy Balance for V-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S117 S118
Phase liquid liquid
Pressure (atm) 6 4
Temperature (℃) 40 40
Temperature (K) 313.15 313.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -6.19E+04 -6.19E+04
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -4.81E+08 -4.81E+08
Water, H2O -2.46E+07 -2.46E+07
Methane, CH4 -3.86E+05 -3.86E+05
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 -7.03E+10 -7.03E+10
Total -7.08E+10 -7.08E+10

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 0

144
2.7.2.15 Heater (E-104)

Figure 2.56 below shows the symbol of a heater (E-104) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the energy balance of E-104 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.68.

Figure 2.56 Symbol of E-104 in PFD

Table 2.68 Energy Balance for E-104

Inlet Outlet
Stream S118 S119
Phase liquid mix
Pressure (atm) 4 4
Temperature (℃) 40 300
Temperature (K) 313.15 573.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -6.19E+04 -5.76E+04
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -4.81E+08 -4.68E+08
Water, H2O -2.46E+07 -2.03E+07
Methane, CH4 -3.86E+05 -3.27E+05
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 -7.03E+10 -5.29E+10
Total -7.08E+10 -5.34E+10

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 1.75E+10

145
2.7.2.16 Flash Column (F-102)

Figure 2.57 below shows the symbol of a flash column (F-102) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of F-102 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.69.

Figure 2.57 Symbol of F-102 in PFD

Table 2.69 Energy Balance for F-102

Inlet Distillate Bottom
Stream
S119 S120 S121
Phase mix vapor liquid
Pressure (atm) 4 4 4
Temperature (℃) 300 300 300
Temperature (K) 573.15 573.15 573.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00 0.00

Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00

Carbon Monoxide, CO -5.76E+04 -5.76E+04 0.00

Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -4.68E+08 -4.68E+08 -9.83E-01
Water, H2O -2.03E+07 -2.03E+07 -4.65E+03
Methane, CH4 -3.27E+05 -3.27E+05 -6.38E-03
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 -5.29E+10 -4.23E+08 -5.25E+10
Total -5.34E+10 -9.12E+08 -5.25E+10

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -3.65E+02

146
2.7.2.17 Compressor (C-103)

Figure 2.58 below shows the symbol of a compressor (C-103) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of C-103 is tabulated as shown in Table
2.70.

Figure 2.58 Symbol of C-101 in PFD

Table 2.70 Energy Balance for C-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S122 S123
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 6 13.416
Temperature (℃) 40 122.555
Temperature (K) 313.15 395.705
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 2.30E+06 1.98E+07
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -1.19E+07 -1.16E+07
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -8.97E+06 -9.34E+06
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 -2.20E+06 -2.11E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -2.08E+07 -3.25E+06

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 1.75E+07

147
2.7.2.18 Intercooler (E-105)

Figure 2.59 below shows the symbol of an intercooler (E-105) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of F-102 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.71.

Figure 2.59 Symbol of E-105 in PFD

Table 2.71 Energy Balance for E-105

Inlet Outlet
Stream S123 S124
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 13.416 13.416
Temperature (℃) 122.555 40
Temperature (K) 395.705 313.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 1.98E+07 2.30E+06
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -1.16E+07 -1.19E+07
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -9.34E+06 -8.97E+06
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 -2.11E+06 -2.20E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -3.25E+06 -2.08E+07

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -1.75E+07

148
2.7.2.19 Compressor (C-104)

Figure 2.60 below shows the symbol of a compressor (C-104) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of C-104 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.72.

Figure 2.60 Symbol of C-104 in PFD

Table 2.72 Energy Balance for C-104

Inlet Outlet
Stream S124 S125
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 13.416 30
Temperature (℃) 40 122.562
Temperature (K) 313.15 395.712
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 2.30E+06 1.98E+07
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -1.19E+07 -1.16E+07
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -8.97E+06 -9.34E+06
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 -2.20E+06 -2.11E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -2.08E+07 -3.25E+06

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 1.75E+07

149
2.7.2.20 Heater (E-106)

Figure 2.61 below shows the symbol of a heater (E-106) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the energy balance of E-106 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.73.

Figure 2.61 Symbol of E-106 in PFD

Table 2.73 Energy Balance for E-106

Inlet Outlet
Stream S125 S126
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃) 122.562 400
Temperature (K) 395.712 673.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 1.98E+07 5.83+07
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO -1.16E+07 -1.08E+07
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -9.34E+06 -8.61E+06
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 -2.11E+06 -1.71E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -3.25E+06 3.72E+07

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 4.05E+07

150
2.7.2.21 Membrane Separator (D-101)

Figure 2.62 below shows the symbol of a membrane separator (D-101) in the process
flow diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of D-101 is tabulated as shown in table
2.74.

Figure 2.62 Symbol of D-101 in PFD

Table 2.74 Energy Balance for D-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream S126 S128 S127
Phase mix vapor liquid
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30
Temperature (℃) 400 400 400
Temperature (K) 673.15 673.15 673.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 -1.08E+10 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 -8.61E+09 5.25E+07 5.83E+06
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 5.83E+10 0.00 -1.08E+07
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 -1.71E+09 0.00 -8.61E+06
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 -1.08E+10 0.00 -2.20E+06
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 -8.61E+09 0.00 0.00
Total 3.72E+07 5.25E+07 -1.57E+07

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -4.92E+05

151
2.7.2.22 Reciprocating Compressor (C-105)

Figure 2.63 below shows the symbol of a reciprocating compressor (C-105) in the
process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of C-105 is tabulated as shown
in Table 2.75.

Figure 2.63 Symbol of C-105 in PFD

Table 2.75 Energy Balance for C-105

Inlet Outlet
Stream S129 S130
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 5 12.247
Temperature (℃) 25 113.725
Temperature (K) 298.15 386.875
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 4.13E+06
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total 0.00 4.13E+06

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 4.13E+06

152
2.7.2.23 Intercooler (E-107)

Figure 2.64 below shows the symbol of an intercooler (E-105) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of E-105 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.76.

Figure 2.64 Symbol of E-107 in PFD

Table 2.76 Energy Balance for E-107

Inlet Outlet
Stream S130 S131
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 12.247 12.247
Temperature (℃) 113.725 25
Temperature (K) 386.875 298.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 4.13E+06 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total 4.13E+06 0.00

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -4.13E+06

153
2.7.2.24 Reciprocating Compressor (C-106)

Figure 2.65 below shows the symbol of a reciprocating compressor (C-106) in the
process flow diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of C-106 is tabulated as shown
in Table 2.77.

Figure 2.65 Symbol of C-106 in PFD

Table 2.77 Energy Balance for C-106

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S131 S132
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 12.247 30
Temperature (℃) 25 113.725
Temperature (K) 298.15 386.878
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 4.13E+06
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total 0.00 4.13E+06

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 4.13E+06

154
2.7.2.25 Heater (E-108)

Figure 2.66 below shows the symbol of a heater (E-106) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the energy balance of E-106 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.78.

Figure 2.66 Symbol of E-108 in PFD

Table 2.78 Energy Balance for E-108

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S132 S133
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃) 113.725 400
Temperature (K) 386.875 673.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 4.13E+06 1.77E+07
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total 4.13E+06 1.77E+07

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 1.36E+07

155
2.7.2.26 Mixer (M-101)

Figure 2.67 below shows the symbol of a mixer (M-101) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the energy balance of M-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.79.

Figure 2.67 Symbol of M-101 in PFD

Table 2.79 Energy Balance for M-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream S128 S133 S141 S134
Phase vapor vapor vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30 30
Temperature (℃) 400 400 400 400
Temperature (K) 673.15 673.15 673.15 673.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 0.00 1.77E+07 3.58E+05 1.81E+07
Hydrogen, H2 5.25E+07 0.00 1.06E+06 5.35E+07
Ammonia, NH3 0.00 0.00 -1.07E+07 -1.07E+07
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 5.25E+07 1.77E+07 -9.30E+06 6.09E+07

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 0

156
2.7.2.27 Ammonia Synthesis Fix Bed Reactor (R-103)

Figure 2.68 below shows the symbol of a fixed bed reactor (R-103) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of R-103 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.80.

Figure 2.68 Symbol of R-103 in PFD

Table 2.80 Energy Balance for R-103

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S134 S135
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃) 400 400
Temperature (K) 673.15 673.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 1.81E+07 3.62E+05
Hydrogen, H2 5.35E+07 1.07E+06
Ammonia, NH3 -1.07E+07 -1.08E+08
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total 6.09E+07 -1.07E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -1.68E+08

157
2.7.2.28 Condenser (E-109)

Figure 2.69 below shows the symbol of a condenser (E-109) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of R-103 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.81.

Figure 2.69 Symbol of E-109 in PFD

Table 2.81 Energy Balance for E-109

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S135 S136
Phase vapor mixed
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃) 400 50
Temperature (K) 673.15 323.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 3.62E+05 2.37E+04
Hydrogen, H2 1.07E+06 7.05E+04
Ammonia, NH3 -1.08E+08 -2.43E+08
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -1.07E+08 -2.43E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -1.36E+08

158
2.7.2.29 Flash Column (F-103)

Figure 2.70 below shows the symbol of a flash column (F-103) in the process flow
diagram (PFD). The result of the energy balance of R-103 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.82.

Figure 2.70 Symbol of F-103 in PFD

Table 2.82 Energy Balance for F-103

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S136 S138 S137
Phase mix vapor liquid
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30
Temperature (℃) 50 50 50
Temperature (K) 323.15 323.15 323.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 2.37E+04 2.37E+04 3.50E+00
Hydrogen, H2 7.05E+04 7.05E+04 0.00
Ammonia, NH3 -2.43E+08 -1.60E+07 -2.19E+08
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total -2.43E+08 -1.59E+07 -2.19E+08

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 8.27E+06

159
2.7.2.30 Splitter (S-101)

Figure 2.71 below shows the symbol of a splitter (S-101) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the energy balance of S-101 is tabulated as shown in Table 2.83.

Figure 2.71 Symbol of S-101 at PFD

Table 2.83 Energy Balance for S-101

Inlet Purge Outlet

Stream
S138 S139 S140
Phase mix vapor Vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30
Temperature (℃) 50 50 50
Temperature (K) 323.15 323.15 323.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 2.37E+04 2.37E+02 2.35E+04
Hydrogen, H2 7.05E+04 7.05E+02 6.98E+04
Ammonia, NH3 -1.60E+07 -1.60E+05 -1.59E+07
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total -1.59E+07 -1.59E+05 -1.58E+07

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) 0

160
2.7.2.31 Heater (E-110)

Figure 2.72 below shows the symbol of a heater (E-110) in the process flow diagram
(PFD). The result of the energy balance of E-110 is tabulated as shown in table 2.83.

Figure 2.72 Symbol of E-110 at PFD

Table 2.84 Energy Balance for E-110

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S140 S141
Phase vapor vapor
Pressure (atm) 30 30
Temperature (℃) 50 400
Temperature (K) 323.15 673.15
Components Enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Nitrogen, N2 2.37E+02 3.58E+05
Hydrogen, H2 7.05E+02 1.06E+06
Ammonia, NH3 -1.60E+05 -1.07E+07
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Diethanolamine, C4H11NO2 0.00 0.00
Total -1.59E+05 -9.30E+06

Change of enthalpy (kJ/hr) -9.15E+06

161
2.7.3 Aspen Plus Simulation

To justify the result of the mass and energy balance obtained from manual calculation,
a simulation of the whole process is carried out and modelled by using Aspen Plus V10. In
“Properties”, it comprises three segments which are “Setup”, “Components” and “Methods”.
At the ‘Component’ segment, all the wanted chemical components, including all the reactants
and products involved in the simulation of the ammonia process from methane gas were
inserted as shown in Table 2.85.

Table 2.85 List of components used in Aspen Plus V10

Component ID Component Name

𝐶𝐻4 Methane
𝐻2 𝑂 Water (𝐻2 𝑂)
𝐶𝑂 Carbon Monoxide (𝐶𝑂)
𝐻2 Hydrogen (𝐻2 )
𝐶𝑂2 Carbon Dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 )
𝑁2 Nitrogen (𝑁2 )
DEA Diethanolamine (DEA)
𝑁𝐻3 Ammonia (𝑁𝐻3 )

After entering all the components, an appropriate property method needs to be selected.
RKS-BM (Redlich-Kwong-Soave (RKS) cubic equation of state with Boston- Mathias alpha
function for all thermodynamic properties) was selected as this method is suitable for nonpolar
or mildly polar mixtures such as hydrogen. Moreover, a reasonable result can be expected from
this RKS-BM method at all temperature and pressure. After “Properties” are run, the streams
and the block are inserted to construct a simulation flowsheet.

Listed on Table 2.86 shown the types of components along with their code that has been
used for this process simulation. The component RSTOIC was chosen to represent the model
behaviour of the stoichiometric reactor which in this case is tubular steam reactor (R-101),

162
water gas shift reactor (R-102) and packed bed reactor (R-103) with specified stoichiometry,
chemical reaction and conversion. Furthermore, FLASH2 component is chosen to represent the
flash separator F-101, F-102 and F-103 for the separation of vapour-liquid in equilibrium.
Moreover, absorber (A-101) and Membrane Separator (D-101) is represented by the
component Sep.

Compressor and Expander was modelled by the component Compr. Meanwhile,

furnace and heat exchanger were modelled by the component heater. Then splitter is
represented by FSplit while the code for pump, mixer and valve represented by their normal
name.

Table 2.86 Unit and Auxiliary Operation used in Aspen Plus V10

Components Icon Code Unit and Auxiliary Operations

Centrifugal Compressor (C-101)

Centrifugal Compressor (C-102)
Centrifugal Compressor (C-103)
Compr Centrifugal Compressor (C-104)
Centrifugal Compressor (C-105)
Centrifugal Compressor (C-106)

Intercooler (E-101)
Cooler (E-102)
Condenser (E-103)
Heater (E-104)
Heater Intercooler (E-105)
Heater (E-106)
Heater (E-107)
Heater (E-108)
Condenser (E-109)
Heater (E-110)

163
Components Icon Code Unit and Auxiliary Operations

Tubular steam reactor (R-101)

RSTOIC Water gas shift reactor (R-102)
Packed bed reactor (R-103)

Furnace (H-101)
Heater Furnace (H-102)

Pump Pump (P-101)

Compr Expander (T-101)

Flash column (F-101)

Flash2 Flash column (F-102)
Flash column (F-103)

164
Components Icon Code Unit and Auxiliary Operations

Absorber (A-101)
Sep Membrane separator (D-101)

Valve Valve (V-101)

Mixer Mixer (M-101)

FSplit Splitter (S-101)

165
 Figure2.73showntheflowsheetthatissimulatedusingAspenPlusV10.ThemassandenergybalanceresultobtainedfromAspenPlusV10iscomparedtothemanualcalculationtoidentifythepercentage
ofdeviation.FromtheAspenPlusV10, thesimulationiscarriedoutstartingfromS1toS41asshowninTable2.87andTable2.88.

Figure2.73 FlowsheetofAspenPlusV10

166
 Table2.87 Stream1–20tableinAspenPlusV10
Stream ID Units 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
From C-101 E-101 C-102 H-101 P-101 H-102 R-101 T-101 E-102 R-102 E-103 F-101 F-101 A-101 V-101 E-104 F-102
To C-101 E-101 C-102 H-101 R-101 P-101 H-102 R-101 T-101 E-102 R-102 E-103 F-101 A-101 A-101 V-101 E-104 F-102
Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Liquid Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Vapor
Phase
Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase
Temperature C 25.00 116.13 25.00 116.61 700.00 25.00 25.54 700.00 700.00 466.76 280.00 280.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.09 300.00 300.00
Pressure atm 5.00 12.25 12.25 30.00 30.00 1.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 4.00 4.00 4.00
Molar Vapor 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0.89 1 0 0 0 0 0.015 1
Fraction
Molar -7.46E+07 -7.12E+07 -7.47E+07 -7.14E+07 -3.79E+07 -2.89E+08 -2.89E+08 -2.17E+08 -6.62E+07 -7.40E+07 -7.99E+07 -8.64E+07 -9.90E+07 -7.66E+07 -2.88E+08 -5.01E+08 -5.00E+08 -5.00E+08 -4.19E+08 -3.66E+08
J/kmol
Enthalpy
Enthalpy Flow kJ/hr -1.04E+08 -9.91E+07 -1.04E+08 -9.93E+07 -5.28E+07 -1.00E+09 -1.00E+09 -7.56E+08 -5.02E+08 -5.61E+08 -6.06E+08 -6.55E+08 -7.51E+08 -5.19E+08 -2.32E+08 -7.17E+10 -7.22E+10 -7.22E+10 -6.06E+10 -7.68E+08
Mole Flows kmol/hr 1.39E+03 1.39E+03 1.39E+03 1.39E+03 1.39E+03 3.48E+03 3.48E+03 3.48E+03 7.58E+03 7.58E+03 7.58E+03 7.58E+03 7.58E+03 6.78E+03 8.08E+02 1.43E+05 1.45E+05 1.45E+05 1.45E+05 2.10E+03
Mass Flows kg/hr 2.23E+04 2.23E+04 2.23E+04 2.23E+04 2.23E+04 6.27E+04 6.27E+04 6.27E+04 8.50E+04 8.50E+04 8.50E+04 8.50E+04 8.50E+04 7.05E+04 1.45E+04 1.51E+07 1.51E+07 1.51E+07 1.51E+07 1.70E+05
N2 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8205.47 8205.47 8205.47 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NH3 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 38004.67 38004.67 38004.67 3040.37 3040.37 3040.37 0.00 0.00 30.40 30.40 30.40 26.14
CO2 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 54935.73 54935.73 54934.73 1.00 0.00 53836.04 53836.04 53836.04 35369.99
H2O kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 38231.73 38231.73 38231.73 15743.95 15743.95 1195.85 14548.10 0.00 1195.85 1195.85 1195.85 241.64
CH4 kg/hr 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.13 0.00 0.00 83.72 83.72 83.72 64.93
DEA kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.51E+07 1.51E+07 1.51E+07 1.51E+07 1.34E+05
Volume Flow l/min 1.13E+05 6.03E+04 4.54E+04 2.45E+04 6.24E+04 1.38E+03 1.38E+03 1.53E+05 3.39E+05 1.28E+06 9.57E+05 9.58E+05 4.85E+05 4.84E+05 3.24E+02 3.18E+05 3.19E+05 3.19E+05 7.87E+05 3.95E+05

167
 Table2.88 Stream21–41tableinAspenPlusV10
Stream ID Units 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
From F-102 A-101 C-103 E-105 C-104 E-106 D-101 D-101 C-105 E-107 C-106 E-108 M-101 R-103 E-109 F-103 F-103 S-101 S-101 E-110
To C-103 E-105 C-104 E-106 D-101 M-101 C-105 E-107 C-106 E-108 M-101 R-103 E-109 F-103 S-101 E-110 M-101
Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor
Phase
Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase
Temperature C 300.00 40.00 152.15 40.00 152.32 400.00 400.00 400.00 25.00 145.25 25.00 145.03 400.00 399.56 400.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 400.00
Pressure atm 4.00 6.00 13.42 13.42 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 5.00 12.25 12.25 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00
Molar Vapor
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.13 0 1 1 1 1
Fraction
Molar
J/kmol -4.20E+08 -3.92E+06 -6.34E+05 -3.92E+06 -6.07E+05 6.72E+06 -2.29E+07 1.10E+07 -3.01E+04 3.50E+06 -7.28E+04 3.47E+06 1.12E+07 9.04E+06 -2.91E+07 -6.08E+07 -6.48E+07 -3.31E+07 -3.31E+07 -3.31E+07 -1.89E+07
Enthalpy
Enthalpy Flow kJ/hr -5.98E+10 -2.15E+07 -3.48E+06 -2.15E+07 -3.32E+06 3.68E+07 -1.59E+07 5.27E+07 -4.80E+04 5.58E+06 -1.16E+05 5.54E+06 1.78E+07 6.19E+07 -1.06E+08 -2.22E+08 -2.07E+08 -1.53E+07 -1.53E+05 -1.52E+07 -8.67E+06
Mole Flows kmol/hr 1.42E+05 5.48E+03 5.48E+03 5.48E+03 5.48E+03 5.48E+03 6.94E+02 4.79E+03 1.60E+03 1.60E+03 1.60E+03 1.60E+03 1.60E+03 6.84E+03 3.65E+03 3.65E+03 3.19E+03 4.64E+02 4.64E+00 4.59E+02 4.59E+02
Mass Flows kg/hr 1.49E+07 1.53E+04 1.53E+04 1.53E+04 1.53E+04 1.53E+04 5.66E+03 9.65E+03 4.47E+04 4.47E+04 4.47E+04 4.47E+04 4.47E+04 6.10E+04 6.10E+04 6.10E+04 5.43E+04 6.76E+03 6.76E+01 6.69E+03 6.69E+03
N2 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 45566.96 911.34 911.34 33.91 877.43 8.77 868.66 868.66
H2 kg/hr 0.00 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 1072.18 9649.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9847.53 207.13 207.13 7.22 199.91 2.00 197.92 197.90
NH3 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5624.07 59920.10 59920.10 54239.30 5680.80 56.81 5623.99 5624.07
CO kg/hr 4.26 3009.97 3009.97 3009.97 3009.97 3009.97 3009.97 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO2 kg/hr 18466.05 1098.69 1098.69 1098.69 1098.69 1098.69 1098.69 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2O kg/hr 954.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CH4 kg/hr 18.79 474.41 474.41 474.41 474.41 474.41 474.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
DEA kg/hr 1.49E+07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Volume Flow l/min 3.92E+05 3.93E+05 2.39E+05 1.76E+05 1.08E+05 1.70E+05 2.15E+04 1.48E+05 1.30E+05 7.50E+04 5.32E+04 3.09E+04 4.96E+04 2.12E+05 1.11E+05 8.19E+03 2.07E+03 6.13E+03 6.13E+01 6.07E+03 1.41E+04

168
2.7.3.1 Comparison of Manual Calculation and Simulation

The stimulation as shown in Figure 2.73 is successfully converged and reached

equilibrium. Simulated values are compared with the manually calculated values to
justify the assumptions made. The results from the simulator are used as the basis to
determine the validity of the manual calculation.

Therefore, the percentage of deviation between manual calculation and

simulation is calculated based on Equation 2.11 for both mass balance and energy
balance. For both mass and energy balances, the value of percentage error should be
less than 20%. Table 2.89 shows the comparison between the simulated and manual
calculated value for mass balance, and its percentage error, whereas Table 2.89 shows
the comparison between the simulated and manual calculated value for energy balance
and its percentage error.

𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐌𝐚𝐧𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 − 𝐒𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
=| × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%|
𝐒𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (2.11)

2.7.3.2 Mass Balance Comparison

This section addresses the comparison between manual calculation and

stimulation of the mass balance. The following Table 2.89 shows all the mass flow
rate (kg/hr) of all streams in Aspen Plus and manual calculation as well as the
percentage deviation.

169
Table 2.89 Comparison of mass balance between manual calculation and Aspen
Plus

Stream ID Manual (kg/hr) Simulation (kg/hr) Percentage error (%)

S101 22325.03549 22325.03549 0.00

S102 22325.04 22325.04 0.00
S103 22325.03549 22325.03549 0.00
S104 22325.03549 22325.03549 0.00
S105 22325.03549 22325.03549 0.00
S106 62674.96451 62674.96451 0.00
S107 62674.96451 62674.96451 0.00
S108 62674.96451 62674.96451 0.00
S109 85000.00000 85000.00000 0.00
S110 85000.00000 85000.00000 0.00
S111 85000.00000 85000.00000 0.00
S112 85000.00000 85000.00000 0.00
S113 85000.00000 85000.00000 0.00
S114 70825.42214 70450.89287 0.53
S115 14174.57786 14549.10713 2.57
S116 15057041.74 15057041.59 0.00
S117 15112640.81 15112187.6 0.00
S118 15112640.81 15112187.6 0.00
S119 15112640.81 15112187.6 0.00
S120 176055.0734 169697.5142 3.75
S121 14936585.74 14942490.08 0.04
S122 15226.35004 15304.88819 0.51
S123 15226.35004 15304.88819 0.51
S124 15226.35004 15304.88819 0.51
S125 15226.35004 15304.88819 0.51
S126 15226.35004 15304.88819 0.51
S127 5576.713849 5655.25293 1.39
S128 9649.636188 9649.635259 0.00
S129 44698.30869 44698.30869 0.00

170
 Stream ID Manual (kg/hr) Simulation (kg/hr) Percentage error (%)

S130 44698.30869 44698.30869 0.00

S131 44698.30869 44698.30869 0.00
S132 44698.30869 44698.30869 0.00
S133 44698.30869 44698.30869 0.00
S134 61416.18218 61038.56811 0.62
S135 61416.18218 61038.56811 0.62
S136 61416.18218 61038.56811 0.62
S137 54276.43684 54280.42432 0.01
S138 7139.745344 6758.143788 5.65
S139 71.39745344 67.58143788 5.65
S140 7068.34789 6690.56235 5.65
S141 7068.34789 6690.624161 5.65

According to Table 2.89, it can be seen that all of the streams have a
percentage error of less than 20 %, which indicated that the manual calculation is
accurate. However, there are four streams with a percentage error of 5.65% which
are from stream S138 and Stream S141. This is because the splitting value used in
the manual calculation and Aspen may vary. In manual calculation, the splitting ratio
is assumed as at 1% is been purged out with the 99% have been recovered and
recycled in the processing unit. However, in the Aspen assumption, this assumption
might deviate where it brings a little amount of deviation to our manual calculation.

2.7.3.3 Energy Balance Comparison

This section would address the comparison between manual calculation and
simulation of the energy balance. The following Table 2.90 shows all the enthalpy
flow rate (kJ/hr) of all streams in Aspen Plus and manual calculation as well as the
percentage deviation.

171
 Table 2.90 Comparison of energy balance between manual calculation
and Aspen Plus

Stream ID Enthalphy (kJ/hr) Simulation (kJ/hr) Percentage error (%)

S101 -104168383.5 -103822292.1 0.33

S102 -100418957.56 -99090494.59 1.34
S103 -104160936.6 -103997914.5 0.16
S104 -100410776.3 -99304763.19 1.11
S105 -53341679.36 -52803856.82 1.02
S106 -994469062 -1004946307 1.04
S107 -994469062.04 -1004589678.27 1.01
S108 -754714333.4 -756053565.6 0.18
S109 -504032406.6 -502442547.1 0.32
S110 -578201436.3 -561117755.2 3.04
S111 -606331345.3 -606318762.2 0.00
S112 -655227422.7 -655251210.1 0.00
S113 -749106534.2 -751065112.6 0.26
S114 -523766323.9 -518846409.5 0.95
S115 -221791667.5 -232218703 4.49
S116 -70318618408 -71704348617 1.93
S117 -70825172755 -72219424451 1.93
S118 -70825172755 -72219424451 1.93
S119 -53368185649 -60606963623 11.94
S120 -911547771.5 -767568156.9 18.76
S121 -52456638243 -59839395466 12.34
S122 -20760519.27 -21502107.05 3.45
S123 -3249678.475 -3476667.511 6.53
S124 -20760519.27 -21468678.34 3.30
S125 -3248555.113 -3324742.88 2.29
S126 37229010.99 36805385.59 1.15
S127 -15734579.23 -15917618.57 1.15
S128 52471185.3 52721908.77 0.48

172
 Stream ID Enthalphy (kJ/hr) Simulation (kJ/hr) Percentage error (%)

S129 0 -48018.63437 100.00

S130 4128946.705 5578597.739 25.99
S131 0 -116214.4957 100.00
S132 4128946.705 5539268.854 25.46
S133 17732631.62 17829919.27 0.55
S134 60898917.18 61882760.23 1.59
S135 -106891865.9 -106410379 0.45
S136 -242955613.4 -222055464.2 9.41
S137 -218744877.5 -206708707.1 5.82
S138 -15944147.16 -15346757.11 3.89
S139 -159441.4716 -153467.5711 3.89
S140 -15784705.69 -15193289.54 3.89
S141 -9304751.82 -8669067.81 7.33

According to Table 2.90, it can be seen that most of the streams have a
percentage error less than 20 %, which indicated that the manual calculation is
basically accurate. However, there are four streams with percentage error greater than
20 % which are stream S129 till stream S132. In stream S129 and S131, the deviation
is 100% while at stream S130 and S132, the deviation is about 25.99 and 25.46
respectively. This stream is known as the multistage compression of nitrogen to
increase the pressure of nitrogen gas.

The deviation in S129 and S132 is 100% due to the reference temperature used
in Aspen software might be different from the references temperature used in the
manual calculations. In our manual calculation, the reference temperature is at 25℃ at
1 atm which is same with our feed inlet where it leads to no enthalpy changes in the
unit.

While in S130 and S132, the deviation is 25.99% and 25.46% respectively

173
because of the method of manual calculation is different compared to the aspen
calculation. In manual calculation, there is a specific formula that we need to be
followed based on the heuristic 34 and 35 to calculate the amount of discharged
temperature from the intercooler. This amount might slightly different with the aspen
amount will cause a slight deviation in both of these streams.

174
 CHAPTER 3

Waste Management

3.1 Waste Management

Every industry especially manufacturing industry will produce waste either in

a small or huge amount. The increase of chemical manufacturer has raised the
environmental issue. In 2019, Malaysia produced 40 million ton of scheduled waste.
Sectors such as power plant, metal refinery, chemical industry and electrical and
electronic contributed 2.3 million tonnes which is equivalent to 57.1% of the total
scheduled waste (Compendium of Environment Statistic, Malaysia 2020, 2020).

The industrial waste can define as unwanted by-product or excessive material

of the manufacturing process. Waste produced in the industry can exist in different
phases either in solid, liquid or gas form. The waste released by chemical processing
plant grows harmful impacts on human being and environment as the waste contains
few harmful characteristics such as corrosive, reactive, flammable and toxic.

Waste management is the process of collecting, transporting, processing,

disposing, managing and monitoring of waste material. Treated waste can be used as
the source of the energy to the plant which able to cut the utility of the plant. However,
the main objective of waste management is to ensure the released product will bring
less harmful impact on the environment by eliminating their potential to harm living
things and the environment.

175
 Malaysia government has implemented many strict rules and regulations to
solve the negative impacts brought by waste products. The Department of the
Environment (DOE) is responsible for ensuring that the country is sustainable and that
nature is clean and safe for everyone. Thus, DOE will enforce and make sure all the
manufacturers follow the environmental rules and regulations. The waste regardless of
the form of matter, solid, liquid or gas will have to be well treated before releasing to
the environment.

Environmental Quality Act, 1974 is an act related to the prevention,

elimination, regulation of pollution and improvement of the environment and related
purposes. This act restricts on the pollution of the atmosphere. None of the individual
permits to emit any environmentally hazardous substances, pollutants and waste into
the atmosphere over the limiting standard set by the act unless licensed. Thus,
industries have to comply with the act for discharging waste to the atmosphere as there
are respective prohibition and control of pollution for each of the wastes.

3.1.1 Waste Management Practices

As no particular waste management strategy is sufficient to apply to all

products and waste streams in all situations, the waste hierarchy is a collection of
priorities for the use of resources. The management strategies are ranked from the most
to the least environmentally preferred. Waste management can be done based on the
waste management hierarchy as shown in Figure 3.1. As a concept of the hierarchy, it
reflects the approach that is widely spread in human health and medicine which is
prevention is better than cure. Most of us will admit that avoiding problems from the
start is more efficient than working out solutions when the problem arises.

176
 Figure 3.1 Waste Management Process Hierarchy

The highest priority of waste management is avoiding or also known as

reduction. This step is to reduce the amount of raw material extracted and used. The
goal is to optimize productivity and prevent excessive consumption. This can be done
by modifying and redesigning technology or process. Reuse the products that are not
waste for the same purpose that does not reduce its value. This could reduce the amount
of consumption, toxicity and ecological footprint. This could be done by reusing the
chemical storage tank whenever it is possible.

Recycling is the technique to be applied whenever reuse is not feasible in the

process. Recycling refers to the conversion of waste into a new product. Recovery is
the step that, for a high-quality application, recovers materials from mixed waste and
discards from sorting processes into new building blocks. Recovery includes
biological treatment such as anaerobic digestion, thermochemical treatment like
incineration with energy recovery, gasification and pyrolysis to produce fuels, energy,
power and material from waste.

The least favorable option is disposal which involves landfill and incineration.
Poorly manage and design landfill brings various environmental impact such as toxins,
leachate and greenhouse gases. Leachate is the liquid formed when waste breaks down
in the landfill and water through the waste. Leachate is toxic which will cause pollution
to the groundwater. Moreover, carbon dioxide and methane gas will form when
organic material is covered and compacted down and leads to global warming.

177
3.1.2 Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)

The sustainable development goals (SDG) are the blueprint which consists of
17 interlinked global goals to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all
people around the world. In 2015, the SDG was adopted by all the Member States of
the United Nations with the aim of achieving 17 objectives and 169 goals by 2030.
There are a few SDG that complies with waste management in the industry such as
goal 9, goal 12 and goal 13

Goal 9, build infrastructure, promote industrialization that is inclusive and

sustainable, and promote innovation which aims to upgrade the facilities to make them
sustainable with higher resource usage and greater implementation of environmentally
sound technology and manufacturing processes. Goal 12, ensure sustainable
consumption and production pattern which target to achieve the sustainable
management and use of natural resources efficiently and reduce waste generation
through waste management hierarchy. Goal 13, take action to tackle climate change
and its impacts. Greenhouse gases especially carbon dioxide gas is the main focus as
it is the main causes of global warming. By following the correct guidelines and good
waste treatment management, industries can comply with the goals and targets stated
in the SDGs.

3.2 Sources of Waste from Ammonia Production Plant

The waste that produced in our ammonia production plant consists of 3

different phases which are solid, liquid and gas. The source and the components of the
waste are categorized as shown in Table 3.1.

178
 Table 3.1 Source of waste in the production plant

Type of Source Waste Generate Mass Flow rate (kg/hr)

waste
Solid Tubular Steam
Ni
Reactor
Water Gas Shift
catalyst Cu-ZnO -
Reactor
Ammonia FeO
Synthesis Reactor
Liquid Flash Column Water 14169.56
Flash Column Diethanolamine 14981756.53
Gas Membrane Methane Gas 474.88
Separator
Membrane Carbon Monoxide 3024.63
Separator
Membrane Hydrogen Gas 1072.82
Separator
Flash Column Carbon Dioxide 35369.99

3.3 Solid Waste

There will be only one type of solid waste are being generated from our
ammonia production plant which is the spent catalyst from the Tubular Steam Reactor
(R-101), Water Gas-Shift Reactor (R-102) and Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103).

3.3.1 Spent Catalyst

There is three types of catalyst are involved in our plant which includes nickel-
based catalyst, Copper Zinc Oxide catalyst and Wustite catalyst. These catalysts are
usually used to increase the rate of reaction involved in the reactors that may lead to
high activity and selectivity for the production of the desired product. (Moulijia, Van
Diepen and Kapteijn, 2001). The first catalyst used is the nickel-based catalyst in the
tubular steam reactor in order to maximize the conversion of CH4. The second catalyst
used is the copper-zinc oxide catalyst in the water gas shift reactor to maximize the H2
production while the third catalyst used is the wustite catalyst in the ammonia synthesis
179
reactor to increase the efficiency of the ammonia production. However, the activity of
the catalyst is highly dependent on their lifetime where it will become deactivated once
it reaches its lifespan. Besides that, this deactivation also depends on the type and
operating condition of the process as well and may vary from a few seconds to several
years. Deactivation time is known as a time where the catalyst needs to be regenerated
or replaced with other types of the catalyst when the catalyst loses its activation energy.
In this plant, copper-zinc oxide catalyst can sustain up to 2 years while both nickel-
based catalyst and wustite catalyst can sustain up to 6 years. Once the catalyst reaches
their lifespan, these catalysts should be treated as it is considered as a hazardous
material which can harm the environment. Thus, proper waste management should be
done to prevent the undesired consequences of the spent catalyst. There, two types of
methods have been proposed in order to properly manage the spent catalyst.

3.3.1.1 Regeneration

Catalyst regeneration is known as a process where the catalytic activity of the

spent catalyst can be recovered and restored. This regeneration usually involved a
thermal treatment where they used to remove the coke formation on the catalyst which
reduces the activation and efficiency of the catalyst. The coke burning process is
known as a highly exothermic process where high inlet temperature is required for the
fast and complete regeneration of catalyst (Zhi et.al, 2014). By regeneration the usage
of new raw materials can be minimized and able to reduce the needs of the ultimate
recovery or disposal of the catalyst waste. For the regeneration of spent catalyst also,
the catalyst usually will be sent to other hired companies who are expert in the catalyst
regeneration or to the supplier of the catalyst itself. This regeneration of each catalyst
will be done based on their lifespan and duration of the catalyst used in the industry.

180
3.3.1.2 Schedule Waste

Another method of managing this spent catalyst is through the schedule waste.
This scheduled waste is known as a waste that has hazardous characteristics and can
cause environmental and public health issue. Based on the Depart of Environment,
DOE, only a certifies company by the DOE should carry out the disposing activities.
There are about 77 types of wastes are listed under the First Schedule of Environmental
Quality (Schedule Waste) Regulation 2005 and the waste management is done under
accordance with provisions of the above regulations. According to the standard
regulation prepared by the DOE and in Environmental Quality Act 1974, this spent
catalyst is considered as a schedule waste which falls under SW202 in the first
schedule which is known as a waste catalyst in SW2. This regulation is described as a
waste containing principally inorganic constituents that may contain some metals and
organic materials in the waste. Therefore, proper treatment will be done by the DOE
at the on-site treatment plant before it reaches the final disposal.

3.3.1.3 Comparison of Methods

A comparison between the proposed methods which are regeneration and

schedule waste of catalyst is done in order to select a suitable method for the solid
waste or spent catalyst treatment. Table 3.2 below summarizes the comparison
between this two the methods.

181
 Table 3.2 Comparison of Methods for Solid Waste Management

Methods of Advantages Disadvantages

Treatment

Regeneration  Able to minimize the use of  Regeneration of catalyst

raw materials could reduce the activity of
the catalyst compared to the
 Able to extend the usage of
fresh catalyst
the catalyst
 It is not economically feasible
as the process of regenerating
is expensive

Schedule Waste  Low cost  Disposal of solid waste to

landfill may lead to
 Easy to operate
environmental and health

 Waste generators could issues as it might release

instruct the licensed some harmful gases

contractors to recover or to
dispose the catalyst

Based on the comparison above, schedule waste method has been selected by
our plant for the spent catalyst disposal as it is more reliable than the regeneration
method. Scheduled waste is known as a low cost can easy to operate method with an
ability to instruct the licensed contractors from DOE to treat or to dispose the spent
catalyst produced in our plant. Besides that, the cost of building on-site treatment plant
also can be saved by using this treatment method. This is because usually a company
or a waste generator should need an on-site treatment plant if the company is treating
the waste within their premise. Furthermore, the regeneration method proposed is not
economically feasible as the process of regenerating is expensive and at the same time,
it could reduce the activity of the catalyst compared to the fresh catalyst which can
affect the efficiency and production rate of the products. The process of schedule waste
begins with the packing, labelling and storing the spent catalyst produced in on-site

182
storage based on the DOE regulations. Then, the spent catalyst generation will be
informed to the DOE and also to the licensed contractor to treat and dispose it. Later,
the licensed contractor will collect the spent catalyst from our plant and will be treated
and finally disposed under the registered premise of DOE. Regular monitoring on the
scheduled waste is done as the waste can only be stored for 180 days or less.
(Scheduled Waste Regulation, 2005).

3.4 Liquid Waste

There are two types of liquid waste streams are been generated from our
ammonia production plant which includes water from the outlet of the flash column at
stream S115 and diethanolamine from the outlet of the flash column at stream S121.

3.4.1 Waste Treatment of Waste Water

In our operating plant, the vapor as a mixture of syngas has been condensed to
a level where it converted into a liquid form which is then further been separated in
flash separator column. Flash column (F-101) is an equipment that operates as a phase
separator which separates the water from the mixture of syngas based on their boiling
points and will be discharged for other uses such as utilities uses in the plant. In this
process, flash column (F-101) is able to separate about 14169.56 kg/hr of water, H2O
with about 5.02 kg/hr of carbon dioxide, CO2 is diffused in them. This water should
be treated properly before it is used for utility purposes in order to prevent any gas
contaminated in them which can lead to unwanted reactions. Therefore, two methods
have been proposed in our chemical plant to treat the wastewater released.

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3.4.1.1 Gas Stripping

Stripping is known as a physical separation process where one or more

components are been removed from a liquid stream by contacting the vapor stream.
(Pao and Yan, 2019). Basically, it is considered as an opposite of absorption process.
This gas stripping process is used in order to remove the dissolved gases present in the
water so that they can be transferred into a gas phase and obtained less contaminated
water that can be reused back. This gas is removed from the liquid phase and carried
off in a major gas backflow designated scavenging gas. Usually, this gas stripping
occurs in a counter-current flow where the contaminated liquid will enter at top of the
stripping tower while the air is blown through at the bottom of the tower. As the
contaminated water and the air passed through the stripper at an opposite side
simultaneously, the air will pick up the gases from the contaminated water and will
exist at the top of the tower. Thus, low contaminated water will be obtained. The
driving force involved in this transferring is based on the concentration gradient
between the hulk dissolved gas concentration and the saturation dissolved gas
concentration. Thus, a high concentration gradient will be transferred to a lower
concentration gradient and achieved the transfer mechanism. Figure 3.2 shows a
schematic diagram of the counter-current flow stripping tower.

Figure 3.2 Packed Counter Current Flow Stripping Tower (Suezwaterhandbook,

2019)

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3.4.1.2 Microbial Electrolytic Carbon Capture (MECC)

Besides gas stripping, electrochemical reaction also can be used for the
removal of carbon dioxide, CO2 from the wastewater discharged. Microbial
Electrolytic Carbon Capture is known as an environmentally-friendly process to treat
the wastewater by capturing more carbon dioxide, CO2 than it releases while at the
same time creating renewable energy during the process. (Lu et.al, 2015). This system
is utilized by microbial oxidation where the chemical energy present in the wastewater
not only increases the efficiency of the CO2 removal and the net carbon negativity, but
also increases the net energy positive. These technology uses the natural conductivity
of the saline wastewater to accelerate the electrochemical reaction which is used to
capture the CO2 in the water. (Lu et.al, 2015). This reaction captures the CO2 present
and transformed it into a stable metal carbonate and bio-carbonate that can be used for
alkalinity compensation for nitrification and environmental purposes. In this plant, an
electroactive bacteria (EAB) on the anode chamber is used in order to oxidize the CO2
present in the wastewater to produce the electrons and protons. The electrons are then
attracted by the anode and transferred through an external circuit to the cathode where
it produces the H2 and OH-. Later, the silicate minerals will be exposed and react with
the hydrogen-rich analyte to release the metal ions. Then, it will be transferred through
a cation exchange membrane (CEM) to the cathode chamber to produce metal
hydroxide that will capture and react with the CO2 to transfer it into carbonate or bio-
carbonate compound. This reaction also yields an excess amount of hydrogen gas,
which can be stored and used as energy for the fuel cell. Figure 3.3 shows the
schematic diagram of microbial electrolytic carbon capture (MECC) process.

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 Figure 3.3 Microbial Electrolytic Carbon Capture (Lu et.al, 2015)

3.4.1.3 Comparison of Technology

A comparison between the proposed technologies which are Gas Stripping and
Microbial Electrolytic Carbon Capture (MECC) is done in order to select a suitable
method for the wastewater treatment. Several parameters which as process complexity,
maintenance, operation cost and efficiency have been considered in this comparison.
Table 3.3 below summarizes the comparison between these two technologies.

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 Table 3.3 Comparison of Technologies for Wastewater Treatment

Parameters Gas Stripping Microbial Electrolytic

Carbon Capture (MECC)

Process Complexity Simple Complex

Maintenance Cost Low High

Operation Cost Cheap Expensive

Efficiency 90% 60%

As for the process complexity, the Gas Stripping process is much simpler since
it involved an absorption process through an air compared to the Microbial Electrolytic
Carbon Capture (MECC) that involves some of pH and temperature controls. Besides
that, the maintenance and operating cost for the stripping process is also low as it only
needs a column with gas supply for the process while MECC requires microbial
electrolytic cell for the process. Lastly, to enhance the selection, it can be seen that the
efficiency of the separation is higher in gas stripping which is about 90% compared to
the MECC where only about 60% is achieved. Thus, based on the comparisons, gas
stripping technology have been selected for the wastewater treatment in our plant as it
is more reliable than the MECC technology.

3.4.2 Waste Treatment of Diethanolamine (DEA)

Diethanolamine, DEA is found at the bottom stream of the flash separator

(S121). DEA which is secondary alkanolamine is used as a solvent for CO2 removal.
DEA is an oily colorless liquid with slightly rotten fish or ammonia odor (CAMEO,
2020). DEA is a corrosive, irritant and health hazard chemical. DEA is hazardous when
contact with skin and eye, ingestion and inhalation. Thus, it should not be released and
emit to the environment directly without proper measurement. The methods suggested
for DEA management are recycling as solvent for CO2 removal and send to Kualiti
Alam for further treatment.

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3.4.2.1 Recycling

The DEA which is separated from the flash column is cooled and recycled back
to the inlet stream of the absorber to be reused. By recycling the solvent, we can reduce
the solvent purchases and the environmental impact. Most importantly, it minimizes
the disposal cost from the industry, fresh DEA purchases and cost of storage.

3.4.2.2 Send DEA to Kualiti Alam

Another method to manage the DEA from the plant without polluting the
environment is by sending the solvent for further treatment at Kualiti Alam. Kualiti
Alam is the only integrated hazardous waste management centre in Malaysia. The
DEA only need to store in storage tanks before sending them to Kualiti Alam. A
properly designated area at the plant which is away from the ammonia synthesis
processing area and employee activities area will be located. DEA is classified under
the code of SW322, waste of non-halogenated organic liquid or solvents.

3.4.2.3 Comparison and Selected Solution

A comparison between the proposed methods which are recycling and send to
Kualiti Alam is done in order to select a suitable method for diethanolamine solvent
management. Table 3.4 below summarizes the comparison between this two the
methods.

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 Table 3.4 Comparison of Methods for DEA Management

Alternative Advantages Disadvantages

Recycling  Reduce the usage  Need to purchase
of solvent equipment
 Minimizes
Disposal Cost
Send to Kualiti Alam  No equipment  Transportation fee
needed and disposal fee are
needed

Two alternatives for DEA management have been discussed which is recycling
and send to Kualiti Alam for further treatment. Recycling method is chosen, although
we need to purchase and equip the regeneration unit to get lean solvent. This is because
the DEA discharged from S121 is 1.50E+07 kg/hr which is a huge amount. The cost
of transportation for a minimum of 18 pallets are RM 180.17 where 1 pallet is equal
to (4) 200litres drum per unit. The disposal cost of organic waste is RM1350 for 200
litres drum (KA, 2016). Thus, a one-time purchase regeneration unit will be more cost-
effective than sending to Kualiti Alam in the long run. Moreover, by recycling the
solvent, the fresh solvent needed to purchase will also be reduced.

3.5 Gas Waste

Gaseous waste is the waste that is released in the form of gas by the factories,
mobiles and combustion of biomass. The gases may include carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen and methane. Some of these gaseous wastes primarily
contribute to global warming and greenhouse effects. In the environment, the gases
can also condense and collapse as acid rain, impacting public health and biodiversity.
As indicated in Table 3.5, the origins of these gaseous wastes are as shown.

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 Table 3.5 Sources of gaseous waste

Waste Generated Sources

Carbon Monoxide Membrane Separator (D-101)
Carbon Dioxide Absorber (A-101)
Methane
Hydrogen

The gases vented into the atmosphere may potentially have harmful effects on
the environment and human life. In Table 3.6, the gases are summarised.

Table 3.6 Gaseous waste and their environmental impacts

Waste Environmental Impact

Carbon Monoxide ● Reacts with other pollutants to form ground level Ozone
● Ozone leads to inflammation of lung linings; repeated
exposure can scar lung tissue
● Leads to asphyxiation in sufficient concentrations
because CO binds permanently with haemoglobin,
thereby preventing the transport of oxygen within the
body

Carbon Dioxide ● Greenhouse gas

● Linked to accelerated climate change
● Can cause suffocation in high concentrations
Methane ● 86 times more effective at trapping heat than CO2

3.5.1 Unreacted Syngas

Synthesis Gas (Syngas) is formed from commonly used petroleum derivatives

to completely inexhaustible natural mixes across a number of cycles. The synthesis
gas is referred to as methane, CH4, carbon monoxide gas, CO, hydrogen gas, H2 as
well as water, H2O and carbon dioxide gas, CO2. Any of these components can be

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transformed into useful goods (Liu & Kang, 2017). Thus, the source of syngas in our
plant is mainly from membrane separator (D-101). The membrane separator separated
the carbon monoxide, hydrogen gas and methane gas out at stream S127.

In the synthetic market, Syngas is a crucial participant. It is used as a wellspring

of pure methane and carbon monoxide in various profoundly specific blends of a wide
variety of synthetic compounds and fuels. In the exchange of electricity, syngas
assumes a filling portion (Li et al., 2018). Synthesis gas can be obtained by oxidation
with steam and oxygen from almost any carbon source, ranging from flammable gas
and oil-based commodities to coal and biomass. In this way, it is a crucial factor for
the protection of the material sector and for the production of manufactured energy
(AasbergPetersen et al., 2001).

Although there are many ways to prepare these materials, most modifications
are made by microbial or thermochemical steps. Syngas, similar to fluid bed reactors,
fluctuate artificially from gases routinely generated by low-temperature gasification
techniques (Larsen, 2001). Syngas is an important, moderate item in the synthetic
industry. Around 6 EJ of syngas are generated worldwide every year, which is
basically 2 percent of the current critical energy usage of the world. The global demand
for syngas (primarily from non-renewable energy sources such as coal, flammable gas
and oil/residues) is overwhelmed by the ammonia industry (Díaz JA et al.,2014).

3.5.1.1 Syngas Sell to Other Company

Syngas, consisting essentially of carbon monoxide and methane, is one of the

flammable gas blends that are regularly made. It is commonly used in automobiles as
a diesel, and its energy thickness is around a significant portion of that of flammable
gas. It is seen as a viable fuel choice for use as a liquefied natural gas (LNG) or
compressed natural gas (CNG) and can be used for road, rail, marine and other vehicle
purposes (Dybkjaer and Christensen, 2001).

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 Syngas can be used for a range of purposes to power gas engines, such as power
supply, where benefits such as low energy costs, reliability and predictability can be
used (Dybkjaer & Aasberg, 2016). Syngas can be used effectively for both heat and
electricity supply because, compared to other power generation technologies, such as
steam turbines, it can have high energy production. This takes less energy and is better
to dispose of when it cannot be used for producing electricity or heat (Spath & Dayton,
2003).

Based on the Figure 3.4 time period, the demand for syngas is expected to enlist
CAGRs of more than 10 percent. The key factors driving market reading are feedstock
adaptability for the development of syngas and the emerging compound industry. In
order to disrupt the growth of the considered market, high capital projects and
subsidisation are required. Moreover, due to the growing request from the compound
business, the interest from the chemical industries regulated the market and is required
to expand. In addition, the market is expected to expand, due to the growing interest
from vapour energy sources.

The highest consumer of syngas is the chemical industry. In general, the

synthetic company would use feedstock that are the most prudent to obtain or produce.
In addition to some African countries, major world economies, such as the United
States, China and India, use coal as the crude material for the manufacture of various
synthetic substances, similar to methane, hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO).
These are the building blocks for a wide range of subordinate synthetics to be
assembled. Overall, the usage of syngas is expected to increase over the forecast period
as demand for these building-block materials rises. The market size of the chemicals
is the largest among the remaining 55% in the industrial sector as shown in Figure 3.5.
Both syngas is used in power generation because of their capacity to provide good
power and energy. The remaining 55% in the industrial sector as shown in Figure 3.5.
Both syngas is used in power generation because of their capacity to provide good
power and energy.

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 Figure 3.4 Syngas Market Revenue source by CAGR

In 2020, the demand for syngas and derivatives is estimated at 2.45.557 MWth
and is expected to hit 4.06.860 MWth by 2025, with a CAGR of 10.6 percent between
2020 and 2025. The significant drivers for the growth of the syngas and subordinate
market to provide elective techniques for fuel production have been increasing natural
concerns. Syngas is assessed as a perfect and environmentally friendly power that is
widely obtained to supplant customary types of energy. In addition, due to the flare-
up of COVID-19, the popularity of compound go-betweens in the production of
cleanliness and sterilisation and drug products is expected to drive the growth of
syngas and its subordinates in the synthetic section.

According to Figure 3.5, from Syngas & Derivatives Market by Production

Technology, Gasifier Type, Feedstock and Region - Global Forecast to 2027 had
mentioned, it can be seen that the syngas industry has continued to rise over 7 years.
The syngas & derivatives market in the Asia Pacific region is projected to grow at the
highest CAGR between 2020 and 2027. Growth can be due to the high market for
syngas & derivatives in countries such as China, India, and Japan for applications such
as chemicals, coal, and electricity. As the largest user of the chemical industry, the
country provides high growth opportunities for chemical applications for fertiliser and
petrochemical applications. In addition, the field is rising rapidly in fuel and energy

193
applications, with increasing demand in liquid fuel, gaseous fuel and power generation
for syngas & derivatives.

In 2020, with growing demand from the chemical industry, mainly from
refineries, Asia-Pacific dominated the global market share. Some of the factors that
raise demand for petrol are increased sales of passenger vehicles, replacement of
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as cooking fuel, rising urbanisation and demand for
utilities and consumer goods. During the forecasting period, the above factors are
projected to increase the usage of syngas. Thus, by selling the syngas, the business will
be granted high profits.

Figure 3.5 Global Syngas and derivative market, by region 2020 to 2027

3.5.1.2 Release to the environment

Another proposed method to reduce or treating the syngas gases by releasing

it to the environment. Syngas consists mainly of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon
dioxide and methane, as well as oils and hydrocarbons for vaporised pyrolysis. Syngas
is a renewable combustion fuel that can be used as a replacement for natural gas, fuel
oil or propane to generate process heat, steam, hot water and/or electricity using

194
traditional energy recovery equipment, unlike energy obtained from the direct
incineration of many waste fuels. Syngas can also be synthesised and used in the
petrochemical and refining industries as a basic chemical building block for a large
number of products. However, in our opinion, this method is not very favourable as it
can lead to the rise of greenhouse effect when gases such as methane and carbon
monoxide accumulate in the atmosphere.

Carbon monoxide is known to be toxic, odourless, colourless and tasteless.

Carbon monoxide is often mixed with other gases which exist in air. In order to release
carbon monoxide to the atmosphere we need to confirm the released amount does not
exceed the permissible exposure limit (PEL) first. The permissible exposure limit set
by OSHA for carbon monoxide is shown in Table 3.7. OSHA fixed the standard
exposure that a regular worker can only be exposed to 50 ppm of carbon monoxide not
more than 8 hours. While for maritime workers and workers for loading cargo the
permissible exposure limit was fixed to 100 to 200 ppm not more than 8 hours
respectively (OSHA, 2012). For the permissible exposure limit for methane is TWA
must not exceed 1000 ppm not more than 8 hours. The purpose of the permissible
exposure limit is to control the amount of carbon monoxide released into the
atmosphere as too much concentration can lead to a bad effect to the environment and
human health.

Table 3.7 Permissible exposure limit of Carbon Monoxide and methane

Pollutant Average Time

Carbon Monoxide (OSHA, 2012) PEL: 50 ppm not more than 8 hr
Methane (Alberta, 2004) TWA: 1000 ppm not more than 8 hours

3.5.1.3 Comparison and selected solution

Based on the two discussed alternatives previously. After careful

consideration, it was decided that the best option to handle our gases wastes for

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 methane, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide is by selling to other companies. This
is due to several reasons and because it has more advantages compared to release to
the environment. Table 3.8 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of both
methods.

Table 3.8 Advantages and disadvantages of each alternative

Alternatives Advantages Disadvantages

Sell to other  Company can earn profit  Value of composition and purity
company  Reduce greenhouse emission varies and might not be similar to
 Demand for syngas is very the original
high thus no problem to find
buyers.
Release to the  No energy use to discharge it  Requires more unit operation to
environment  Low cost treat the gases first before
releasing to the atmosphere
 Methane and carbon dioxide lead
to greenhouse effect and toxic to
human health

3.5.2 Waste Management for Carbon Dioxide

A few methods are suggested in reducing and treating carbon dioxide (CO₂ )
that has been produced during the process. It includes absorption, adsorption,
membrane separation and also cryogenic distillation.

3.5.2.1 Absorption

To split up flue gas from CO₂ , liquid sorbent such as Monoethanolamine

(MEA), diethanolamine (DEA) and potassium carbonate are quite common. The
sorbent can be regenerated either through heating or depressurization by stripping or
regenerative. This process is the most mature CO₂ separation system (Bhown &

196
Freeman, 2011). It is found that MEA, with an efficiency of over 90 percent, was the
most powerful for CO₂ absorption. A study of different CO₂ capture technologies
was carried out and it is concluded that absorption using MEA is the most promising
approach for CO₂ capture for CCS (Aaron & Tsouris, 2011). Some other sorbents
have also gained attention in recent years, such as piperazine and anion-functionalized
ionic liquid (Gurkan et al., 2010) where it responds much faster than MEA, but since
it has greater volatility, its CO₂ absorption application is more costly and (Bougie &
Iliuta, 2011).

When chemical solvents are used with a relatively low partial pressure of CO₂
for a high gas stream flow, the challenges are scale, efficiency, stability, and corrosion.
A large quantity of solvent that undergoes significant changes in its condition leading
to high investment in capital and energy costs (SholehMa'mum, 2005).
Monoethanolamine (MEA) chemical absorption is by far the most advanced post-
combustion capture technology. The stability of the amines and the energy usage of
the stripping process, on the other hand, have significant room for improvement where
it has been documented in the use of mixed amines (primary, secondary, and tertiary)
over individual amines (Zaman & Lee, 2013).

Physical absorption is dependent on the solubility of CO₂ in the solvent and

is preferred at higher pressures (Chakma, 1999) and solvents such as rectisol, selexol,
and others are used as physical absorbents (Chowdhury, Douglas, Feng, & Croiset,
2005). In the crosscurrent manner, flue gases from various CO₂ sources such as coal-
fired power plants come into contact with lean solution. CO₂ was then absorbed by
the solvents, causing the flue gas to have a lower CO₂ concentration. The solvent rich
CO₂ in the stripper was then regenerated. The regenerated lean solution was returned
to the absorber and the top of the stripper was collected and transported with
compressed CO₂ .

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3.5.2.2 Adsorption

Adsorption has two stages, adsorption, and regeneration. The gas stream is fed
to solid adsorbent in the adsorption stage, which selectively adsorbs CO₂ until
equilibrium is achieved. Benefits current over traditional absorption process, including
low energy requirements for regeneration, no liquid waste where solid waste can be
disposed of with less environmental concern, and a much wider operating temperature
range up to 700 °C (P.Harrison, 2005). The CO₂ capture adsorption process has not
yet been commercialised, but if adsorbents with improved performance, selectivity,
and stability can be identified, they are expected to play a major role in CO₂ capture.

A solid sorbent is used to bind the CO₂ on its surfaces where main criteria for
sorbent selection are a large specific surface area, high selectivity, and high
regeneration potential. Molecular sieves, activated carbon, zeolites, calcium oxides,
hydrotalcites, and lithium zirconate are common sorbents. By swinging the pressure
(PSA) or temperature (TSA) of the device containing the CO₂ saturated sorbent, the
adsorbed CO₂ can be retrieved. PSA is a commercially available power plant CO₂
recovery technology that can have a performance greater than 85% (McKee, 2002;
Takamura, Narita, Aoki, & Uchida, 2001). In this process, CO₂ is preferentially
adsorbed at high pressure on the surface of a solid adsorbent that swings to low
pressure (usually atmospheric pressure) to desorb the adsorbent and releases CO₂ . In
TSA, adsorbed CO₂ can be released by using hot air or steam injection to increase the
device temperature. Regeneration time is usually longer than PSA, but it is possible to
achieve a CO₂ purity greater than 95 percent and a recovery greater than 80 percent
(Marc Clausse, 2019). It was calculated that the operating costs of a particular TSA
method were in the range of 80-150 US$/tonne of CO₂ captured (Kulkarni & Sholl,
2012).

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3.5.2.3 Membrane Separation

In order to allow only CO₂ to pass through, membranes may be used,

excluding other components of the flue gas. The membrane made of a composite
polymer, of which a thin selective layer is bonded to a thicker, non-selective and low-
cost layer providing mechanical support to the membrane (Rackley, 2010). Other
gases, such as O2 from N2, and CO₂ from natural gas, have also been separated using
this process. CO₂ separation efficiency of 82 percent to 88 percent by producing high-
efficient membranes (Gielen, 2003). The development of ceramic and metallic
membranes (Aaron & Tsouris, 2011) and polymeric membranes (Yave, Car, Funari,
Nunes, & Peinemann, 2010) for the diffusion of membranes could produce membranes
that are significantly more effective than liquid absorption processes for CO₂
separation.

Membranes are porous or semi-permeable materials which act as filters and

can therefore be used selectively to separate CO₂ from other components of the gas.
The membrane surface allows the desired gas molecule to adsorb on the high-pressure
side of the surface, and this molecule then passes through the membrane interior and
reaches the low-pressure side, as shown in Figure 3.6. The membrane divides gas into
two streams in the conventional case, the CO₂ -rich stream is called the permeate
stream, while the clean gas stream is called the retentate.

Figure 3.6 Schematic of Gas Separation Membrane

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 In comparison to conventional amine-based absorption systems, some studies
have shown that membrane-based CO₂ capture has the potential to give a significant
reduction in energy penalties and costs. However, the different operational issues, such
as membrane fouling, exposure to sulphur compounds and other trace elements, as
well as scale-ups for large-scale power plant applications, are challenges for the
commercialization of this technology.

3.5.2.4 Cryogenic Distillation

Cryogenic distillation is a method of gas separation using extremely low

temperature and high-pressure distillation. The CO₂ -containing flue gas is cooled to
desublimation temperature between -100 to-135 °C for CO₂ separation and then
solidified CO₂ is separated from other light gases and compressed to a high
atmospheric pressure of 100-200. The amount of CO₂ recovered can reach 90–95%
of the flue gas. Since distillation is carried out at extremely low temperatures and high
pressure, it is estimated that 600-660 kWh per tonne of CO₂ recovered in liquid form
is an energy intensive process (Göttlicher & Pruschek, 1997).

3.5.2.5 Comparison of Methods

A comparison between the proposed technologies are done in order to select a

suitable method for the carbon dioxide treatment. Table 3.9 below summarizes the
comparison between these proposed technologies.

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 Table 3.9 Technology comparison for carbon dioxide capture

Technology Advantages Disadvantages

Absorption High absorption capacities Equipment corrosion
Low energy consumption
Adsorption Low adsorption capacities
and cost of CO2 capture
Membrane Continuous, steady-state Require high energy for post
Separation technology combustion CO2 capture
Cryogenic Not requiring solvent or Require large amount of
Distillation other components energy

Based on the comparison abobe, absorption was chosen as the best alternatives
for carbon dioxide capture as absorption by chemical solvent has a greater benefit than
others by evaluating all these technologies for CO2 capture. This process can absorb
up to 90 percent of CO2 from the gas stream. Therefore, absorption process is been
chosen in order to absorb the CO2 in the gas stream. The separated high purity CO2
will be processed and used in the plant for utilities purposes while the remaining
amount wil be sold to the outsider.

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 CHAPTER 4

ENERGY INTEGRATION

4.1 Introduction

In a typical process industry, there is a unit exchanging network of the energy

and energy media with each other. Few studies are been done on improving the
efficiency of this energy supply and exchanging in order to optimize the capacity of
energy consumption in the process. The science on this technique is known as Process
Integration. This process integration is a methodology of merging several parts in the
process with a purpose of reducing the consumption of resources or the harmful
emissions to the environment. (Grip, Soderstorm and Berntsson, 2013). This
methodology helps to analyse the potential for improvising and optimizing the heat
exchanger between the heating sources and heat dissipation in order to reduce the
quantity of external heating and cooling which consequently reduce the costs and
harmful emissions to the environment. Therefore, a systemic design procedure has
been developed in terms of energy integration to supply the required amount of final
energy saving design of the system. (Klemes, Varbanov and Karvanja, 2014).

Energy integration or heat integration, by using pinch technology, has several

definitions which almost invariable referring to the thermal combination of steady state
process streams for achieving the heat recovery via heat exchanger. However, this heat
integration term can be simplified into two main meaning which firstly it refers to the
physical arrangement of the equipment and the process parts while the second meaning
refers to an area of process synthesis field with methods and tools aimed to increase
the energy efficiency of the each processes. (Gundersen, 2000). Thus, this heat
integration will produce a systematic methodology for the energy saving in the overall

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process. Figure 4.1 below shows the role of pinch technology in the overall process
design which been presented by the onion diagram below.

Figure 4.1 “Onion Diagram” of Hierarchy in Process Design (Kemp, 2007)

The design of each process begins with a setup of reactor, as the “core” of the
onion. Once the feeds, products and flowrates are known, thus the separators, which
is known as the next layer of the onion, can be designed. After the process heat and
material balance is been placed, the third layer which is the heat exchanger can be
designed. The balance heating and cooling duties are then will be controlled by the
utility system, which is the final layer in the diagram. (Kemp, 2007).

This heat integration which is frequently through integrating a heat exchanger

network (HEN) into a process system is used for the recovery of the thermal energy.
The heat that been recovered can be used for either heating or cooling to the processes
which could replace the hot or cold utilities used in the process. It is initiated with
investigating the source and targeted temperature, and the hat requirement in all the
streams. (Linnhof et.al, 2014). The heat is integrated in order to utilize the energy

203
needed to cool down in high temperature streams to either heat or vaporise the cold
streams. Mostly, heat integration is designed to get an efficient network of heat
exchangers, without the use of energy to generate power from the high temperature
streams. In some cases, the total of heating requirements is not equivalent to the total
of cooling requirements, or some others source of temperatures may not be sufficiently
high or low to achieve some target temperatures through heat exchange. The objective
of the heat exchanger network is to fully utilize the energy in the hot process stream to
heat up the cold stream efficiently. (Smith, 2005). Thus, this can be desired by
computing the Maximum Energy Recovery before synthesizing the Heat Exchanger
Network.

4.2 Stream Identification

Extracting the data from the process flow sheet is known as the crucial part of
the pinch analysis. Sometimes alternative method will be used in identifying them as
it is not a clear cut ways. If the wrong method is been choose, it could either end up
with impossible targets of the heat transfer make the process system constrained to
perform the heat integration.

However, the related data must be defined and presented in a systematic

manner for the efficient heat recovery in industry. This procedure is known as data
extraction in the field of heat integration. The analysis of HEN is also initiated with
identifying the hot streams and cold streams from the process flow. The process flow's
heat sources (referred to as hot streams) and sinks (referred to as cold streams) are first
described. All the hot and cold streams from the process flow diagram as shown in
Figure 4.2 are being identified. There are total of 12 heat exchangers available for heat
integration analysis which are 6 hot streams and 6 cold streams. Table 4.1 below shows
the summary of the hot and cold streams in the plant that can be used to achieve
optimum energy recovery for the process plant.

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 Table 4.1 Summary of Streams Available for Heat Integration

Supply Target
Stream Stream Unit ∆𝐓 dH Cp
Type Temp Temp
No ID Name (℃) (kW) (kW/℃)
(℃) (℃)

H1 Hot S2 E-101 97.34 25 -72.34 -1039.44 14.44

H2 Hot S10 E-102 398.09 280 -118.09 -7813.86 66.22

H3 Hot S12 E-103 280 40 -240 -26077.53 108.66

H4 Hot S23 E-105 122.56 40 -82.56 -4864.12 58.60

H5 Hot S30 E-107 113.72 25 -88.72 -1146.93 12.89

H6 Hot S35 E-109 400 50 -350 -37795.49 107.99

C1 Cold S4 H-101 97.34 700 602.66 1.31E+04 21.68

C2 Cold S7 H-102 25 700 675 6.66E+04 98.66

C3 Cold S18 E-104 40 300 260 4.85E+05 1869.06

C4 Cold S25 E-106 122.56 400 277.44 1.12E+04 40.59

C5 Cold S32 E-108 113.72 400 286.28 3.78E+03 13.21

C6 Cold S41 E-110 50 400 350 1.80E+03 5.14

205
 16
To C-103
Diethanolamine 22 DWG. BG2020
H1 C1 SHEET 2 OF 2

Methane
C-101
2 3
C-102
4
E-101

H-101 5 14

7 A-101
6 8
H2 H3 C3
20
Water P-101 R-101
9 17
H-102 Carbon dioxide
10 11 12 13
18 19
C2 T-101
E-102 E-103 V-101
E-104
R-102 F-101
15 F-102 21

Diethanolamine
water

29 H5 C5
Nitrogen gas
31
C-105
30 C-106
32 33
C6
E-108
E-107

From A-101
DWG. BG2020 22
SHEET 1 OF 2
28 41 40
24
M-101 E-110

C-103 23 25 26 39
C-104

E-105 E-106 Purge gas

D-101
H6 38
S-101
27
H4 C4
Carbon Monoxide,
Carbon Dioxide, Methane 34 35 36

E-109
R-103
F-103 37

Ammonia
Liquid

Figure4.2 StreamIdentificationofProcessFlowDiagramofAmmoniaProduction
206
4.3 Composite Curves

The composite curves is used to evaluate the amount of heat that can be
recovered for different streams. The analysis begins by sorting out all the hot streams
and cold stream temperatures. Then, it is been arranged from high temperature to low
temperature with an interval of temperature differences. An arrow line for each streams
have been constructed from the heat supply to the heat targeted and the capacity in each
interval that passed through the arrow line have been added. The arrow for cold stream
started with low temperature stream of heat supply to high temperature of heat supply
while hot stream started with high temperature of heat supply to cold temperature of
heat supply. Later, the enthalpy for each interval is calculated and finally these
enthalpies are drawn cumulatively against the corresponding temperatures that
resulting in one curve for the hot stream and one curve for the cold stream.

These curves are then positioned relative to each other in a way that the Hot
Composite Curve is always above the Cold Composite Curve. Then, shifting of the
Cold Composite Curve horizontally is done in order to prevent the intersection of the
curve with the Hot Composite Curve at the same time to obtain the heat recovery pinch
point. Positioning the curves closer together could increase the heat recovery. The point
where the vertical distance between the composite curves is at its minimum range acts as
a bottleneck against the increased heat integration and therefore it is been referred as
the pinch point. Table 4.2 and Table 4.3 below show the summarized of data for hot
composite curve and cold composite curve respectively.

207
 Table 4.2 Hot Composite Curve Data

Temperature ∆T H6 H2 H3 H4 H5 H1 Cp Interval dH Cumulative

(℃) (℃) (kW/℃) (kW) Interval (kW)
400 78,748.84
1.91 107.99 107.99 206.26
398.09 78,542.59
118.09 107.99 66.22 174.21 20572.02
280 57,970.57
157.44 107.99 108.66 216.64 34108.35
122.56 23,862.22
8.84 107.99 108.66 58.60 275.25 2433.19
113.72 21,429.03
16.38 107.99 108.66 58.60 12.89 288.13 4719.64
97.34 16,709.39
47.43 107.99 108.66 58.60 12.89 14.44 302.57 14323.70
50 2,385.69
10 108.66 58.60 12.89 14.44 194.58 1945.84
40 439.85
15 12.89 14.44 29.32 439.85
25 0

208
 Table 4.3 Cold Composite Curve Data

Temperature ∆T C2 C3 C6 C1 C5 C4 Cp Interval dH Cumulative

(℃) (℃) (kW/℃) (kW) Interval (kW)
700 581,649.96
300 98.66 21.68 120.35 36104.20
400 545,545.76
100 98.66 5.14 21.68 13.21 40.59 179.29 17929.40
300 527,616.36
177.44 98.66 1869.06 5.14 21.68 13.21 40.59 2044.36 362750.65
122.56 164,865.71
8.84 98.66 1869.06 5.14 21.68 13.21 2004.77 17722.13
113.72 147,143.58
16.38 98.66 1869.06 5.14 21.68 1992.55 32638.02
97.34 114,505.57
47.43 98.66 1869.06 5.14 1971.87 93348.33
50 21,157.24
10 98.66 1869.06 1967.73 19677.27
40 1,479.97
15 98.66 98.66 1479.97
25 0

209
 Based on the table above, a graph of composite curve of temperature, (℃)
against enthalpy (∆H) have been plotted for both hot and cold streams respectively as
shown in Figure 4.3 below in order to identify the maximum overlap, which represents
the maximum amount of recovered heat.

Composite Curve (Before Shifting)

800

700

600
Temperature (℃)

500

400 Hot Stream

300 Cold Stream

200

100

0
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000
ΔH(kW)

Figure 4.3 Composite Curves of Hot and Cold Stream before Shifting

However, this graph had prohibited the rules, where the line graph of cold
stream intersects with the host stream. Thus, in order to prevent this intersection and
identify the portion of heat recovery in the overlapping region, vertically shifting of the
cold stream from left to right is done to obey the rule. Figure 4.4 below shows the
shifted graph of the composite curves.

210
 Shifted Composite Curve
800

700
Hot Stream
600
Temperature (℃)

500 Cold Stream

400 Shifted Hot

Stream
300
Shifted Cold
Stream
200

100
45°C ΔH(kW)
0
- 100,000.00 200,000.00 300,000.00 400,000.00 500,000.00 600,000.00 700,000.00

Qc,min= 900kW

MER = 777848.84kW QH,min = 582549.96kW

582549.96kW

Figure 4.4 Shifted Composite Curves of Hot and Cold Stream

Figure 4.4 above shows the shifted composite curve at ∆Tmin of 10℃. Based on
the graph, the hot composite curve has a shorter curve line compared to the cold
composite curve. At this situation, most of the heat could be transferred from the hot
utilities and used up by the cold utilities. However, the overhang of the cold utilities still
requires an additional heater in the stream in order to heat up the remaining cold utilities.
Besides that, the pinch point of the process and the minimum heat and cooling
requirements also can be estimated from the graph based on the ∆Tmin of 10℃. Based
on Figure 4.4, the results obtained from the composite curves are summarized below:

Hot pinch temperature = 50°C

Cold pinch temperature = 40°C
Minimum heating requirement, QH,min = 582549.96kW
Minimum cooling requirement, QC,min = 777848.84 kW
Maximum energy recovery, MER = 900kW

211
 But, this value might be oversight as it is an approximate value obtained from the
graph. Hence, in order to identify the exact amount of the pinch point and the minimum
heat and cold utilities requirements, further calculation in the next section which is the
Problem Algorithm Table method is done and been compared with the estimated value.

4.4 Problem Table Algorithm

For the purpose of acquiring the exact amount of the cold utility required and the
heat integration, an alternative method which is the Problem Table Algorithm is used as
this method could provide a more accurate amount compared to the composite curves
done in the previous part. Besides that, the pinch temperature of the process also is able
to be obtained by using this method. The other produced is integrated based on the pitch
technology in order to utilize the heat produced fully to the cold streams. The steps below
show the complete steps used for the Problem Algorithm method.

(a) Determine the shifted temperature intervals T* from actual supply

temperature and target temperature. Hot stream is shifted down in
temperature by ∆Tmin/2 and cold stream up to ∆Tmin/2.

(b) The stream population is shown with vertical temperature scale. The
interval temperature is set to ∆Tmin/2 below hot stream temperature
and ∆Tmin/2 above cold stream temperature. The formulae for both hot
and cold streams are shown below.

(c) For hot streams,

Ts* (shifted) = Ts – ∆Tmin/2.
Tt* (shifted) = Tt – ∆Tmin/2.

(d) For cold streams,

Ts* (shifted) = Ts +∆Tmin/2.
Tt* (shifted) = Tt +∆Tmin/2

212
 (e) Heat balance with each shifted temperature scale from interval to
interval. After that, take the largest negative heat flow value as the
utilities need. The interval with zero heat flows in the pinch
temperature.

Table 4.4 below shows the combined table of hot and cold stream with the
parameter of actual and shifted temperature. Based on the table, an overall Problem
Table Algorithm as shown in Table 4.5 below is constructed as well with an arrow in
each stream for the illustration purpose of heat flow.

213
 Table 4.4 Actual and Shifted Temperature of the Process

Stream Stream Unit Ts Tt Shifted Shifted dH Cp

ID Name (℃) (℃) Ts (℃) Tt (℃)
( kW) (kW/℃)

H1 S2 E-101 97.34 25 92.34 20 -1039.44 14.44

H2 S10 E-102 398.09 280 393.09 275 -7813.86 66.22

H3 S12 E-103 280 40 275 35 -26077.53 108.66

H4 S23 E-105 122.56 40 117.56 35 -4864.12 58.66

H5 S30 E-107 113.72 25 108.72 20 -1146.93 12.89

H6 S35 E-109 400 50 395 45 -37795.49 107.99

C1 S4 H-101 97.34 700 102.34 705 13074.75 21.68

C2 S7 H-102 25 700 30 705 66598.54 98.66

C3 S18 E-104 40 300 45 305 484916.31 1865.06

C4 S25 E-106 122.56 400 127.56 405 11243.77 40.59

C5 S32 E-108 113.72 400 118.72 405 3778.80 13.21

C6 S41 E-110 50 400 55 405 1799.99 5.14

214
 Table 4.5 Problem Table Algorithm with Arrow

T(℃) ∆T C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 ∑ CPH ΔH Surplus

(℃) - ∑CPC interval or
(kW/℃) (kW) Deficit
705
300 -21.68 -98.66 -120.35 -36104.2 Deficit
405
10 -21.68 -98.66 -40.59 -13.21 -5.14 -179.29 -1792.9 Deficit
395
1.91 -21.68 -98.66 -40.59 -13.21 -5.14 107.9 -71.31 -13.196 Deficit
393.09
88.09 -21.68 -98.66 -40.59 -13.21 -5.14 66.22 107.9 -5.09 -448.174 Deficit
305
30 -21.68 -98.66 -1865.06 -40.59 -13.21 -5.14 66.22 107.9 -1870.1 -56104.5 Deficit
275
147.44 -21.68 -98.66 -1865.06 -40.59 -13.21 -5.14 108.66 107.9 -1827.7 -269478 Deficit
127.6
8.84 -21.68 -98.66 -1865.06 -13.21 -5.14 108.66 107.9 -1787.1 -15798.2 Deficit
118.72

215
 1.16 -21.68 -98.66 -1865.06 -5.14 108.66 107.9 -1773.9 -2057.73 Deficit
117.56
8.84 -21.68 -98.66 -1865.06 -5.14 108.66 58.6 107.9 -1715.3 -15163.3 Deficit
108.72
6.38 -21.68 -98.66 -1865.06 -5.14 108.66 58.6 12.89 107.9 -1702.4 -10861.4 Deficit
102.34
10 -98.66 -1865.06 -5.14 108.66 58.6 12.89 107.9 -1680.7 -16807.4 Deficit
92.34
37.34 -98.66 -1865.06 -5.14 14.44 108.66 58.6 12.89 107.9 -1666.3 -62219.6 Deficit
55
10 -98.66 -1865.06 14.44 108.66 58.6 12.89 107.9 -1661.1 -16611.6 Deficit
45
10 -98.66 14.44 108.66 58.6 12.89 95.92 959.193 Surplus
35
5 -98.66 14.44 12.89 -71.34 -356.705 Deficit
30
10 14.44 12.89 27.32 273.235 Surplus
20

216
 After the Problem Table Algorithm is been constructed, a table of Problem
Table Algorithm with Cumulative Utilities as shown in table 4.6 below is also been
constructed by taking the largest the negative heat flow value as the utilities need. This
largest value is then added cumulatively with the enthalpy until a value of zero is
obtained which indicate as pinch point of the process.

Table 4.6 Problem Table Algorithm with Cumulative Utilities

ΔH Cumulative Cumulative
T(℃) ∆ T (℃)
interval (kW) enthalpy (kW) Utilities (kW)
705 0.00 503582.76 (QHmin)
300 -36104.2
405 -36104.2 467478.56
10 -1792.9
395 -37897.14 465685.62
1.91 -13.196
393.09 -38033.34 465549.42
88.09 -448.174
305 -38481.05 465101.71
30 -56104.5
275 -94585.56 408997.19
147.44 -269478
127.6 -364063.60 139519.16
8.84 -15798.2
118.72 -379861.76 123721.00
1.16 -2057.73
117.56 -381919.49 121663.27
8.84 -15163.3
108.72 -397082.79 106499.96
6.38 -10861.4
102.34 -407944.22 95638.53
10 -16807.4

217
 92.34 -424751.58 78831.18
37.34 -62219.6
55 -486971.19 16611.56
10 -16611.6
45 -503582.76 0.00
10 959.193
35 -502623.57 959.19
5 -356.705
30 -502980.27 602.49
10 273.235
20 -502707.04 875.72 (QCmin)

Table 4.5 above shows the Problem Table Algorithm which been developed by
the process. Overall, the surplus of the energy calculated is not sufficient enough to
provide additional heat for the process. Thus, an additional equipment is required in
order to supply the heat efficiently to the entire process.

Based on table 4.6 above, the minimum heating requirement of the process is
about 503582.7 kW while the minimum cooling requirement is about 875.72 kW. The
potential heating save is 13.39% while the potential cooling saving is 98.89%. Since
the cumulative utilities reaches zero at the temperature of 45℃, thus the pinch point of
the process is known as 45℃as well. At the same time, the process is also integrated at
above pinch and below pinch of temperature at 50℃and 40℃respectively. Hence, our
energy recovery can be occurred at both above and below pinch.

218
4.5 Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) for Maximum Energy Recovery (MER)

Heat exchanger networks are designed to reach energy targets obtained by the
problem table analysis with the help of the pinch design method. The method is
adapted to allow trade-offs between energy, number of units, and capital and to cover
retrofit of existing plants. (Zhang et.al, 2012).

4.5.1 Above Pinch and Below Pinch Design

For the above pinch design, the following rules must be fulfilled:

(a) The temperature differences of the hot and cold streams must be greater or
equal to ∆t min ≥ 10 ºC.
(b) Above pinch can only have heater, cooler is prohibited in the above
pinch region.
(c) Only can pair stream where the cold stream CP is greater or equal to
hot stream
(d)
(e) Check the temperature profile of stream matching is not crossing.

For the below pinch design, the following rules must be fulfilled:

(a) The temperature differences of the hot and cold streams must be greater or
equal to ∆T min ≥10 ºC.
(b) Below pinch can only have cooler, heater is prohibited in the below
pinch region.
(c) Only can pair stream where the hot stream CP is greater or equal to
cold stream
Co , CPc  CPH
(d) Check the temperature profile of stream matching is not crossing

219
 After getting the minimum number of stream matches, the upper pinch and
lowest pinch results are combined in order to design the heat exchanger network. For
the first heat exchanger which is positioned at the pinch, the approach temperature
difference at one end of each heat exchanger is constrained at ∆T min. Then, working
outwards, the utility exchangers are positioned last. Inlet and outlet temperatures are
calculated by using the Equation 4.1 for each and every heat exchanger.

Q = FCp(Ts-TT) (4.1)

Where,
Q = Heat Transferred between Hot and Cold streams in the Heat Exchanger
(kW)
Cp= Heat Capacity Flow Rate of each Stream
Ts = Inlet Temperature of Stream to Heat Exchanger
TT = Outlet Temperature of Stream from Heat Exchanger

The Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) for Maximum Energy Recovery (MER)
is drawn as shown Figure 4.5.

220
 Pinch
ΔH (kW) Cp (kW/ ) 50 Cp (kW/ ) ΔH (kW)
25 97.34
360.92 14.44 C C H1 14.44 683.43
360.92kW 683.43kW 398.09
280
7 H2 66.22 7819.82
40 280
1086.56 108.66 1 3 H3 108.66 24990.97

40 43.29 122.56
586.04 58.60 C 2 5 H4 58.60 4252.30
192.64kW
25 113.72
322.17 12.89 C 6 H5 12.89 821.15
322.17kW
50 400
4 H6 107.99 37795.49

Pinch
40
97.34 700
C1 H 21.68 13067.38
25 13067.38kW
28.99 48.32 700
1479.97 98.66 127.58 H 98.66 65118.57
C2 2 1 6 7
1086.56kW 821.15kW 7819.82W 56477.59kW
393.40kW 80.20
H 300
C3a 3 621.69 161638.77
136647.80kW
40 24990.97kW 100.79
C3 C3b 621.69 161638.77
4 H
37795.49kW 46.84 123843.28kW
C3c
5 H 621.69 161638.77
157386.47kW 122.56 400
4252.30kW C4 H 40.59 11261.63
11261.63kW
113.72 400
C5 H 13.21 3782.50
3782.50kW
50 400
C6 H 5.14 1799.99
1799.99

Figure 4.5 Grid Diagram for Heat Exchanger Network

221
 In the Figure 4.5, the heat exchanger network is developed by following the
rule CPH  CPc for above pinch and CPH  CPc for below pinch. The calculation of
temperature profile of both heat exchangers as shown in Figure 4.6 and Appendix I are
done to prove the temperature feasibility for all heat exchanger.

T( ) T( )

113.72

50 Tx

40

Figure 4.6 Temperature Profile for Heat Exchanger H5 and C2 At Upper Pinch

The heat duty of a stream can be calculated by using formula as shown in:

Q = CP (Tx - T)

To determine the inlet temperature Tx before HEN design,

𝑄
𝑇𝑥 = +𝑇
𝐶𝑃

821.15
𝑇𝑥 = + 40
98.66
𝑇𝑥 = 48.32℃

The result obtained from the HEN design in Figure 4.5 are summarized below:

(a) Actual heating requirement, QH = 504,266.65kW

(b) Actual cooling requirement, Qc = 1,559.15kW

222
 (c) Actual energy recovery, QR = 77159.69kW, 99.11% of MER

The sum of minimum heating and cooling requirement are slightly different
with the value calculated in Section (PTA). The minimum heating requirement, QH min
and minimum cooling requirement of PTA and HEN are shown as Table 4.7.

Table 4.7 Comparison of Minimum Heating and Cooling Requirement

of PTA and HEN

Minimum cooling Minimum heating requirement

Method
requirement (kW) (kW)

PTA 875.72 503,582.76

HEN 1,559.15 504,266.65

The deviation is due to the energy cannot be recovered by exchanging the heat
from the hot stream H1 to the cold stream. The hot stream H1 has an inlet temperature
of 97.34℃ and 50℃ outlet temperature. In order to fulfil the rule ΔT≥10°C, there is no
suitable cold stream to heat up. This is due to the remaining outlet temperature is higher
than 50℃.

An alternative to solve this problem is the stream splitting of C3 from the

original 3 streams to 4 streams. However, by adding this extra one pipeline, we will
need another one hot utility to supply the remaining heating requirement which will
then increase the utility cost. Moreover, the energy of H1, 683.43 kW is the smallest
compare to the energy can be recovered by H3, H4 and H5. Thus, from economical
perspective, the HEN design is justified.

Therefore, a total of 77159.69kW energy is recovered which is 99.11% of MER

(77,848.84 kW). The heat from stream H2, H3 and H6 are fully utilised and no further
cooling is required. While stream H1, H4 and H5 required 1559.15kW of cooling

223
 requirement by 4 cold utilities. The remaining 504,266.65kW heating requirement for
stream C1, C2, C3a, C3b, C3c, C4, C5 and C6 are supplied by 8 hot utilities.

4.5.2 Heat Integrated Process Flow Diagram

The summary of all heat exchangers, coolers, and heaters required in this
process flow sheet are shown in Table 4.8, whereas Table 4.9 shows the sequence of
heating or cooling sequence for each stream part. Based on the Table 4.8 and Table
4.9, the heat integrated Process Flow Diagram is drawn and shown in Figure 4.7,
Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9.

Table 4.8 Summary for All Heat Exchangers, Heaters and Coolers

Flowsheet Stream Stream

Stream Involved Duty
Equipment Stream Inlet Temp. Outlet
Type Stream (kW)
Pair (℃) Temp. (℃)
Hot H3 S12a-S13 50 40 1086.56
HE 01
Cold C2 S7a-S7b 28.99 40
Hot H4 S23a-S23b 50 43.29 393.4
HE 02
Cold C2 S7-S7a 25 28.99
Hot H3 S12-S12a 280 50 24990.97
HE 03
Cold C3a S18a-S18b 40 80.20
Hot H6 S35-S36 400 50 37795.49
HE 04
Cold C3b S18d-S18e 40 100.79
Hot H4 S23-S23a 122.56 50 4252.30
HE 05
Cold C3c S18g-S18h 40 46.84
Hot H5 S30-S30a 113.72 50 821.15
HE 06
Cold C2 S7b-S7c 40 48.32
Hot H2 S10 -S11 398.09 280 7819.8
HE 07
Cold C2 S7c-S7d 48.32 127.58

224
 Flowsheet Stream Stream
Stream Involved Duty
Equipment Stream Inlet Temp. Outlet
Type Stream (kW)
Pair (℃) Temp. (℃)
CL-01 Hot H1 S2a-S3 50 25 360.92
CL-02 Hot H4 S23b-S24 43.29 40 192.64
CL-03 Hot H5 S30a-S31 50 25 322.17
CL-04 Hot H1 S2-S2a 97.34 50 683.43
HT-01 Cold C1 S4-S5 97.34 700 13067.38
HT-02 Cold C2 S7d-S8 127.58 700 56477.59
HT-03 Cold C3a S18b-S18c 80.2 300 136647.8
HT-04 Cold C3b S18e-S18f 100.79 300 123843.28
HT-05 Cold C3c S18h-S18i 46.84 300 157386.47
HT-06 Cold C4 S25-S26 122.56 400 11261.63
HT-07 Cold C5 S32-S33 113.72 400 3782.5
HT-08 Cold C6 S40-41 50 400 1799.99

Table 4.9 Heating or Cooling Sequence for Each Stream

Corresponding
Corresponding Original Heating or Cooling
Stream Flowsheet Stream
Flowsheet Equipment Sequence
Pair
H1 S2-S2a-S3 E-101 CL04-CL01
H2 S10 -S11 E-102 HE07
H3 S12-S12a-S13 E-103 HE03-HE01
H4 S23-S23a-S23b-S24 E-105 HE05-HE02-CL02
H5 S30-S30a-S31 E-107 HE06-CL03
H6 S35-S36 E-109 HE04
C1 S4-S5 H-101 HT01
S7-S7a-S7b-S7c- HE02-HE01-HE06-HE07-
C2 H-102
S7d-S8 HT02
C3a S18a-S18b-S18c E-104 HE03-HT03

225
C3b S18d-S18e-S18f E-104 HE04-HT04
C3c S18g-S18h-S18i E-104 HE05-HT05
C4 S25-S26 E-106 HT06
C5 S32-S33 E-108 HT07
C6 S40-41 E-110 HT08

4.6 Comparison between Utilities Consumption before and after MER

4.6.1 Total Utilities Consumption before and after Heat Integration

As for this section of report, the total utilities consumption needed for each
stream present in the plant were calculated from the simulation. Table 4.10 depicts the
short summary of the cooling utility and heating consumptions before heat integration
was applied to the process. Based on table 4.10, before heat performing heat
integration, 581412.16 kW is required to be supplied by hot utility in order to cool
down the hot stream while ejected heat of 78737.37 kW by the cold utility.

226
 Table 4.10 Utilities Consumption before Heat Integration

Cooling Heating
Stream No Stream ID Equipment Utilities (kW) Utilities(kW)
H1 S2 E-101 1039.44 0.00
H2 S10 E-102 7813.86 0.00
H3 S12 E-103 26077.53 0.00
H4 S23 E-105 4864.12 0.00
H5 S30 E-107 1146.93 0.00
H6 S35 E-109 37795.49 0.00
C1 S4 H-101 0.00 13074.75
C2 S7 H-102 0.00 66598.54
C3 S18 E-104 0.00 484916.31
C4 S25 E-106 0.00 11243.77
C5 S32 E-108 0.00 3778.80
C6 S41 E-110 0.00 1799.99
Total 78737.37 581412.15

Based on table 4.11, after performing heat integration, it can be noticed that the
cold stream is being utilized to cool down the hot stream as shown in Table 4.11. As
there is a heat transfer occurred, the heat loss by the hot stream will be gained by the
cold stream, which no longer required any hot utility for heating purposes.

227
 Table 4.11 Utilities Consumption after Heat Integration

Stream Cooling Utilities Heating Utilities

Stream No Equipment
ID (kW) (kW)
H1 S2 E-101 1044.35 0.00
H2 S10 E-102 0.00 0.00
H3 S12 E-103 0.00 0.00
H4 S23 E-105 192.64 0.00
H5 S30 E-107 322.17 0.00
H6 S35 E-109 0.00 0.00
C1 S4 H-101 0.00 13067.38
C2 S7 H-102 0.00 56477.60
C3 S18 E-104 0.00 417877.56
C4 S25 E-106 0.00 11261.63
C5 S32 E-108 0.00 3782.50
C6 S41 E-110 0.00 1799.99
Total 1559.15 504266.65

4.6.2 Comparison between Utilities Consumption before and after HEN

Table 4.12 shows the summary of the utilities consumption before and after
energy integration. For hot utility, the percentage is 13.40 % and whereas for the cold
utility, the percentage of saving is 98.89%. Hence, it is feasible only that the heat
integration must be imposed in the plant in order to save unnecessary energy cost.

Table 4.12 Comparison of the utility consumption before and after HEN

Utility type Before HEN (kW) After HEN (kW) % Saving

Hot 581412.16 504266.65 13.39

Cold 78737.37 1559.15 98.89

228
 Equipment C-101 C-102 CL-04 CL-01 HT-01 HT-02 P-101 HE-02 HE-01 HE-06 HE-07 R-101 T-101 R-102 F-101
tag
Equipment Reciprocating Reciprocating Cooler Cooler Furnace Furnace Centrifugal Heat Heat Heat Heat TubularSteam Expander WaterGas FlashColumn
name Compressor Compressor Pump Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger Reactor ShiftReactor
1
CW CW
Methane
2 2a 3 To A-101
C-101
14 DWG. BG2021
Cl-04 CL-01 4
C-102 SHEET 2 OF 3
Heating oil In

HE-02
HT-01 5
HE-01 HE-06 HE-07 Heating oil outlet

7 7a 7b 7c
6 7d
8 F-101
Water P-101 Heating oil In 9
R-101
HT-02 Heating oil outlet 15
10 11 12
To HE-03
water
T-101 DWG. BG2021
SHEET 2 OF 3
R-102
From C-105
30 DWG. BG2021
SHEET 3 OF 3

To CLO-03
30a DWG. BG2021
SHEET 3 OF 3

From HE-03
12a DWG. BG2021
SHEET 2 OF 3
13
From HE-05
23a DWG. BG2021
SHEET 2 OF 3
To CLO-02
23b DWG. BG2021
SHEET 2 OF 3
Stream ID S1 S2 S2a S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S7a S7b S7c S7d S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S12a S13 S14 S15 OWNER

Temperature 25 97.34 50 25 97.34 700 25 25 28.99 40 48.32 127.58 700 700 398.09 280 280 50 40 40 40
(°C)
Pressure (atm) 5 12.25 12.25 12.25 30 30 1 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Phase vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor liquid liquid liquid liquid liquid vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor mix mix vapor liquid Chemica Engineering Sdn. Bhd
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 CLIENT
Nitrogen, N2
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8205.47 8205.47 8205.47 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 0.00 MJIITCHEMICALSSDN
Ammonia, 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 BHD
NH3
Carbon 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 38004.67 38004.67 38004.67 3040.37 3040.37 3040.37 3040.37 0.00 TITLE
Monoxide, PROCESS FLOW
CO
Carbon 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 54935.73 54935.73 54935.73 54930.72 5.02 DIAGRAM
Dioxide, CO2 PRODUCTION OF
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 38231.73 38231.73 38231.73 15743.95 15743.95 15743.95 1574.40 14169.56 AMMONIA
Methane, 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.13 558.12 0.01
CH4
Diethanolamine 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 SIZE DRAWING SHEET
DEA A3 NO 1 OF 3
Total 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 22325.04 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 62674.96 85000 85000 85000 85000 85000 85000 70825.42 14174.58 BG2021

Figure4.7 Heat IntegratedProcessFlowDiagramforAmmoniaProduction

229
 Equipment
tag
A-101 V-101 S-101 C-103 HE-03 HE-04 HE-05 HT-03 HT-04 HT-05 CL-02 M-101 F-102
Equipment
name
Absorber Throttlingvalve Splitter Compressor HeatExchanger HeatExchanger HeatExchanger Heater Heater Heater Cooler Mixer FlashColumn
From HE-02
DWG. BG2021 23b
SHEET 1 OF 3
TO HE-02
DWG. BG2021 23a
SHEET 1 OF 3

22
16 CW

Diethanolamine 23
To C-104
C-103 24 DWG. BG2021
SHEET 3 OF 3
CL-02

From F-101
DWG. BG2021
SHEET 1 OF 3 HPS
A-101
17 20
18g 18h 18i
18
HT-05
V-101
HE-05
HPS Carbon dioxide
S-101 HE-04

18d 18e 18f 19

HT-04
HPS
HE-03
F-102 21
18a 18b 18c
HT-03
Diethanolamine
TO HE-01 From R-103
DWG. BG2021 12a 35 DWG. BG2021
SHEET 1 OF 3 SHEET 3 OF 3
From R-102 TO F-103
DWG. BG2021 12 36 DWG. BG2021
SHEET 1 OF 3 SHEET 3 OF 3
Stream ID S16 S17 S18 S18a S18b S18c S18d S18e S18f S18g S18h S18i S19 S20 S21 S22 S23 S23a S23b S24 OWNER

Temperature 40 40 40 40 80.20 300 40 100.79 300 40 46.84 300 300 300 300 40 122.56 50 43.29 40
(°C) `
Pressure (atm) 6 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 13.42 13.42 13.42 13.42
Phase liquid liquid liquid liquid liquid mix liquid liquid mix liquid liquid mix mix vapor liquid vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor Chemica Engineering Sdn. Bhd
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 CLIENT
Nitrogen, N2
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 10721.82 MJIITCHEMICALSSDN
Ammonia, 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 BHD
NH3
Carbon 0.00 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 15.74 0.00 3024.63 3024.63 3024.63 3024.63 3024.63 TITLE
Monoxide, PROCESS FLOW
CO
Carbon 0.00 53925.69 53925.6 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 53925.69 0.00 1005.02 1005.02 1005.02 1005.02 1005.02 DIAGRAM
Dioxide, CO2 9 PRODUCTION OF
Water, H2O 0.00 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.40 1574.06 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 AMMONIA
Methane, 0.00 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 83.24 0.00 474.88 474.88 474.88 474.88 474.88
CH4
Diethanolamine 15057041. 15057041. 1505704 15057041.7 15057041. 15057041. 15057041. 15057041. 15057041. 15057041. 15057041. 15057041. 15057041. 120456.33 14936585. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 SIZE DRAWING SHEET
DEA 74 74 1.74 4 74 74 74 74 74 74 74 74 74 41 A3 NO 2 OF 3
15057041. 15112640. 1511264 15112640. 15112640. 15112640. 15112640. 15112640. 15112640. 15112640. 15112640. 15112640. 15112640. 176055.07 14936585. 15226.35 15226.35 15226.35 15226.35 15226.35 BG2021
Total
74 81 0.81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 74

Figure4.8 Heat IntegratedProcessFlowDiagramforAmmoniaProduction(continued)

230
 Equipment
tag
C-104 C-105 C-106 CLO-03 HT-06 HT-07 HT-08 D-101 M-101 R-103 F-103 S-102
Equipment Reciprocating Reciprocating Reciprocating Cooler Heater Heater Heater Membrane Mixer AmmoniaSynthesis FlashColumn Splitter
name Compressor Compressor Compressor Separator Reactor
From HE-06
DWG. BG2021
SHEET 1 OF 3
To HE-06
DWG. BG2021
SHEET 1 OF 3

30a
29

Nitrogen gas CW HPS

31
C-105 32 33
30 C-106
HT-07
From CLO-02 CL-03
DWG. BG2021 HPS
24
SHEET 2 OF 3 28
41 40
HPS HT-08

M-101

C-104
25 26
38 39
HT-06
S-102
35 Purge gas
D-101
27
34 36
Carbon Monoxide,
Carbon Dioxide, Methane
To HE-04 R-103 F-103
DWG. BG2021 37
SHEET 2 OF 3
From HE-04 Ammonia
DWG. BG2021 Liquid
SHEET 2 OF 3
Stream ID S25 S26 S27 S28 S29 S30 S30a S31 S32 S33 S34 S35 S36 S37 S38 S39 S40 S41 OWNER

Temperature 122.56 400 400 400 25 113.72 50 25 113.72 400 400 400 50 50 50 50 50 400
(°C)
Pressure (atm) 30 30 30 30 5 12.25 12.25 12.25 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
Phase vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor vapor mix liquid vapor vapor vapor vapor Chemica Engineering Sdn. Bhd
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 45601.08 912.02 912.02 0.13 911.89 9.12 902.77 902.77 CLIENT
Nitrogen, N2
Hydrogen, H2 3024.63 10721.82 1072.18 9649.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9844.77 197.16 197.16 0.00 197.16 1.97 195.19 195.19 MJIITCHEMICALSSDN
Ammonia, 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5970.33 60307.00 60307.00 54276.30 6030.70 60.31 5970.39 5970.39 BHD
NH3
Carbon 3024.63 3024.63 3024.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 TITLE
Monoxide, PROCESS FLOW
CO
Carbon 1005.02 1005.02 1005.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 DIAGRAM
Dioxide, CO2 PRODUCTION OF
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 AMMONIA
Methane, 474.88 474.88 474.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CH4
Diethanolamine 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 SIZE DRAWING SHEET
DEA A3 NO 3 OF 3
Total 15226.35 15226.35 5576.71 9649.64 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 44698.31 61416.18 61416.18 61416.18 54276.44 7139.75 71.40 7068.35 7068.35 BG2021

Figure4.9 Heat IntegratedProcessFlowDiagramforAmmoniaProduction(continued)

231
 CHAPTER 5

Process Control

5.1 Introduction to Piping and Instrumentation (P&ID)

Engineers that are developing a production method for a physical plant

normally uses piping and instrumentation diagram. P&ID can also be uses to ensure
plant safety as a guide to process safety information (PSI) for process safety
information (PSM). Reviewing the P&ID is ideally a good place to start if anything
goes wrong. P&ID are extremely useful documents and must always keep on hand.
Process Industry Practice (PIP) have proposed a standard on how P&ID should be
drawn which consist of criteria such as labelled mechanical equipment along with
numbers and names, identification of each valves, identification of each process sizing
and piping, miscellaneous, directions of flow, reference for interconnections, control
outputs, inputs and interlock, quality level and many more (Inc, 2021). Other purposes
of P&ID such as to change equipment, assist in the planning and construction of a new
facility and used to make a process more effective (Inc, 2021). Overall, the P&ID is
important at all levels of process system creation and operation in order to achieve the
chemical plant's goals.The following are the six key goals for planning the P&ID:

(a) Production rate: To meet our daily product production goal of 1 tonne of
ammonia.

(b) Product quality: To keep the purity of the primary component, ammonia, at
99.6%

(c) Safe plant operation: To implement a comprehensive and appropriate control

system based on Layer of Protection Analysis (LOPA) in order to keep process
variables within established safe operating limits.

232
(d) Stability: To ensure that the plant processes run smoothly and consistently with
minimal operator interference, using an automation and control system

(e) Environmental Regulation: To comply with numerous federal and state laws
requiring that the temperatures, concentrations, and flow rates of a plant's
effluent stay within those parameters

(f) Economy: To ensure that operational conditions are maintain at an optimal

level in order to reduce operating costs and increase profit.

5.2 Process Control Variable

Different control systems have different roles in a chemical plant that are
dependent on what parameters to regulate that includes temperature, pressure, flow
and level. The functions of the parameters are to ensure the desired output conditions
are followed. There are three main process variables that needed to be consider in the
control system which is control variable, manipulated variable and disturbance
variable. Controlled variable is the variable that needed to be controlled to achieve the
desired operating condition such as level, flow, temperature, pressure and ratio
whereas manipulated variable is a process variable that will be adjusted according to
the controlled objectives. Disturbance variable is the process variables that can cause
the controlled variable to deviate from the desire set point. Normally, disturbance
related to the changes of the condition at the input.

(a) Temperature Control

Temperature controller system is important for equipment that operates within

specific temperature required such as reactor, flash tank and distillation column. It
helps to ensure that the equipment has optimum temperature for the reaction to occur.
The mechanism of temperature regulation, in general, is to respond to temperature
changes in equipment that vary from the fixed-point value.

233
(b) Pressure Control

Pressure controller system is being used to control vapour or liquid pressure in

a system. Pump and compressor are commonly used in pressure control to counteract
the existence of the flow, which is from high pressure to low pressure, by rising the
pressure. However, because of the compression, increasing the pressure will inevitably
boost the temperature. As a consequence, providing a temperature controller after
systems like the pump and compressor is essential to ensuring that the temperature
stays within the controllable range.

(c) Flow Control

Flow control is divided into three phases including liquid, gas, and slurry. Flow
controllers are typically set up to control and track the flow of an inlet or outlet stream
in order to achieve the desired output rate

(d) Level Control

Water substances are typically subjected to level regulation. The main purpose
of a level controlling system is to control or maintain the fluid level in order to keep
the instrument from drying out or flooding. A level controller is a critical regulating
mechanism that is used to automatically regulate the flow by controlling the valve's
opening and closing.

(e) Ratio Control

A ratio controller is a feed forward controller which is used when two streams
have to mix together in a specific ratio. The process variables involved are usually
flow rate where the disturbance are measured aand their ratio is held at a desired set
point by controlling one of the stream. The typical applications of ratio control include
specifying the relative amounts of components in blending operations and maintaining
a stoichiometric ratio of reactants to a reactor.

234
5.3 Control System Designs for Individual Operational Equipment

The functions of each control element are also showed while the basic symbols
used to show the valves, instrument and control loops are showed in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Legends and functions of control instruments.

Symbol Description Function

Pressure Control Instrument
PI Pressure Indicator Detects the changes in
pressure in an equipment
PC Pressure Controller Finalized in decision making
by changing the opening or
closing of the valve based
on the pressure supplied.
PAH Pressure Alarm High Detects high pressure in
equipment. When pressure
exceeds the set point, it
sends a signal to the PC.
PAL Pressure Alarm Low Detects low pressure in the
equipment. When pressure
is lower than the set point, it
sends a signal to the PC.
PRA Pressure Recorder Alarm Monitors and record the
Pressure for future research
purposes.
Temperature Control Instrument
TI Temperature Indicator Detects the changes in
temperature in the
equipment.
TC Temperature Controller Finalized in decision making
by changing the opening or

235
Symbol Description Function
closing of the valve based
on the temperature supplied
TAH Temperature Alarm High Detects high temperature in
equipment. When
temperature exceeds the set
point, it sends a signal to the
TC.
TAL Temperature Alarm Low Detects low temperature in
the equipment. When
temperature is lower than
the set point, it sends a
signal to the TC.
TRA Temperature Recorder Monitors and record the
Alarm temperature for future
research purposes.
Flow Control Instrument
FI Flow Indicator Detects the flow in the
streamline to the major
equipment
FC Flow Controller Finalized in decision making
by changing the opening or
closing of the valve based
on the flow.
FRA Flow Recorder Alarm Monitors flow rate of the
streams.

236
 Table 5.4 Basic symbols used to show valves, instruments, and control loops.

Elements Symbols Description

Measurement TT Temperature Transmitter
PT Pressure Transmitter
LT Level Transmitter
FT Flow Transmitter
FFT Flow Ratio Transmitter
AC Composition Transmitter
Controller TIC Temperature Indicator
Controller
PIC Pressure Indicator
Controller
LIC Level Indicator Controller
FIC Flow Indicator Controller
FFC Flow Ratio Controller
CC Composition Controller
Alarm LA Level Alarm
PA Pressure Alarm
TA Temperature Alarm
Instrument Lines Instrument supply or
connection to process

Pneumatic signal

Electric signal

237
 Elements Symbols Description
Actuators Diaphragm or
unspecified actuator

Rotary motor

Distributed Control— Shared display device with

Shared Display Symbols operator access to
adjustments

Shared display device with

software alarms (* is
measured variable)

Commonly, in the process industry, there are few types of control system have
been implemented in order to manage, give commands and regulates the devices or
equipment with the purpose of improving the productivity and quality of the end
product. The control systems include on-off control system, feed-forward control
system, feedback control system and cascade control system. (Fundamental of Control,
2006). There are four basic elements are involved in the process control system which
includes measurement on the status of the process condition, a controller which used
to take action by evaluating the set and measured value, an output signal to manipulate
the process condition based on the results from the controller and finally the reaction
of process to the received signal. (Juergen and Edgar, 2014).

However, a feedback and cascade controllers have been implemented in our

process design as it brings more benefits to our overall system and also it is known as
easily adapted form of control systems. A feedback control system is known as a
system that measures a process variable downstream of a piece of process equipment

238
and send the information back to the upstream for the process equipment in order to
manage the process variable directly. In this control system, initially the data is
acquired by measuring the controlled variable and then it will be compared with the
set point of the specified unit operation. Later, the data will be adjusted if required
until it reaches the desired set point that has been set for each unit operations. (Seborg
et.al, 2011).

While, the cascade controller is known as a system that can be used when
multiple sensors are been required for each equipment in order to measure the
condition of a controlled variable. (Vandoren, 2014). There are two types of control
are involved in this system which are ‘master’ as the primary control and ‘slave’ as the
secondary control. This controller works by initially the primary controller will
received the output data from the outlet stream and will compares them with the set
point of the specific equipment. But, the output from this controller will be different
with the set point of the secondary controller. The secondary controller then adjusts
the set point to maintain the internal set point by manipulating the variable required.
(Juergen and Edgar, 2003). Thus, this cascade controller will provide a stable control
system in a condition whereby using one controller and able to affect the operation of
the whole system to become stable.

The main objective of this control system in our plant is to:

 To control the production rate of 54 tonnes/hr

 To achieve and maintain the product purity
 To improve the productivity of quality of product
 To reduce the unnecessary energy losses from the heating and cooling utilities

239
5.4 Control System Unit for Equipment

In this plant, there are a total of 9 major unit operations are involved in
designing the ammonia production which includes reactors (tubular steam reactor,
water gas-shift reactor and packed bed reactor), absorption column, membrane
separator, flash column (for water, carbon dioxide and ammonia separation) and
splitter. Auxiliary equipment such as heat exchanger, compressor, pump, expander and
throttling valve also will be discussed in this section. Each of these equipment are
equipped with different types of control variable. Besides that, some of the equipment
are also have been equipped with a pressure safety valve as a backup system due to
prevent any malfunction of the equipment and control system.

5.4.1 Control System for Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101)

The main function of Tubular steam reactor is to produce syngas such as H2.
Steam reforming of natural gas and other hydrocarbon is the most favourable route to
syngas (Nielsen, 2009). The operating condition of R-101 are as shown in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Operating Condition of R-101

Temperature (⁰ C) 700
Pressure (atm) 30
Conversion of Methane (%) 97.5
Ratio of methane to steam 1 : 2.5
Catalyst Nickel-based catalyst

In this tubular steam reactor, there are some consideration regarding the
temperature inside the reactor and the ratio of methane and water in which need to be
control to ensure the system operate smoothly. The objectives of controlling system in
R-101 are:

240
(a) To control the temperature in the Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101) by
manipulating the inlet flowrate of the heating medium of heating oil.

(b) To control the pressure in the reactor (R-101) by manipulating the outlet
flowrate at the stream S9.

(c) To control the ratio of syngas to steam by manipulating the inlet flowrate of
stream S5 and S8.

Table 5.3 showed the control system of R-101 meanwhile the control system
design of R-101 was shown in Figure 5.1.

Table 5.3 Control System of Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101)

Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller
Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Cascade T= 700⁰ C, if
of R-101 of heating oil of stream S5 Controller temperature at
and S8 ±10⁰ C of set
point, the
alarm will be
triggered
Pressure of Outlet Inlet flowrate Feedback P=30 atm, if
R-101 flowrate of of the methane Controller pressure at ±2
stream S9 and steam at bar of set
stream S5 and point, the
S8 alarm will be
triggered
Ratio of Flowrate of Inlet flowrate Ratio Ratio of
methane to methane at of steam at Controller methane to
steam inlet S5 stream S8 steam is 1:2.5

241
 To atmoshpere 9

PIC PAH
FT PAL

5
FFC PT
FT

TT
8
Heating oil in

FT
R-101
Heating oil outlet

FIC TIC

TAH
TAL

Figure 5.1 Control System Design of Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101)

5.4.2 Control System for Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

Water Gas Shift reactor is been used in our process design in order to increase
the ratio of hydrogen present in the syngas produced by using the carbon monoxide,
CO so that the amount of hydrogen can be optimized in the ammonia synthesis reaction
where it will affect the yield of ammonia produced. The operating condition of the
reactor is shown as in table 5.4 below.

Table 5.4 Operating condition of water gas shift reactor

Aspects Descriptions
Temperature 280℃
Pressure 6 atm
Conversion 92%
Catalyst Copper Zinc Oxide

242
 The process control system for Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102) is drawn as in
Figure 5.2. There are few parameters such as temperature, pressure and flow rate that
need to be considered to ensure the optimum operation system. This control system is
drawn based on the objective, controlled variable, manipulated variable, disturbance
variable, type of controller and set point as discussed in table 5.5 below. The objective
of control system in this R-102 is:

1. To control the temperature inside the WGS reactor (R-102) by manipulating

the inlet flow rate of cooling medium.
2. To control the pressure inside the WGS membrane reactor (R-102) by
manipulating the outlet flow rate at stream (S12).

Table 5.5 Process Control for Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

Controlled Manipulated Variable Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Controller

Temperature of The inlet flow rate of The change of Cascade T = 280℃, if

R-102 cooling medium temperature in cooling Controller temperature at
utility ±10℃ of set
point, the alarm
will be triggered.
Pressure of The outlet flow rate The inlet flow rate of Feedback P = 6atm, if
R-102 of stream S12 stream S11 Controller temperature at
±2atm of set
point, the alarm
will be triggered

243
 12

To atmoshpere PIC PAH

PAL

PT

11 TT

Coolant in

R-102 Coolant out

FIC
FT

TAH TIC
TAL

Figure 5.2 Control System Design for Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

5.4.3 Control System for Ammonia Synthesis Fix Bed Reactor (R-103)

R-103 is an ammonia synthesis reactor where the nitrogen and hydrogen gas
undergo exothermic process in the presence of a catalyst. The operating condition and
the catalyst used in this Fix Bed Reactor are stated as below in Table 5.6.

Table 5.6 Operating Condition of Ammonia Synthesis Fix Bed Reactor

Aspects Descriptions
Temperature 400℃
Pressure 30 atm
Catalyst Wustite

244
 A slightly deviation on the temperature, pressure and the flow into the reactor
would affect the overall rate of reaction of the process. It is important to have well
designed control system to ensure the reactor operate safely and optimally. Thus, the
control system exists for the reactors are:

(a) To control the temperature in the reactor R-103 by manipulating the inlet
flowrate of the cooling medium.

(b) To control the pressure in the reactor R-103 by manipulating the outlet flowrate
of stream S35

Table 5.7 showed the control system of the ammonia synthesis reactor (R-103)
meanwhile the control system design of R-103 was shown in Figure 5.3.

Table 5.7 Process Control of Ammonia Synthesis Fix Bed Reactor (R-103)

Controlled Manipulated Variable Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Controller

Temperature of The inlet flow rate of The change of Cascade T = 400℃, if

R-103 cooling medium temperature in cooling Controller temperature at
utility ±10℃ of set
point, the alarm
will be triggered.
Pressure of The outlet flow rate The inlet flow rate of Feedback P = 30atm, if
R-103 of stream S35 stream S34 Controller temperature at
±2atm of set
point, the alarm
will be triggered

245
 PAH PIC
PAL

To atmoshpere

35
PT

TT

34
Coolant in

R-103
Coolant outlet
FIC TIC
FT

TAH
TAL

Figure 5.3 Control System Design of Ammonia Synthesis Fix Bed Reactor (R-
103)

5.4.4 Control System for Flash Column (F-101, F-102, F-103)

The control system is introduced for the flash column to operate the column
optimally and safely. The flash column F-101 is used to remove all the water available
from the syngas to liquid water as the bottom product and syngas as the vapour top
product. On the other hand, flash column F-102 is used to separate mixture of
Diethylamine (DEA) and carbon dioxide to liquid Diethylamine (DEA) as the bottom
product and carbon dioxide as the vapour top product. Then, flash column F-103 is
used to separate our final product which is the liquid ammonia from the unreacted
mixture of H2 and N2.

The control system exists for the flash column are:

(a) Control the internal pressure of the flash column at the appropriate value.
Pressure control is necessary for most of the system which handling the vapour

246
 or gas. The pressure of the flash column is controlled by adjusting the valve at
the outlet vapour stream.

(b) Control the level of the outlet liquid stream. This control system is necessary
for the flash column as the interface exists between two phases (liquid vapor).
This is to ensure that the liquid will not dry up or overflow from the column.
This may be incorporated in the design of the equipment by providing an
internal weir and level of the column is controlled by adjusting the valve at the
outlet liquid stream.

Table 5.8 showed the control system of F-101 meanwhile the control system
design of F-101 was shown in Figure 5.4.

Table 5.8 Process Control of Flash Column (F-101)

Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller

Internal The outlet vapour Inconsistent Feedback P = 6atm. If the pressure

pressure of the flow rate S14 from pressure and flow Controller exceeds or is lower than 5%
column the column by valve rate of the feed of the set point, low- or high-
adjustment. stream S13 pressure alarm will set off.
Liquid level in Bottom outlet S15 Inconsistent feed Feedback 50% height to avoid
the column flow rate from the flow rate S13 Controller flooding, 5% height to avoid
column by valve drum drying. If liquid level
adjustment exceed or lower ±5% of set
point, alarm (high/low) will
be activated to avoid
flooding or drying of column

247
 14

PIC PAH
PAL

PT

13
LT

F-101 LIC LAH

LAL

15

Figure 5.4 Control System Design of Flash Column (F-101)

Table 5.9 showed the control system of F-102 meanwhile the control system
design of F-102 was shown in Figure 5.5.

Table 5.9 Process Control of Flash Column (F-102)

Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller

Internal The outlet vapour Inconsistent Feedback P = 4atm. If the pressure

pressure of the flow rate S20 from pressure and flow Controller exceeds or low than 5% of
column the column by valve rate of the feed the set point, low- or high-
adjustment. stream S19 pressure alarm will set off.
Liquid level in Bottom outlet S21 Inconsistent feed Feedback 50% height to avoid
the column flow rate from the flow rate S19 Controller flooding, 5% height to
column by valve avoid drum drying. If liquid
adjustment level exceed or lower ±5%
of set point, alarm
(high/low) will be activated
to avoid flooding or drying
of column

248
 20
PIC PAH
PAL

PT

19
LT

F-102
LIC LAH
LAL

21

Figure 5.5 Control System Design of Flash Column (F-102)

Table 5.10 showed the control system of F-103 meanwhile the control system
design of F-103 was shown in Figure 5.6.

Table 5.10 Process Control of Flash Column (F-103)

Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller

Internal The outlet vapour Inconsistent Feedback P = 30atm. If the pressure

pressure of flow rate S39 pressure and flow Controller exceeds or low than 5% of the
the column from the column rate of the feed set point, low- or high-
by valve stream S36 pressure alarm will set off.
adjustment.
Liquid level Bottom outlet Inconsistent feed Feedback 50% height to avoid flooding,
in the column S37 flow rate flow rate S36 Controller 5% height to avoid drum
from the column drying. If liquid level exceed
by valve or lower ±5% of set point,
adjustment alarm (high/low) will be
activated to avoid flooding or
drying of column

249
 39

Purge to atmoshpere PAH

PIC
PAL

38

PT

36
LT

F-103 LIC LAH

LAL

37

Figure 5.6 Control System Design of Flash Column (F-103)

5.4.5 Control System for Absorber (A-101)

Absorption column (A-101) is used to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from feed
gas which contains hydrogen and carbon dioxide. At the inlet, stream 16 consist of
diethanolamine (DEA) while stream 14 consists of hydrogen in gaseous form. For the
absorption process, DEA is used as liquid solvent which acts as an absorbent to remove
CO2 from feed gas. At the top outlet pure syngas will be released while solvent rich
with CO2 will be released at the bottom outlet. The control system that exists for the
absorber is controlling the flowrate at both inlets and outlet. This is necessary as to
ensure that there is no overflow or the level in the absorber is lesser than the set points.
Table 5.11 showed the control system of A-101 meanwhile the control system design
of A-101 was shown in Figure 5.7.

250
 Table 5.11 Process Control of Absorber (A-101)

Control Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller
Flow ratio of Inlet flowrate Inconsistent flow Ratio Ratio of DEA (S16) and
DEA (S16) to of DEA at rate of DEA feed Controller process stream (S14) =
feed stream stream S16 stream (S16) and 212.6:1
S14 entering process stream
the absorber (S14)

Internal The outlet Inconsistent Feedback P = 6atm. If the pressure

pressure of vapour flow pressure and flow Controller exceeds or is lower than
the absorber rate S22 from rate of the feed 5% of the set point, low-
the absorber stream S14 or high-pressure alarm
by valve will set off.
adjustment.
Liquid level Bottom outlet Inconsistent feed Feedback 50% height to avoid
in the S17 flow rate flow rate Controller flooding, 5% height to
absorber from the avoid drum drying. If
absorber by liquid level exceed or
valve lower ±5% of set point,
adjustment alarm (high/low) will be
activated to avoid
flooding or drying of
column

251
 22
PIC PAH
FFC PAL
FT

16 PT
FT

14 LT

A-101

LIC LAH
LAL

17

Figure 5.7 Control System Design of Absorber (A-101)

5.4.6 Control System for Membrane Separator (D-101)

In order to purify the hydrogen from other types of syngas, a membrane

separator (D-101) is been used after the absorption column. At the inlet, stream 26
consists of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen gas. At the top
outlet pure hydrogen gas will be released while the remaining gases will be released
at the bottom outlet. The control system that exists for the absorber is controlling the
flowrate at both inlets and outlet. This is necessary as to ensure that there is no
overflow or the level in the absorber is lesser than the set points. . Table 5.12 showed
the control system of D-101 meanwhile the control system design of D-101 was shown
in Figure 5.8.

252
 Table 5.12 Process Control of Membrane Separator (D-101)

Control Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller
Internal Flow rate of Inconsistent flow Cascade P = 30atm. If the
pressure of the feed rate of input Controller pressure exceeds or is
the stream S26 stream S26 lower than 5% of the set
membrane point, low- or high-
separator pressure alarm will set
off.

28
PIC PAH
PAL
FIC
FT
PT

26

D-101
27

Figure 5.8 Control System Design of Membrane Separator (D-101)

253
5.4.7 Control System for Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger control system design is performed after considering the Heat
Exchanger Network (HEN) . Generally, the control system for heat exchanger can be
divided into 4 types which are

(a) Heating by high pressure steam (HPS)

(b) Heating by heating oil

(c) Cooling by cooling water (CW)

5.4.7.1 Heat exchanger with Heating

Heating utility for HT-01, HT-02, HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-07 and
HT-08 are install to increase the temperature of components that entered the heaters
before it goes to the next process equipment. In conjunction to the heat exchanger
network, the use of control system is not requiring as the heat transferred has already
been marginalized and overheating or under heating is high unlikely.

Furnace, HT-01 and HT-02 are used for pre-heat fresh feed stream S7d and
stream S4 respectively. The control system that were install for both heating utility is
to control the temperature at the outlet stream S4 and S8 respectively. HT-01 and HT-
02 use heating oil as the heating element while heater HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06,
HT-07 and HT-08 uses high pressure steam (HPS) as the heating medium. Thus,
heating utility HT-01 and HT-02 have a different control configuration than the
remaining heating utilities.

254
 Table 5.13 showed the control system of HT-01 HT-02 meanwhile the control
system design of HT-01 and HT-02 were shown in Figure 5.9 and Figure 5.10
respectively.

Table 5.13 Process Control of Furnace (HT-01, HT-02)

Unit Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Setpoint

Variable Variable Controller
HT-01 Temperature Inlet Temperature Feedback T= 700℃
of Stream 5 flowrate of at Stream 4 Controller
heating oil
HT-02 Temperature Inlet Temperature Feedback T= 700℃
of Stream 8 flowrate of at Stream 7d Controller
heating oil

TIC TT

5
Heating oil In
4
HT-01 Heating oil outlet

Figure 5.9 Control System Design of Furnace (HT-01)

TIC TT

8
7d
Heating oil In

HT-02 Heating oil outlet

Figure 5.10 Control System Design of Furnace (HT-02)

255
 Table 5.14 showed the control system of HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-
07 and HT-08 meanwhile the control system design of HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06,
HT-07 and HT-08 were shown from Figure 5.11 till Figure 5.16.

Table 5.14 Process Control of Heater (HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-07,
HT-08)

Unit Control Manipulated Disturbance Type of Setpoint

Variable Variable Controller
HT-03 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T=300⁰ C
of stream 18c of high at stream 18b controller
pressure
steam
HT-04 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T=300⁰ C
of stream 18f of high at stream 18e controller
pressure
steam
HT-05 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T=300⁰ C
of stream 18i of high at stream 18h controller
pressure
steam
HT-06 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T=400⁰
of stream of high at stream S25 controller
S26 pressure
steam
HT-07 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T=400⁰
of stream of high at stream S32 controller
S33 pressure
steam
HT-08 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T=400⁰
of stream of high at stream S39 controller
S40 pressure
steam

256
 HPS inlet
TIC

TT

18b 18c
HT-03

Figure 5.11 Control System Design of Heater (HT-03)

HPS inlet
TIC

TT

18e 18f
HT-04

Figure 5.12 Control System Design of Heater (HT-04)

HPS inlet
TIC

TT

18h 18i
HT-05

Figure 5.13 Control System Design of Heater (HT-05)

257
 HPS inlet
TIC

TT

25 26
HT-06

Figure 5.14 Control System Design of Heater (HT-06)

HPS inlet
TIC

TT

32 33
HT-07

Figure 5.15 Control System Design of Heater (HT-07)

HPS inlet
TIC

TT

39 40
HT-08

Figure 5.16 Control System Design of Heater (HT-08)

258
5.4.7.2 Heat exchanger with Cooling

Cooler in CL-01 and CL-04 are required to decrease the temperature for the
inlet of the Tubular steam reactor (R-101). CL-04 is use to decrease the temperature
of stream S2 at 97.34⁰ C to 50⁰ C due to the reason that we want to increase the
pressure of the methane stream coming into reactor (R-101) while maintaining the
temperature. CL-01 is use as additional cooler to further cool down the temperature of
the stream S2a at temperature 50⁰ C to 25⁰ C before going into the next compressor.

Cooler (CL-02) is use to cool down the temperature from stream S23b to S24
at temperature 43.29⁰ C to 40⁰ C which carries the component consist of hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and methane. Cooler (CL-03) is use to cool down
the temperature from stream S30a to S31 at temperature 50⁰ C to 25⁰ C which carries
nitrogen component. This control system is essential for ensuring that the product is
maintain in the optimal condition, which is accomplish by controlling the flow of
cooling water into the cooler.

Table 5.15 showed the control system of CL-01, CL-02, CL-03 and CL-04
meanwhile the control system design of CL-01, CL-02, CL-03 and CL-04 were shown
from Figure 5.17 till Figure 5.20.

259
 Table 5.15 Process Control of Cooler (CL-01, CL-02, CL-03, CL-04)

Unit Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller
CL-04 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T = 50⁰ C
of stream S2a of cooling at stream S2 controller
water
CL-01 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T = 25⁰ C
of steam S3 of cooling at stream S2a controller
water
CL-02 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T = 40⁰ C
of stream S24 of cooling at stream controller
water S23b
CL-03 Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T = 25⁰ C
of stream S31 of cooling at stream controller
water S30a

CW inlet

TIC

TT

2 2a
Cl-04

Figure 5.17 Control System Design of Cooler (CL-04)

260
 CW inlet

TIC

TT

2a 3
Cl-01

Figure 5.18 Control System Design of Cooler (CL-01)

CW inlet

TIC

TT

23b 24
Cl-02

Figure 5.19 Control System Design of Cooler (CL-02)

CW inlet

TIC

TT

30a 31
Cl-03

Figure 5.20 Control System Design of Cooler (CL-03)

261
5.4.8 Control System for Splitter (S-101)

A splitter is an ideal separation system and one of the unit operations used in
our plant. A splitter's main purpose is to split a line into two or more directions, similar
to a separator, except that the split product lines are homogeneous, and no reaction
occurs during splitting. As for splitter S-101, the inlet is stream 18 and three outlets
are streams 18,18d and 18g. In inlet stream, the component mainly consists of DEA,
water and carbon dioxide. The control system that exists for the splitter is controlling
the flowrate at the first and second outlet stream (S18g and S18d). This is important to
ensure that the set point at both inlets and outlet are achieved. Table 5.16 showed the
control system of S-101 meanwhile the control system design of S-101was shown from
Figure 5.21.

Table 5.16 Process Control of Splitter (S-101)

Control Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller
Flow rate of Flowrate of Inlet flowrate of Feedback Mass flow rate is
5.04E+06 kg/hr
outlet stream stream S18g stream S18 Controller
S18g
Flow rate of Flowrate of Inlet flowrate of Feedback Mass flow rate is
5.04E+06 kg/hr
outlet stream stream S18d stream S18 Controller
S18d

FIC
FT

18g
18 FIC
FT
S-101

18d

FAH
FI
FAL

18a

Figure 5.21 Control System Design of Splitter (S-101)

262
 5.4.9 Control System for Mixer (M-101)

The main function of mixer is to increase the homogeneity of system through

reducing non-uniformity or gradients in terms of composition, properties, or
temperature. As for this plant, the mixer, M-101, will be mixing three inlet streams
that are streams 28, 33 and 41 that are one outlet stream which is stream 34. In stream
28, there is presence of hydrogen while in stream 33 there is nitrogen and in stream 41
there are the presence of nitrogen, hydrogen, and ammonia. After the mixing process
of all three inlet streams, the outlet has nitrogen, hydrogen, and ammonia. This control
system will be controlling the flowrate at both inlets and outlet. This is important to
ensure that the set point at both inlets and outlet are achieved. Table 5.17 showed the
control system of M-101 meanwhile the control system design of M-101was shown
from Figure 5.22.

Table 5.17 Process Control of Mixer (M-101)

Control Variable Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Controller
Flow ratio of Inlet flowrate Inconsistent Ratio Ratio of nitrogen gas (S33)
nitrogen gas (S33) of DEA at flow rate of Controller and hydrogen gas (S28) = 1:3
and hydrogen gas stream S16 stream 41
(S28) entering the
mixer

263
 33
FT

FFC

FT
41
28

M-101

34

Figure 5.22 Control System Design of Mixer (M-101)

5.4.10 Control System for Expander (T-101)

An expander is been used in our process design in order to reduce the pressure
of the syngas from 30atm to 6atm before it is been feed to R-102. There are many
expanders are available for reducing the pressure of gas however in this plant, a turbo-
expander is been selected and used to reduce the pressure of the syngas. At the same
time, some heat loss some heat has also been released to the surroundings where it
leads to the temperature drop.

The process control system for expander (T-101) is drawn as in Figure 5.18. A
parameter of pressure needs to be considered in this system in order to ensure the
optimum operation system. This control system is drawn based on the objective,
controlled variable, manipulated variable, disturbance variable, type of controller and
set point as discussed in table 5.23 below. The objective of control system for each
compressor is to control the desired pressure of the expander (T-101) by manipulating
the flow rate of the recycle stream in the anti-surge controller.
Table 5.18 Process Control of Expander (T-101)

264
Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
Variable Variable Controller

Outlet Flow rate of Inlet flow rate of Anti-Surge P = 6atm, if pressure

pressure of the recycle stream 9 Controller at ±2atm of set point,
T-101 stream the recycle vale will
be open

9 10
FT PT TT T-101 PT TT

ASC

Figure 5.23 Control System Design of Expander (T-101)

5.4.11 Control System for Compressor

A total of 6 compressor have been used in this plant in order to increase the
pressure of different compressible fluids or gases, the air being the most common.
However, they have their own mechanism to ensure and maintain the compressible
fluids at the desired value. The first four compressors used, C-101, C-102, C-103 and
C-104, are known as normal compressors while the remaining two compressors, C-
105 and C-106, are known as multistage compressor. The operating condition of the
compressors are shown as in table 5.19 below.

265
 Table 5.19 Operating Condition of Compressors

Type of Tag No Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet

Compressor Pressure Pressure Temperature Temperature
(atm) (atm) (℃) (℃)

Reciprocating C-101 5 12 25 97
Compressor

Reciprocating C-102 12 30 25 97
Compressor

Compressor C-103 6 13 40 123

Compressor C-104 13 30 40 123

Reciprocating C-105 5 12 25 114

Compressor

Reciprocating C-106 12 30 25 114

Compressor

The process control system for each compressor is drawn as in Figure 5.24,
Figure 5.25, Figure 5.26, Figure 5.27, Figure 5.28 and Figure 5.29 respectively. A
parameter of pressure needs to be considered in this system in order to ensure the
optimum operation system. This control system is drawn based on the objective,
controlled variable, manipulated variable, disturbance variable, type of controller and
set point as discussed in Table 5.20 below. The objective of control system for each
compressor is to control the desired pressure of stream 2, stream 4, stream 23, stream
25, stream 30 and stream 32 by manipulating the flow rate of the recycle stream in
each anti-surge controller.

266
Table 5.20 Process Control of Compressor (C-101, C-102, C-103, C-104, C-105,
C-106)

Unit Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Variable Controller
C-101 Outlet Flow rate of Inlet flow rate Anti-Surge P = 12.24
pressure of the recycle of stream 1 Controller atm, if
stream 2 stream pressure at
±2atm of
set point, the
recycle vale
will be open
C-102 Outlet Flow rate of Inlet flow rate Anti-Surge P=
pressure of the recycle of stream 3 Controller 30.00atm, if
stream 4 stream pressure at
±2atm of
set point, the
recycle vale
will be open
C-103 Outlet Flow rate of Inlet flow rate Anti-Surge P=
pressure of the recycle of stream 22 Controller 13.24atm, if
stream 23 stream pressure at
±2atm of
set point, the
recycle vale
will be open
C-104 Outlet Flow rate of Inlet flow rate Anti-Surge P=
pressure of the recycle of stream 24 Controller 30.00atm, if
stream 25 stream pressure at
±2atm of
set point, the
recycle vale
will be open

267
Unit Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
Variable Variable Controller
C-105 Outlet Flow rate of Inlet flow rate Anti-Surge P=
pressure of the recycle of stream 29 Controller 12.25atm, if
stream 30 stream pressure at
±2atm of
set point, the
recycle vale
will be open
C-106 Outlet Flow rate of Inlet flow rate Anti-Surge P=
pressure of the recycle of stream 31 Controller 12.25atm, if
stream 32 stream pressure at
±2atm of
set point, the
recycle vale
will be open

FT PT TT
C-101
2
ASC PT TT

Figure 5.24 Control System Design of Compressor (C-101)

268
 3

FT PT TT
C-102
4
ASC PT TT

Figure 5.25 Control System Design of Compressor (C-102)

22

FT PT TT
C-103
23
ASC PT TT

Figure 5.26 Control System Design of Compressor (C-103)

24

FT PT TT
C-104
25
ASC PT TT

Figure 5.27 Control System Design of Compressor (C-104)

269
 29

FT PT TT
C-105
30
ASC PT TT

Figure 5.28 Control System Design of Compressor (C-105)

31

FT PT TT
C-106
32
ASC PT TT

Figure 5.29 Control System Design of Compressor (C-106)

5.4.12 Process Operability for Valve (V-101)

There are 1 pressure-reducing valve in this plant which is V-101. The objective
of the process operability of pressure-reducing valve is to maintain the outlet stream
pressure at the desired value. Table 5.21 displays the process operability for pressure-
reducing valve (V-101) while Figure 5.19 presents the process operability design for
pressure-reducing valve (V-101).

270
 Table 5.21 Process Operability of Valve (V-101)

Control Variable Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Controller
To maintain the - - - P = 4atm
pressure of outlet
stream 18

PAH
PI
PAL

17 18
V-101

Figure 5.30 Process Operability Design for Valve (V-101)

5.4.13 Process Operability for Pump (P-101)

There are 1 pump in this plant which is P-101. The objective of the process
operability of pump is to maintain the outlet stream pressure at the desired value. Table
5.22 displays the process operability for pump (P-101) while Figure 5.31 presents the
process operability design for pump (P-101).

271
 Table 5.22 Process Operability of Pump (P-101)

Control Variable Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

Variable Controller
To maintain the outlet - - - P = 4atm
stream pressure at a
desirable value for the
pump to operate
optimally and safely.

PAH
PI
PAL

7
6

P-101

Figure 5.31 Process Operability Design of Pump (P-101)

272
 5.5 Overall P&ID Control System
Equipment C-101 C-102 CL-04 CL-01 HT-01 HT-02 P-101 HE-02 HE-01 HE-06 HE-07 R-101 T-101 R-102 F-101
tag
Equipment Reciprocating Reciprocating Centrifugal Heat Heat Heat Heat TubularSteam WaterGas
Cooler Cooler Furnace Furnace Expander FlashColumn
name Compressor Compressor Pump Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger Reactor ShiftReactor

25
5
CW inlet CW inlet
25
12.25
1 97.34 TIC TIC

12.25 50 TIC TT
Methane FT PT TT 12.25
TT
3 97.34
TT
30
2 2a 700
C-101 5 30
ASC PT TT Cl-04 CL-01 FT PT TT
4 Heating oil In
CW outlet C-102 To HE-03
CW outlet DWG. BG2021
HT-01 Heating oil outlet 12
PT TT To atmoshpere SHEET 2 OF 3
ASC
9
PAH
To A-101
PIC
700 FT
PAH
PAL
PIC PAL 14 DWG. BG2021
SHEET 2 OF 3
30
To atmoshpere
PIC PAH
398.09 PAL
PT
FFC 6
FT PT
TIC TT
TT PT
25 28.99 40 48.32 127.58 10 TT

PI
PAH 30 30 30 30 30 8
FIC 25 Heating oil in FT PT TT T-101 PT TT
PAL HE-02 HE-01 HE-06 HE-07 LT
FT 1 Coolant in

7 7a 7b 7c 7d Heating oil In FT R-101 ASC

LIC LAH
Heating oil outlet F-101
6 HT-02 Heating oil outlet FIC
R-102 Coolant out LAL

FT
FIC TIC
Water 280
15
P-101 TAH
6
TAL TAH TIC
TAL water
11
From C-105
30 DWG. BG2021
SHEET 3 OF 3
To CLO-03
30a DWG. BG2021
40 SHEET 3 OF 3
6 From HE-03
12a DWG. BG2021
SHEET 2 OF 3
13
From HE-05
23a DWG. BG2021
SHEET 2 OF 3

To CLO-02
23b DWG. BG2021
SHEET 2 OF 3

OWNER CLIENT TITLE SIZE DRAWING NO SHEET

MJIIT CHEMICALS SDN BHD PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM A3 BG2021 1 OF 3

PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA

Chemica Engineering Sdn. Bhd

273
Equipment
A-101 V-101 S-101 C-103 HE-03 HE-04 HE-05 HT-03 HT-04 HT-05 CL-02 F-102
tag
Equipment
Absorber Throttlingvalve Splitter Compressor HeatExchanger HeatExchanger HeatExchanger Heater Heater Heater Cooler FlashColumn
name

43.29
13.42

From HE-02
DWG. BG2021 23b
SHEET 1 OF 3 50
13.42
TO HE-02
DWG. BG2021 23a CW inlet
SHEET 1 OF 3

22
TIC
PAH
122.56 40
40 PIC
PAL PT
13.42 13.42
6 FFC FT TT
FT TT
C-103 To C-104
23 24 DWG. BG2021
PT
HPS inlet
16 ASC PT TT SHEET 3 OF 3
CL-02
Diethanolamine FT LT CW outlet TIC
300
46.84
4
From F-101 4
TT
DWG. BG2021 14 A-101 FIC
FT
SHEET 1 OF 3 LIC LAH 18h 18i
LAL 20
HE-05 HT-05
17 PI
PAH HPS outlet PIC PAH
PAL HPS inlet PAL Carbon dioxide
18g TIC
18 FIC
FT 300
S-101 100.79
4 PT
V-101 HE-04 4 TT
40
4 18d 18e 18f 19
HT-04 LT

HPS inlet HPS outlet

FAH
FI F-102
FAL TIC
LIC LAH
80.20 300 LAL

HE-03 4 4
TT

18a 18b 18c 21

50
6 HT-03
HPS outlet
Diethanolamine
TO HE-01 From R-103
DWG. BG2021 12a 35 DWG. BG2021
SHEET 1 OF 3 SHEET 3 OF 3

From R-102 TO F-103

DWG. BG2021 12 36 DWG. BG2021
SHEET 1 OF 3 SHEET 3 OF 3

OWNER CLIENT TITLE SIZE DRAWING NO SHEET

MJIIT CHEMICALS SDN BHD PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM A3 BG2021 2 OF 3

PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA

Chemica Engineering Sdn. Bhd

274
Equipment
C-104 C-105 C-106 CL-03 HT-06 HT-07 HT-08 D-101 M-101 R-103 F-103 S-102
tag
Equipment Reciprocating Reciprocating Reciprocating Membrane AmmoniaSynthesis
Cooler Heater Heater Heater Mixer FlashColumn Splitter
name Compressor Compressor Compressor Separator Reactor

To HE-06
DWG. BG2021
SHEET 1 OF 3 50
12.25
CW inlet
From HE-06
DWG. BG2021 30a TIC
SHEET 1 OF 3
HPS inlet
25
25
5 TT 12.25
113.72
29 12.25 30
31 TIC

CL-03
Nitrogen gas 113.72
TT
FT PT TT CW outlet FT PT TT 30
C-105
HPS inlet
C-106
32 FT
ASC PT TT ASC PT TT HT-07 400
33 30 TIC
HPS outlet

FT
400
TT
FFC
30
FAH
FAL
From CLO-02
HPS inlet FT
40 39
DWG. BG2021 24
SHEET 2 OF 3 HT-08
28 PIC PAH
PAL
PAH PIC
TIC PIC M-102 PAL HPS outlet
122.56 FIC
FT PT FT
TT 30 Purge to atmoshpere
To atmoshpere
C-104
TT PT 38
25 26 34 PT

ASC PT TT HT-06 TT PT
400
30 D-101
HPS outlet
27 Coolant in
35
LT

To HE-04 Carbon Monoxide, R-103 F-103 LIC LAH

DWG. BG2021 Coolant outlet LAL
Carbon Dioxide, Methane FT
FIC TIC
SHEET 2 OF 3
From HE-04 37
DWG. BG2021 36
SHEET 2 OF 3 Ammonia Liquid
50
30

OWNER CLIENT TITLE SIZE DRAWING NO SHEET

MJIIT CHEMICALS SDN BHD PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM A3 BG2021 3 OF 3

PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA

Chemica Engineering Sdn. Bhd

275
 CHAPTER 6

SAFETY PROCESS

6.1 Introduction

It is important to have a systematic process in both the upstream and

downstream industries to manage a plant safety. Each plant has their own type hazard.
Some of plants have greater risk and challenges than others. Process safety is a
disciplined approach to ensuring the integrity of hazardous-substance-handling
structures and procedures. It is based on sound design concepts, engineering, and
operational and maintenance procedures. It deals with the prevention and mitigation
of incidents that have the potential for a loss of control of a hazardous material or
energy. Good management practice is vital to ensure safe and efficient operation in
plant.

Process Safety Management (PSM) is a regulation under OSHA standard

which requires employers to recognise, assess and monitor the hazard associated with
the highly hazardous chemicals used in their processes. There is a total of 14 key
elements that needed to be carried out under PSM program as stated in OSHA. These
PSM program is able to narrow the likelihood and severity of an unwanted release or
exposure. It is important to be implemented at facilities which uses highly hazardous
chemicals. OSHA regulators does not regulate on the method of implementing PSM
programs at work place but they will need the company to fulfill the 14 requirements.

Process Hazard Analysis (PHA) which is one of the elements in PSM is an

organized and systematic way to identify and analyse the significance of hazardous
scenarios associated with a process or activity. The aim of PHA is to point out the

276
weaknesses in the design and operation of facilities that might lead to accidental
chemical releases, fires or explosion. Several methods are used in PHA to identify the
hazard, such as

a. Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)

b. What-If Studies

c. Checklist analysis

d. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

e. Failure Modes Effects Analysis (FMEA)

f. Major Hazard Analysis (MHA)

However, among these methods, Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) will
be conducted in this report. HAZOP is used as a part of Quantitative Risk Assessment
or as standalone analysis. HAZOP is a document study to identify possible hazards of
a process in a systematic way. There are 4 basic steps to conduct the HAZOP study
process. First, a HAZOP team is formed. Then, the elements of the system are
identified. Possible deviation of each guideword is identified. Lastly, hazard and
failure points are identified. The flowchart of conducting proper HAZOP for a
chemical plant is as shown in Figure 6.1.

277
 Select a process
Divide section into Select a study
parameter (flow,
study node node
level, temperature)

Evaluate
Apply guide-word Determine cause
consequences

Recommend safety
measure or action
required

Figure 6.1 Flowchart of procedure to conduct HAZOP

In a HAZOP study, the study nodes are required to be addressed with

appropriate guide words. To complete the HAZOP study, the team will need to explain
for each process by applying a number of guide-word and parameters. The parameters
include flow, temperature, pressure and level while the guide-word are listed in Table
6.1.

Table 6.1 Standard guide-words used in HAZOP

Guide words Descriptions

No (not, none) None of the design intent is achieved
More (more of, higher) Quantitative increase in a parameter
Less (less of, lower) Quantitative decrease in a parameter
As well as (more than) An additional activity occurs
Only some of the design intention is
Part of
achieved
Logical opposite of the design
Reverse
intention occurs

278
 Guide words Descriptions
Complete substitution – another
activity takes place / an unusual
Other than (other)
activity occurs / uncommon condition
exists
Applicable for flows, transfers, sources
Where else
and destinations
The step (or some part of it) is affected
Before / after
out of sequence
The timing is different from the
Early / late
intention
The step is done / not done with the
Faster / slower
right timing

The following table shows the combination of suitable guidewords with

respective parameters. The combination as shown in Table 6.2 can be used as reference
when constructing a HAZOP table.

Table 6.2 Parameters and their respective suitable guide-word

Parameter Guide word

Flow No/high/Low/Reverse

Level High/Low

Temperature High/Low

Pressure High/Low

279
6.2 Plant Safety

The most important aspect in avoiding any undesirable accident is to maintain

adequate plant safety. Although the machinery is not categorize as major equipment,
it also necessitates the enforcement of precautionary measures as safeguards. These
minor aspects can have huge effects for the whole plant system. The following are the
some safety aspects to consider for the safety purpose, which will be discuss later.

6.2.1 Plant Location

There are several factors to consider when choosing a location for a plant. Early
theories of industrial position used a basic framework to analyze the data, with
locational and special diversification calculated simply by adjusting the location and
weight distance characteristics of inputs and outputs. Among the aspects that influence
the plant location such as availability of raw materials, infrastructural facilities,
availability of manpower, government policy, proximity of market, regulation and
taxation, local laws, ecological and environmental factors, land costs, subsidies for
backward areas, incentives, political condition and climatic condition. When
discussing on plant location for all chemical plant, first of all the plant should be
located far from any resident areas as to avoid the risk of harming the resident living
nearby.

6.2.2 Chemical Storage and Process Vessel

Working around dangerous chemicals necessitates the use of safeguards, since

it is important to avoid unwanted event. Similarly, when it comes to chemical storage
and process vessels, the same high level of safety must be maintain.

280
 It is important to bear in mind that even hazardous chemical are stored in
containers it should never be disregard. if stored properly these materials will not cause
a problem. Accidents was most often caused by a lack of knowledge of the concept of
protected storage and how to keep ourselves safe when within a storage facility.
Possible issues might occur during the introduction of raw material into the closed
system or removal of products, whether the desired products for shipping or waste
(OSHA, 2021). Therefore, when dealing with hazardous substance, we cannot afford
to take the risk. Hence, it is important to comprehend the fundamentals of safe
hazardous material storage as well as the precautions that should carry out.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has specific guidelines for
the location and construction of rooms or buildings that contain these chemicals, as
well as examples of what materials can and cannot be stored with various types of
hazardous substances. Each aspect of storage room design serves a purpose that is to
keep the materials and people in the area safe from accidents or casualties.

Hazardous materials handling is cover by a variety of various OSHA

regulations. The majority of these rules apply to particular substances or classes of
substances, such as liquefied hydrogen or flammable and combustible liquids. Thus,
labelling of each chemical and defining the properties of the hazards is a crucial
element. The individual who uses the chemical should follow the measures mentioned
on the packaging, such as wearing protective clothing and equipment. Few factors that
should always be review before operating in a hazardous material storage environment,
such as:

 Physical and chemical characteristics

 Fire and explosion hazard data

 Reactivity

 Health hazard data

 Protection against hazards

281
6.2.3 Transportation

Accidents may occur during the loading and unloading of fluids through
pipelines, tankers, road stations, and other means, resulting in the unintentional
discharge of dangerous and combustible fluid. To prevent from unnecessary risk, the
International Labor Organization strictly advised all employer, staff, transporter or
inspecting authority to share the responsibilities and follow current transportation and
storage recommendations and guidelines (ILO, 2021). Various categories that may
result in the occurrence of hazard, such as:

 Vehicle hazards that include crashes, parking errors, and vehicle damage and
improper maintenance.

 Ignition hazards from both car motors and electricity.

 Temporary hose and solid pipe connection.

 Overfilling risks and faults in valve opening and closing series.

All of these risks can be reduce and avoid entirely by planning an appropriate
layout and site for the loading and unloading area, as well as safety spaces between the
container and storage and safety spaces for other possibly flammable areas.

6.2.4 Management of Chemical Substance

To reduce the environmental effects of flammable, corrosive, radioactive, and

other varieties of chemicals used in products, the appropriate procedure to handle
safely for each type of chemical is necessary. Various threats can be deal with in a
variety of ways. Based on the chemical properties to prevent from being contaminate,
flammable forms must be stored at a safe distance from other chemicals. When dealing
with toxic dust, workers should have access to a suitable ventilation area for their
safety. When working with toxic dust, a proper ventilation area should be accessible
for the worker's protection.

282
 Inspection and repairs should be perform on a regular basis to ensure the safety
of the buildings and to identify any leaks quickly enough just to avoid serious
consequences. Exits should be accessible in case of an emergency and the path should
always be clear to allow workers and other people to move freely. Aside from that, the
inventory arrangement must be record and distribute so that any slips or errors can be
identify by the intervention documents.

6.3 Worker Safety

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) states that employers

are responsible for the safety of their employees at work under any circumstances. This
includes every employers and employees to comply to safety rules set by the company
to avoid any accident or even worse fatality at any time. The purpose of the safety rules
is to make sure not only workers in good conditions but also the equipment and
environment at the manufacturing plant. The worker must be informed about the
dangers and risks present at work, as well as trained in healthy working practices.

6.3.1 General Personal Safety

There are few general personal safeties that should be followed:

2. Every employee should comply the safety rules, sign, and warning as there
are explanation such as flammable and others.

3. Employers must take responsibility for their employee’s safety.

4. No smoking or eating except in specific areas designated for smoking and

eating.

5. No flammable chemical substances, alcohol and drugs allowed to bring along

into the plant.

283
 6. Get medical treatment if injured and all employees must be given first aid
training.

7. When in the factory, all workers must put on all their personal protective
equipment (PPE) that has been given in order to reduce the risk of injury and
any accidents that might occur.

8. Any faulty equipment, hazardous conditions, or dangerous procedures must

be reported as soon as possible to the person in charge.

6.3.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Providing guidance, policies, training, and supervision to allow people to work

efficiently and responsibly is part of making the workplace secure. The best way to
ensure safety is to wear personnel protection equipment (PPE). All PPE clothing and
equipment should be designed and constructed in a safe manner, and it should be kept
clean and reliable.

When choosing suitable PPE for the office, people should consider how well it
fits and how comfortable it is to wear. All the safety devices come in a variety of sizes,
so make sure to use the correct one for each employee. Many types of personal
protective equipment (PPE) are required by OSHA or similar to the American National
Standard Institute's standards (ANSI). Table 6.3 below shows the list of PPEs required
and their respective descriptions.

284
 Table 6.3 Description of Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE)

Equipment Descriptions
To ensure that the eyes are protected
from hazards such as small particles,
Safety Goggles fragments, and sharp objects. The safety
goggles fit the around the eyes and
prevents objects from entering the
goggles.
To protect from objects that fall over the
head and to prevent the skull from being
Safety Helmet injured due to impacts. Suspension
bands inside the helmet helps to spread
the helmet’s weight.
To protect the whole face from sharp
Face Shield objects or chemical splashes. This helps
to minimize injuries in case of any
incident should occur.
To protect the feet from stepping on
sharp objects and other harmful
Safety Footwear substances. Workers that requires the
wearing of safety footwear are usually
those that work at construction sites and
manufacturing.

6.3.3 First Aid

First aid is the equipment used in order to perform medical treatment. It is a

form of emergency medical treatment that must be given to a sick or wounded person
before normal medical help can be received. Understand the precautions that must be
taken to ensure the worker's and others' safety. There are numerous emergencies that

285
necessitate immediate first-aid care, which can be accomplished by following these
steps:

 Move victim to fresh air while another person call emergency medical care.

 If not breathing, give artificial respiration (CPR).

 If breathing is difficult or not breathing give oxygen by mouth-to-mouth

resuscitation.

 Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes at the site.

 In case of contact with chemical, immediately flush skin or eyes with running
water for at least 15 minutes.

 Keep victim calm and maintain normal body temperature.

 Effects may be delayed; keep victim under observation.

6.4 Fire Hazard

Chemicals, fire, explosions, electricity, a hole in the ground, and other hazards
are examples of hazards (Wong, 2010). When it comes to a chemical-based company,
the most significant risk is fire, which can result in explosions due to gases, vapours,
mists, and dusts that escape during the manufacturing, processing, transportation, and
storage of flammable materials. There will be death and property destruction as a result
of this. In order to avoid such a major catastrophe, fire risk management becomes
extremely important and essential. One of the most important aspects of risk
management is maintaining employee protection, preventing fire, and responding
appropriately if a fire occurs. There are steps that can be taken to prevent a fire from
exploding and to contain the situation without causing any deaths, collateral damage,
or equipment failure.

286
6.4.1 Fire Prevention

The basic definition of fire should be thoroughly studied in order to

comprehend the danger of fire threat. The presence of gasoline, an ignition source, and
oxygen are the three sources that can result in an explosive atmosphere. It is important
to keep processing plants away from ignition sources such as open flames, sparks, and
external ignition sources in order to avoid fire. However, in order to have a safer plan,
standard operating procedures that comply with the Fire Services Act 1988 should be
followed for ignition sources that are unavoidable in the factory, such as the presence
of motors, boilers, and leakage.

Fire is classified as the rapid, exothermic oxidation of the present ignited fuel.
It is a rapid physical or chemical oxidation reaction or decay that results in an increase
in temperature or pressure, or both, at the same time. The interactions of flammable
compounds, vapours, or dusts with oxygen in the air are the most well-known. This
demonstrates that fuel can exist in any form, whether solid, liquid, or vapour, but that
vapour and liquid fuels are typically the easiest to light. The three critical conditions
that must be present for a fire or combustion explosion to occur are depicted in the
diagram below. There are a few steps that should be taken to keep the fire under
control.

Figure 6.2 Fire or Combustion Triangle

287
6.4.2 Fire Detection and Alarm System

Fire detectors are primarily intended to detect fires early in their production,
when there is still enough time to attempt a safe evacuation of occupants. Early
detection is also essential for ensuring the safety of emergency response personnel.
Early warning will reduce property loss and reduce downtime for the operation since
control measures will begin when the fire is still small. Fire detectors are in charge of
detecting events that occur as a result of a fire, such as smoke, heat, infrared or
ultraviolet light, or gas. By having several detectors in the factory, the automatic
detector can provide a quicker and more reliable indicator of the ignition source and
the severity of the fire. Early detection has the potential to save lives and reduce
damage and downtime. Modern fire detection systems are made up of one or more
microprocessor-equipped cabinets with individual field devices connected to the
cabinet via wiring and a communications protocol (Hyndman, 2019). Alarms are the
most important device that should have a fire detector installed.

When smoke, fire, carbon monoxide, or other emergencies are present, the
alarm system works in tandem with the detection system to warm staff via visual and
audio equipment. These alarms may be set off automatically by respective detectors,
such as smoke detectors and heat detectors, or manually by manual fire alarm
triggering devices, such as manual call points or pull stations (Wong, 2010). The
location of the fire detection system is critical because it influences the warning time.
As a result, alarms should be mounted near flammable hotspots that can be triggered
quickly to warn if a worst-case scenario is surpassed at that location, particularly if it
is a large area.

Alarm systems should be installed in the majority of the plant's buildings or

utilities because, in the event of a fire, the alarm system will alert the staff on the job,
reducing reaction time. Employers would have some free time to evacuate all of their
workers to a safer open area in order to avoid any fatalities. Another advantage of an
alarm system is that it assists in notifying the closest fire station of a fire accident,
allowing officials to take prompt action.
288
6.5 Plant Emergency Response

A plant or workplace emergency is known as an unpredicted event which could

threaten the life of the employee and workers, disrupts the flow of operation or causes
physical or environmental damage that requires an immediate action. This
emergencies could be occurred naturally or due to manmade incidents such as floods,
tornadoes, fires, civil disturbances, chemical spillages, toxic gases releases,
radiological accidents and so on. In order to reduce the risk of the plant emergency
occurrences a well-developed emergency responses or planning should be carry out by
executing appropriate actions. According to Occupational Safety and Health of United
States (2004), emergency response is known as an integral part of the loss control
programme and is essential for each organization in the plant. It involves an effective
management such as evaluating the possible hazard present in the plant and identifying
the appropriate actions that the employees should be taken on different types of
emergencies in order to minimize the injuries, fatalities or property damage. By
implementing these actions ahead of time, the employers and employees are able to
act quickly according to the plan and reduces the risk of losses.

However, different plant have different procedures to handle the identified

hazard and evaluate the plant. Here, are the basic procedure, program and equipment
requirements with minimum of emergencies action plan provided by OSHA which
every plant should be followed:

 The fire emergency reporting procedure.

 Procedures for emergency evacuation, including the type of evacuation and

exit routes.

 Procedures for those who remain to operate critical operation prior evacuation.

 Procedures to account for every employees after evacuation.

 Procedures for employees to perform rescue and medical duties.

289
 Before executing the procedures, it is essential to identify the type and severity
of the emergency in order to implement an appropriate procedure which could handle
the hazard at the early stage. For example, if there is a large fire or explosion, an
immediate full evacuation of all the employees and visitors to a predetermined area
such as assembly area that is far away from the facility is known as the best way to
prevent everyone from any major losses. It is also important to inform the nearby
business and residents of the emergency about their exposures so that a precaution on
the hazard can be take. If there is a incident of small fire occurrences, only a partial
evacuation is required as the small fire area could be isolated. (Guide, 2015).

Besides that, in order to carry out this emergency procedures, a well-trained

individuals who can supervise and coordinate the activities during the evacuation
process is required to ensure the process can be done safely and successfully. This
individual should be responsible in assessing the situation to determine whether an
existing emergency requires any activation of emergency procedures, supervising all
the efforts in the area including emergency services and evacuating personal to a safer
environment. Other than that, an evacuating person is highly required during the fire
evacuation in order to help to move the employees to a safer environment during the
emergency and make sure there is no person is been left out. This person should already
be available during the working hours since emergency response is known as an
unpredictable event.

Furthermore, OSHA also requires every plant to prepare an emergency

evacuation map which placed in each working area that includes the primary and
secondary routes of evacuation, locations of fire extinguishers, fire alarm pull station
locations and of course the assembly areas. Thus, by implementing these proper
emergency responses in every plant, the risk of emergency response and the major
losses can be reduced to a minimum rate.

290
6.6 HAZOP Sheet for Process Equipment

In this section, the HAZOP techniques were applied to the major and auxiliary
equipment used in the Ammonia production plant for the identification of the potential
hazard present in the plant. The equipment involved are Tubular Steam Reactor, Water
Gas Shift Reactor, Ammonia Synthesis Reactor, Flash Column, Absorber, Membrane
Separator, Furnace, Heater, Cooler, Heat Exchanger, Splitter, Mixer, Expander,
Compressor, Throttling Valve and finally Pump. Potential hazards which may arise
from the deviation could be identified from the HAZOP study and thus appropriate
remedying action shall be taken to rectify the “deviation” of the listed equipment. Table
6.4 to Table 6.19 and Figure 6.3 to Figure 6.32 below shows the HAZOP study for
each equipment used in the Ammonia production plant respectively.

291
 Table 6.4 Hazop Sheet of Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 3

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To convert the methane gas into the syngas
Diagra m: Figure 6.3
P ara m eter: Temperature P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control the temperature of the reactor
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Temperature of  Malfunction of  The reactor will not  Cascade Temperature indicator  Proper maintenance and regular
the reactor is heat exchanger achieve the desired and controller have installed. inspection are required for the
low for the  Malfunction of installed controller and reactor
Low
reaction to temperature for the  High and low safety alarm to ensure that both controller
furnace
occur.  Flowrate of process. system have installed. and reactor are functioning well.
heating medium  The reaction might
is low into the
not be occurred.
reactor.
 Flowrate of
Temperature of  An inefficient  Cascade Temperature indicator
heating medium  Proper maintenance and regular
the reactor is is high into the product will be inspection are required for the
High and controller have installed.
high for the reactor. installed controller and reactor
obtained from the  High and low safety alarm
 Malfunction of to ensure that both controller
reaction to reactor at the end of
heat exchanger system have installed. and reactor are functioning well.
occur.  Malfunction of the process.
furnace

292
P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 2 of 3
R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To convert the methane gas into the syngas
Diagra m: Figure 6.3
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control the pressure of the reactor
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Pressure of the  Leakages in the  Loss of product due  Pressure indicator and  Proper maintenance and regular
reactor is low pipeline might be to low pressure controller have installed. inspection are required for the
for the reaction occurred. installed controller and reactor
Low
to occur. supply.  High and low safety alarm to ensure that both controller
 The reaction might system have installed. and reactor are functioning well.
not be occurred.

Pressure of the  Outlet pipelines

 High risk of  Pressure indicator and
reactor is high are blocked  Proper maintenance and regular
explosion of the
High for the reaction  Malfunction of controller have installed. inspection are required for the
reactor.
control valve at installed controller and reactor
to occur.
the outlet stream.  High and low safety alarm
to ensure that both controller
system have installed. and reactor are functioning well.

293
P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 3 of 3
R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To convert the methane gas into the syngas
Diagra m: Figure 6.3
P ara m eter: Flow P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control the ratio of the feed into the reactor
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
No flow of the  Pipeline is  Reaction does not  Flow indicator and controller  Installation of safety interlock
feed into the blocked. occurred. have installed. system for the controller.
 Pressure might build  Regular inspection and
reactor.  Flow fraction controller have
 Pipeline leakage
No
up in the pipeline. maintenance on the controller
is occurred. installed. and reactor.
 Malfunction of
control valve

Less flow of  Pipeline leakage  Insufficient flow of  Flow indicator and controller  Regular inspection and
the feed into is occurred. feed into the reactor. have installed. maintenance on the controller
the reactor.  Pipeline is  Production might and reactor.
Less  Flow fraction controller have
blocked. slows down.
installed.
 Flow indicator and controller
have installed.  Regular inspection and
High flow of  Malfunction of  Overflow of water
maintenance on the controller
the feed into control valve at might occurred in  Flow fraction controller have
and reactor.
High the inlet stream. the reactor. installed.
the reactor
 High pressure build-
up may occurred.

294
Figure 6.3 below shows the control system of Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101) with
some safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

To atmoshpere 9

PIC PAH
FT PAL

5
FFC PT
FT

TT
8
Heating oil in

FT
R-101
Heating oil outlet

FIC TIC

TAH
TAL

Figure 6.3 Control System of Tubular Steam Reactor (R-101)

295
 Table 6.5 Hazop Sheet of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 2

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To increase the ratio of H2:CO
Diagra m: Figure 6.4
P ara m eter: Temperature P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control the temperature of the reactor
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low Temperature of  The flowrate of  The reaction might  TT is installed to indicate and  Proper maintenance and regular
the cooling water be failure due to low transmit the temperature of the inspection are required for the
the reactor is
at the inlet is low temperature supply. reactor to the controller at the installed controller and reactor
low for the which causing
 Less conversion of inlet stream. to ensure that both controller
more heat loss
reaction to
from the reactor. reactant might be  TIC is installed with alarm in and reactor are functioning well.
occur. occurred. order to control the flowrate of
cooling water at the inlet
stream.

 TT is installed to indicate and  Proper maintenance and regular

Temperature of  The flowrate of  The reaction might
transmit the temperature of the inspection are required for the
High
the reactor is the cooling water be runaway due to
at the inlet is high reactor to the controller at the installed controller and reactor
high temperature
high for the which fails to inlet stream. to ensure that both controller
supply.
reaction to maintain the  TIC is installed with alarm in and reactor are functioning well.
required  The pressure of the
order to control the flowrate of
occur. temperature. reactor might
cooling water at the inlet
increases.
stream.

296
P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 2 of 2
R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To increase the ratio of H2:CO
Diagra m: Figure 6.4
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control the pressure of the reactor
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low Pressure of  Leakages in the  Loss of product  PT is installed to indicate and  Proper maintenance and
pipeline may be forward rate since the transmit the pressure of the reactor regular inspection are
the reactor is
occurred. pressure is lower than to the controller at the outlet stream. required for the installed
low for the the required condition.
 Expander might  PIC is installed with alarm to controller and reactor to
reaction to  Yield of product might
be malfunction. control the pressure of outlet stream ensure that both controller
be affected due to less
occur. conversion. that maintain the pressure of and reactor are functioning
reactor. well.

 Blockages at  High risk of explosion  PT is installed to indicate and  Proper maintenance and
Pressure of
the inlet feed of the reactor. transmit the pressure of the reactor regular inspection are
the reactor is
High
stream.  Rupture on the reactor to the controller at the outlet stream. required for the installed
high for the  Pressure relief could be occurred.  PIC is installed with alarm to controller and reactor to
reaction to valve control the pressure of outlet stream ensure that both controller
calibration that maintain the pressure of and reactor are functioning
occur. well.
error. reactor.
 Pressure relief valve is calibrated to
eliminate excess pressure.

297
Figure 6.4 below shows the control system of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102) with
some safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

12

To atmoshpere PIC PAH

PAL

PT

11 TT

Coolant in

R-102 Coolant out

FIC
FT

TAH TIC
TAL

Figure 6.4 Control System of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

298
 Table 6.6 Hazop Sheet of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 2

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To produce ammonia as a product
Diagra m: Figure 6.5
P ara m eter: Temperature P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control the temperature of the reactor
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low Temperature of  The coolant of  The rate of reaction  Temperature control valve and  Regularly monitoring and
the reactor is the reactor fail to decrease. indicator are installed. maintenance should be carry
operate (valve of  Quality of product is  Low and high temperature out.
low for the
coolant stream affected. safety alarm is installed.
reaction to closed
occur. completely)

 The coolant of  Regularly monitoring and

the reactor fail to  Overheating in the  Temperature control valve and
maintenance should be carry
Temperature of operate (valve of reactor. indicator are installed.
out.
the reactor is coolant stream  Large volume of  Low and high temperature
 Safety system interlock should
High opened vapour formed safety alarm is installed.
high for the completely). be installed.
which lead to rupture
reaction to  The heat in the and explosion.
reactor cannot be
occur. removed  Quality of product is
effectively which affected.
results in thermal
runaway.
299
P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 2 of 2
R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To produce ammonia as a product
Diagra m: Figure 6.5
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control the pressure of the reactor
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low Pressure of  Malfunction of  Pressure in reactor is  Pressure control valve and indicator  Regularly monitoring and
the reactor is pressure valve reduce below to the are installed. maintenance should be
(opened smaller desired operating  Low and high pressure safety alarm carry out.
low for the
than required). pressure. is installed.
reaction to  Leakage of the  Product reaction will be
occur. pipeline. affected.
 Less feed flow into
reactor.

 Malfunction of  Pressure build-up due  Pressure control valve and indicator  Regularly monitoring and
Pressure of
pressure valve to excessive air flow are installed. maintenance should be
High
the reactor is (opened larger which might lead to  High pressure safety alarm is carry out.
high for the than required). damage in reactor. installed.
reaction to  Product reaction will be  Pressure relief valve is installed.
affected.
occur.

300
Figure 6.5 below shows the control system of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103)
with some safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

PAH PIC
PAL

To atmoshpere

35
PT

TT

34
Coolant in

R-103
Coolant outlet
FIC TIC
FT

TAH
TAL

Figure 6.5 Control System of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103)

301
 Table 6.7 Hazop Sheet of Flash Column (F-101)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 2

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Flash Column (F-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To separate the mixture into two components
Diagra m: Figure 6.6
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To separate the mixture of water and gas based on pressure difference
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low Pressure of the  Lower feed drum  The rate of  PT is installed to indicate and  Regularly monitoring and
flash column is temperature. separation reduces. transmit the pressure of the maintenance should be carry out
low for the  Leakage of the  Affects the yield and flash column to the controller on the installed controller and
separation to pipeline. purity of the gases. at the outlet stream. flash column.
occur.  PIC is installed with alarm to
control the pressure of outlet
stream that maintain the
pressure of flash column.

 Separation of the  PT is installed to indicate and

Pressure of the  Higher feed drum  Regularly monitoring and
flash column is mixture will be transmit the pressure of the
temperature. maintenance should be carry out
High inefficient and
high for the  Malfunction of flash column to the controller on the installed controller and
separation to inconsistent. at the outlet stream.
the valve to flash column.
occur.  Pressure build-up  PIC is installed with alarm to
regulate the
which may cause control the pressure of outlet
pressure.
explosion or damage stream that maintain the
to the flash column. pressure of flash column.

302
P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 2 of 2
R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Flash Column (F-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To separate the mixture into two components
Diagra m: Figure 6.6
P ara m eter: Level P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the liquid level inside the flash column
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low The liquid  The flowrate of  Ineffective  LT is installed to indicate and  Regularly monitoring and
level of the the inlet stream of separation or no transmit the level inside the maintenance should be carry out
flash column is the column is separation occurs. flash column to the controller. on the installed controller and
flash column.
lower than the low.  Low liquid level in  LIC is installed with alarm to
minimum  Blockage of the the flash column. control the liquid level inside
level. inlet stream the flash column that maintain
pipeline. the level of flash column.

 Regularly monitoring and

The liquid  The flowrate of  Less liquid flow at  LT is installed to indicate and maintenance should be carry out
level of the the outlet stream the bottom of the transmit the level inside the on the installed controller and
High
flash column is of the column is flash column. flash column to the controller. flash column.
high.
lower than the  Liquid flooding may  LIC is installed with alarm to
 Malfunction of
minimum level the valve to occurred inside the control the liquid level inside
regulate the flash column. the flash column that maintain
liquid. the level of flash column.

303
Figure 6.6 below shows the control system of Flash Column (F-101) with some safety
measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

14

PIC PAH
PAL

PT

13
LT

F-101 LIC LAH

LAL

15

Figure 6.6 Control System of Flash Column (F-101)

304
 Table 6.8 Hazop Sheet of Flash Column (F-102)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 2

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Flash Column (F-102) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To separate the mixture into two components
Diagra m: Figure 6.7
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To separate the mixture of DEA and CO2 based on pressure difference
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low Pressure of the  Lower feed drum  The rate of  PT is installed to indicate and  Regularly monitoring and
flash column is temperature. separation reduces. transmit the pressure of the maintenance should be carry out
low for the  Leakage of the  Affects the yield and flash column to the controller on the installed controller and
separation to pipeline. purity of the gases. at the outlet stream. flash column.
occur.  PIC is installed with alarm to
control the pressure of outlet
stream that maintain the
pressure of flash column.

Pressure of the  Higher feed drum  Separation of the  PT is installed to indicate and  Regularly monitoring and
flash column is temperature. mixture will be transmit the pressure of the maintenance should be carry out
High
high for the  Malfunction of inefficient and flash column to the controller on the installed controller and
separation to the valve to inconsistent. at the outlet stream. flash column.
occur. regulate the  Pressure build-up  PIC is installed with alarm to
pressure. which may cause control the pressure of outlet
explosion or damage stream that maintain the
to the flash column. pressure of flash column.

305
P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 2 of 2
R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Flash Column (F-102) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To separate the mixture into two components
Diagra m: Figure 6.7
P ara m eter: Level P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the liquid level inside the flash column
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low The liquid  The flowrate of  Ineffective  LT is installed to indicate and  Regularly monitoring and
level of the the inlet stream of separation or no transmit the level inside the maintenance should be carry out
flash column is the column is separation occurs. flash column to the controller. on the installed controller and
flash column.
lower than the low.  Low liquid level in  LIC is installed with alarm to
minimum  Blockage of the the flash column. control the liquid level inside
level. inlet stream the flash column that maintain
pipeline. the level of flash column.

 Regularly monitoring and

The liquid  The flowrate of  Less liquid flow at  LT is installed to indicate and maintenance should be carry out
level of the the outlet stream the bottom of the transmit the level inside the on the installed controller and
High
flash column is of the column is flash column. flash column to the controller. flash column.
high.
lower than the  Liquid flooding may  LIC is installed with alarm to
 Malfunction of
minimum level the valve to occurred inside the control the liquid level inside
regulate the flash column. the flash column that maintain
liquid. the level of flash column.

306
Figure 6.7 below shows the control system of Flash Column (F-102) with some safety
measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

20
PIC PAH
PAL

PT

19
LT

F-102
LIC LAH
LAL

21

Figure 6.7 Control System of Flash Column (F-102)

307
 Table 6.9 Hazop Sheet of Flash Column (F-103)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 2

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Flash Column (F-103) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To separate the mixture into two components
Diagra m: Figure 6.8
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To separate the ammonia and unreacted gas based on pressure difference
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low Pressure of the  Lower feed drum  The rate of  PT is installed to indicate and  Regularly monitoring and
flash column is temperature. separation reduces. transmit the pressure of the maintenance should be carry out
low for the  Leakage of the  Affects the yield and column to the controller at the on the installed controller and
separation to pipeline. purity of the gases. outlet stream. flash column.
occur.  PIC is installed with alarm to
control the pressure of outlet
stream that maintain the
pressure of column.
 Separation of the  PT is installed to indicate and
 Higher feed drum
Pressure of the mixture will be  Regularly monitoring and
temperature. transmit the pressure of the
flash column is inefficient and maintenance should be carry out
High
high for the  Malfunction of column to the controller at the
inconsistent. on the installed controller and
the valve to outlet stream.
separation to  Pressure build-up  PIC is installed with alarm to
flash column.
occur. regulate the
which may cause control the pressure of outlet
pressure.
explosion or damage stream that maintain the
to the flash column. pressure of column.
 Purging system is installed.

308
P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 2 of 2
R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Flash Column (F-103) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To separate the mixture into two components
Diagra m: Figure 6.7
P ara m eter: Level P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the liquid level inside the flash column
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low The liquid  The flowrate of  Ineffective  LT is installed to indicate and  Regularly monitoring and
level of the the inlet stream of separation or no transmit the level inside the maintenance should be carry out
flash column is the column is separation occurs. flash column to the controller. on the installed controller and
flash column.
lower than the low.  Low liquid level in  LIC is installed with alarm to
minimum  Blockage of the the flash column. control the liquid level inside
level. inlet stream the flash column that maintain
pipeline. the level of flash column.

 Regularly monitoring and

The liquid  The flowrate of  Less liquid flow at  LT is installed to indicate and maintenance should be carry out
level of the the outlet stream the bottom of the transmit the level inside the on the installed controller and
High
flash column is of the column is flash column. flash column to the controller. flash column.
low.
lower than the  Liquid flooding may  LIC is installed with alarm to
 Malfunction of
minimum level the valve to occurred inside the control the liquid level inside
regulate the flash column. the flash column that maintain
liquid. the level of flash column.

309
Figure 6.8 below shows the control system of Flash Column (F-103) with some safety
measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

39

Purge to atmoshpere PAH

PIC
PAL

38

PT

36
LT

F-103 LIC LAH

LAL

37

Figure 6.8 Control System of Flash Column (F-103)

310
 Table 6.10 Hazop Sheet of Absorption Column (A-101)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 3

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Absorber (A-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To absorb the CO2 into the DEA
Diagra m: Figure 6.9
P ara m eter: Flow P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control the flow of the inlet stream
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
No No flow of the  Blockages at the  The absorption  FT is installed to indicate and  Regularly inspection and
feed into the inlet stream process is disrupt. transmit the inlet flow of the feed. monthly maintenance should
absorber. pipeline.  Affects the yield and  FFC is installed to adjust the inlet be carry out on the installed
 Malfunction of purity of the CO2 flow of the feed that into the controller and absorber.
the valve to gas. absorber.
regulate the flow.
 Not achieved the  FT is installed to indicate and  Regularly inspection and
Less flow of  Control valve
desired parameter transmit the inlet flow of the feed. monthly maintenance should
the feed into partially closed.
for the absorption.  FFC is installed to adjust the inlet be carry out on the installed
Low  Leakage of controller and absorber.
the reactor. pipeline is  Affects the quality of flow of the feed into the absorber.
the product. .
occurred.
 FT is installed to indicate and  Regularly inspection and
High flow of  Malfunction of  Pressure in the
transmit the flow of the feed at monthly maintenance should
the valve to column will be
the feed into the inlet stream. be carry out on the installed
High regulate the flow. higher and may lead
the reactor. to explosion.  FFC is installed to adjust the inlet controller and absorber.
flow of the feed that into the
absorber.
311
P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 2 of 3
R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Absorber (A-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To absorb the CO2 into the DEA
Diagra m: Figure 6.9
P ara m eter: Level P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the liquid level inside the absorber
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low The liquid  The flowrate of  Ineffective  LT is installed to indicate and  Regularly inspection and
level of the the inlet stream of absorption or no transmit the level inside the monthly maintenance should be
absorber is the column is absorption process absorber to the controller. carry out on the installed
lower than the low. occurrences.  LIC is installed with alarm to controller and absorber.
minimum  Leakage of the  Low liquid level in control the liquid level inside
level. inlet stream the absorber. the absorber that maintain the
pipeline. level of absorber.

The liquid  The flowrate of  Ineffective  LT is installed to indicate and  Regularly inspection and
level of the the outlet stream absorption will be transmit the level inside the monthly maintenance should be
High
flash column is of the column is absorber to the controller. carry out on the installed
occurred. .
low.
lower than the  Liquid flooding may  LIC is installed with alarm to controller and absorber.
 Malfunction of
minimum level the valve to occurred inside the control the liquid level inside
regulate the flash column. the absorber that maintain the
liquid. level of absorber.

312
P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 3 of 3
R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Absorber (A-101) S u b s y s t e m I n t e n t i o n: To absorb the CO2 into the DEA
Diagra m: Figure 6.9
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the pressure inside the absorber
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Low Pressure of the  Leakage of the  The rate of  PT is installed to indicate and  Regularly inspection and
absorber is low pipeline. absorption reduces. transmit the pressure of the monthly maintenance should be
for the  Low liquid level  Less efficient absorber to the controller at the carry out on the installed
absorption to in the absorption product will be outlet stream. controller and absorber.
occur. column. obtained at end of  PIC is installed with alarm to
the process. control the pressure of outlet
stream that maintain the
pressure of absorber.

Pressure of the  Blockage of  Absorption of CO2  PT is installed to indicate and  Regularly inspection and
absorber is low pipeline at the will be inefficient. transmit the pressure of the monthly maintenance should be
High
for the outlet stream.  Occurrence of high absorber to the controller at the carry out on the installed
absorption to  High liquid level pressure build-up outlet stream. controller and absorber.
occur. in the absorption which may cause  PIC is installed with alarm to
column. . explosion or damage control the pressure of outlet
to the absorber. stream that maintain the
pressure of absorber.

313
Figure 6.9 below shows the control system of Absorption Column (A-101) with some
safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

22
PIC PAH
FFC PAL
FT

16 PT
FT

14 LT

A-101

LIC LAH
LAL

17

Figure 6.9 Control System of Absorption Column (A-101)

314
 Table 6.11 Hazop Sheet of Membrane Separator (D-101)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Membrane Separator (D-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To separate the hydrogen from other syngas.
Diagra m: Figure 6.10
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the pressure of the separator
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Pressure of the  Leakage of the  Affects the  Pressure indicator and  Regularly monitoring and
separator is pipeline. separation of the controller are installed. maintenance should be carry out
low for the  Malfunction of hydrogen from other  PIC is installed with alarm to on the installed controller and on
Low
separation to the inlet valve. syngas. control the pressure of the membrane separator.
occur.  Less feed flow into separator for the separation
the separator. process.

.
Pressure of the  Malfunction of  Regularly monitoring and
 Separation efficiency  Pressure indicator and
separator is the pressure valve maintenance should be carry out
will be affected. controller are installed.
low for the (opened larger on the installed controller and on
 Occurrence of high  PIC is installed with alarm to
separation to than required). the membrane separator.
pressure build-up control the pressure of
High occur.  Malfunction of due to excessive air separator for the separation
the inlet valve. process.
flow which may lead
to damage in the
membrane separator.

315
Figure 6.10 below shows the control system of Membrane Separator (D-101) with
some safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

28
PIC PAH
PAL
FIC
FT
PT

26

D-101
27
Figure 6.10 Control System of Membrane Separator (D-101)

316
 Table 6.12 Hazop Sheet of Furnace (HT-01 & HT-02)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Furnace (HT-01 & HT-02) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To increase the temperature of methane and water
Diagra m: Figure 6.11 & Figure 6.12
P ara m eter: Temperature P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the outlet temperature of furnace
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Temperature of  Leakage of the  Reactant will not be  Temperature indicator and  Regular maintenance on the
the furnace is pipeline. heated to the control valve are installed. equipment and regular check
lower than the  Malfunction of the desired temperature.  TIC is installed to control the up on the condition of the
Low
set point.  Desired product controller and valve should be
valve to supply the flow of heating oil in order to
yield is not
heating medium. maintain the temperature of carry out.
achieved.
 Temperature furnace.  Installation of temperature
controller system alarm system.
is not functioning.
 Reactant is  Temperature indicator and
Temperature of  Temperature  Regular maintenance on the
overheated than the control valve are installed.
the furnace is controller system desired temperature. equipment and regular check
 TIC is installed to control the up on the condition of the
High
higher than the malfunction.  Process will be
set point. flow of heating oil in order to
 Heating valve runaway. controller and valve should be
maintain the temperature of carry out.
failed to close.
furnace.  Installation of temperature
alarm system.

317
Figure 6.11 and Figure 6.12 below shows the control system of Furnace (HT-01 and
HT-02) with some safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram
respectively.

TIC TT

5
Heating oil In
4
HT-01 Heating oil outlet

Figure 6.11 Control System of Furnace (HT-01)

TIC TT

8
7d
Heating oil In

HT-02 Heating oil outlet

Figure 6.12 Control System of Furnace (HT-02)

318
 Table 6.13 Hazop Sheet of Heater (HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-07 & HT-08)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Heater (HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-07& HT-08) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To increase the temperature of reactant and product
Diagra m: Figure 6.13, Figure 6.14, Figure 6.15, Figure 6.16, Figure 6.17 & Figure 6.18
P ara m eter: Temperature P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To provide additional heating for the process
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Temperature of  Malfunction of the  Reactant will not be  Temperature indicator and  Regular maintenance on the
the heater is valve to supply heated to the control valve are installed. equipment and regular check up
lower than the desired temperature.
sufficient HTS.  TIC is installed to control the on the condition of the controller
Low set point.  Desired product
 Temperature flow of HTS in order to maintain and valve should be carry out.
yield is not
controller system
achieved. the temperature of heater.  Installation of temperature alarm
is not functioning. system.

Temperature of  Temperature  Reactant is  Temperature indicator and

 Regular maintenance on the
the heater is controller system overheated than the control valve are installed.
malfunction. equipment and regular check up
higher than the desired temperature.  TIC is installed to control the
on the condition of the controller
set point.  Heating valve  Process will be flow of HTS in order to maintain and valve should be carry out.
High failed to close. runaway. the temperature of heater.
 Installation of temperature alarm
 Could cause
system.
damage to the
heater.

319
Figure 6.13, Figure 6.14, Figure 6.15, Figure 6.16, Figure 6.17 and Figure 6.18 below
shows the control system of Heater (HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-07 and HT-
08) with some safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram respectively.

HPS inlet
TIC

TT

18b 18c
HT-03

Figure 6.13 Control System of Heater (HT-03)

HPS inlet
TIC

TT

18e 18f
HT-04

Figure 6.14 Control System of Heater (HT-04)

320
 HPS inlet
TIC

TT

18h 18i
HT-05

Figure 6.15 Control System of Heater (HT-05)

HPS inlet
TIC

TT

25 26
HT-06

Figure 6.16 Control System of Heater (HT-06)

321
 HPS inlet
TIC

TT

32 33
HT-07

Figure 6.17 Control System of Heater (HT-07)

HPS inlet
TIC

TT

39 40
HT-08

Figure 6.18 Control System of Heater (HT-08)

322
 Table 6.14 Hazop Sheet of Cooler (CL-01, CL-02, CL-03 & CL-04)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Cooler (CL-01, CL-02, CL-03 & CL-04) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To reduce the temperature of reactant and product
Diagra m: Figure 6.19, Figure 6.20, Figure 6.21, Figure 6.22
P ara m eter: Temperature P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To provide additional cooling for the process
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Temperature of  Cooling valve  Reactant will not be  Temperature indicator and  Regular maintenance on the
the cooler is failed to close. heated to the control valve are installed. equipment and regular check up
lower than the  Leakages at the desired temperature.  TIC is installed to control the on the condition of the controller
Low set point.
pipeline.  Phase change could flow of cooling water in order to and valve should be carry out.
occur inside the maintain the temperature of  Installation of temperature alarm
cooler. cooler. system.
.
Temperature of  Malfunction of the  Process will be  Temperature indicator and  Regular maintenance on the
the cooler is valve to supply runaway. control valve are installed. equipment and regular check up
High
lower than the sufficient cooling  Could cause  TIC is installed to control the on the condition of the controller
set point. mechanical damage
water. flow of cooling water in order to and valve should be carry out.
 Temperature to the cooler. maintain the temperature of  Installation of temperature alarm
controller system cooler. system.
malfunction.

323
Figure 6.19, Figure 6.20, Figure 6.21 and Figure 6.22 below shows the control
system of Cooler (CL-01, CL-02, CL-03 and CL-04) with some safety measurement
implementation in the P&ID Diagram respectively.

CW i nlet

TIC

TT

2 2a
Cl-04

Figure 6.19 Control System of Cooler (CL-04)

CW i nlet

TIC

TT

2a 3
Cl-01

Figure 6.20 Control System of Cooler (CL-01)

324
 CW inlet

TIC

TT

23b 24
Cl-02

Figure 6.21 Control System of Cooler (CL-02)

CW inlet

TIC

TT

30a 31
Cl-03

Figure 6.22 Control System of Cooler (CL-03)

325
 Table 6.15 Hazop Sheet of Splitter (S-101)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Splitter (S-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To split the flowrate of the stream into three for heat
integration optimization
Diagra m: Figure 6.22
P ara m eter: Flow P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control the flowrate of the split stream
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
No flow of the  Full blockage at  No flow of the  FT is installed in the outlet  Proper maintenance and
product after the outlet of the product in each split stream to indicate and transmit regular inspection are required
being split. split stream. stream where it may the flowrate of the stream to the for the installed controller and
leads to off-grade controller at the outlet stream. splitter to ensure that both
No product.  FIC is installed in order to controller and splitter are
control the flowrate if the functioning well.
product at the outlet stream.

Less flow of  Partial blockage  Imbalance of flow in  FT is installed in the outlet  Proper maintenance and
Low
the product at the outlet of the each split stream stream to indicate and transmit regular inspection are required
after being split stream. where it reduces the the flowrate of the stream to the for the installed controller and
split.  Leakage in the efficiency of the controller at the outlet stream. splitter to ensure that both
piping system at product.  FIC is installed in order to controller and splitter are
the outlet stream. control the flowrate if the functioning well.
product at the outlet stream.

326
 High flow of  Blockage at one  High flow in a single  FT is installed in the outlet  Proper maintenance and
the product of the outlet stream which may stream to indicate and transmit regular inspection are required
after being stream of the cause imbalance flow the flowrate of the stream to the for the installed controller and
split. splitter. and reduces the controller at the outlet stream. splitter to ensure that both
High  Malfunction of efficiency of the  FIC is installed in order to controller and splitter are
the valve at the product. control the flowrate if the functioning well.
outlet stream.  High pressure may product at the outlet stream.
build-up in the outlet
stream and in the
splitter.

Reverse flow  Failure of the  Backflow of the  FT is installed in the outlet  Frequent monitor and
of the product valve at the outlet product back into the stream to indicate and transmit inspection on the condition of
after being stream. splitter. the flowrate of the stream to the the splitter and the split stream
R everse split.  May affect the yield controller at the outlet stream. are required in order to prevent
of the product.  FIC is installed in order to the backflow of the outlet
control the flowrate if the stream.
product at the outlet stream.
 A non-return valve or a check
valve have been installed.

327
Figure 6.22 below shows the control system of a Splitter (S-101) with some safety
measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

FIC
FT

18g
18 FIC
FT
S-101

18d

FAH
FI
FAL

18a

Figure 6.23 Control System of Splitter (S-101)

328
 Table 6.16 Hazop Sheet of Mixer (M-101)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Mixer (M-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To increase the homogeneity of system through
reducing the non-uniformity or gradients
Diagra m: Figure 6.23
P ara m eter: Flow P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To control and adjust the inlet flow ratio of mixer
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
No flow of the  Full blockage at  No flow of the  FT is installed to indicate and  Regular inspection and
reactant into the outlet of the reactant into the transmit the inlet flow of the monthly maintenance are
the mixer. split stream. mixer where it may feed. required for the installed
leads to off-grade  FFC is installed to adjust the controller and mixer to ensure
No product. inlet flow of the feed that into that both controller and mixer
the mixer. are functioning well.

Less flow of  Partial blockage  Imbalance flow in  FT is installed to indicate and  Regular inspection and
Low
the reactant at the inlet each inlet stream transmit the inlet flow of the monthly maintenance are
into the mixer. stream. where it reduces the feed. required for the installed
 Leakage in the efficiency of the  FFC is installed to adjust the controller and mixer to ensure
piping system at product. inlet flow of the feed that into that both controller and mixer
the inlet stream. the mixer. are functioning well.

329
 High flow of  Blockage at one  High flow in a single  FT is installed to indicate and  Regular inspection and
the reactant of the inlet stream stream which may transmit the inlet flow of the monthly maintenance are
into the mixer. of the mixer. cause imbalance flow feed. required for the installed
High
 Malfunction of and reduces the  FFC is installed to adjust the controller and mixer to ensure
the valve at the efficiency of the inlet flow of the feed that into that both controller and mixer
inlet stream. product. the mixer. are functioning well.
 High pressure may
build-up in the inlet
stream and in the
mixer.

Reverse flow  Failure of the  Backflow of the  FT is installed to indicate and  Regular inspection and
of the reactant control valve at reactant from the transmit the inlet flow of the monthly maintenance are
from the the inlet stream. mixer. feed. required for the installed
R everse mixer.  May affect the yield  FFC is installed to adjust the controller and mixer to ensure
of the product. inlet flow of the feed that into that both controller and mixer
the mixer. are functioning well.
 A non-return valve or a check
valve have been installed.

330
Figure 6.23 below shows the control system of a Mixer (M-101) with some safety
measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

33
FT

FFC

FT
41
28

M-101

34

Figure 6.24 Control System of Mixer (M-101)

331
 Table 6.17 Hazop Sheet of Expander (T-101)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Expander (T-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To reduce the pressure of the feed before entering the
reactor R-102
Diagra m: Figure 6.24
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the pressure of the process
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Pressure of the  Inconsistent flow  The outlet pressure of  An anti-surge controller  Proper maintenance and regular
expander is of the gas into the the expander is low. (ASC) is installed to control inspection are required for the
Low low. expander.  May affects the yield the pressure by adjusting the installed controller and expander
 Leakage at the of the product for the inlet flowrate of the expander. to ensure that both controller
pipeline. subsequent reaction. and expander are functioning
well.

Pressure of the  High flow of gas  The outlet pressure of  An anti-surge controller  Proper maintenance and regular
expander is into the expander the expander is high. (ASC) is installed to control inspection are required for the
high. till a high  May lead to explosion the pressure by adjusting the installed controller and expander
High pressure is been of the expander due inlet flowrate of the expander. to ensure that both controller
build-up. to the excessive and expander are functioning
operating condition. well.

332
Figure 6.24 below shows the control system of an Expander (T-101) with some safety
measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

9 10
FT PT TT T-101 PT TT

ASC

Figure 6.25 Control System of Expander (T-101)

333
 Table 6.18 Hazop Sheet of Compressor (C-101, C-102, C-103, C-104, C-105 and C-106)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Compressor (C-101, C-102, C-103, C-104, C-105 S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To increase the pressure of the feed before entering the
and C-106) reactor
Diagra m: Figure 6.25, Figure 6.26, Figure 6.27. Figure 6.28. Figure 6.29. Figure 6.30
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the pressure of the process
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Pressure of the  Leakage in the  The outlet pressure of  An anti-surge controller  Proper maintenance and regular
compressor is pipeline may the compressor is low. (ASC) is installed to inspection are required for the
Low low. occurred.  May affects the yield control the pressure by installed controller and
 The force of piston of the product for the adjusting the inlet flowrate compressor to ensure that both
for gas subsequent reaction. of the compressor. controller and compressor are
compression maybe functioning well.
low.

Pressure of the  The force of piston  The outlet pressure of  An anti-surge controller  Proper maintenance and regular
compressor is for gas the compressor is high. (ASC) is installed to inspection are required for the
high. compression may  May lead to explosion control the pressure by installed controller and
High adjusting the inlet flowrate compressor to ensure that both
high till it build-up of the compressor due
a high pressure. to the excessive of the compressor. controller and compressor are
 Malfunction of the operating condition. functioning well.
piston in the
compressor.

334
Figure 6.25, Figure 6.26, Figure 6.27, Figure 6.28, Figure 6.29 and Figure 6.30 below
shows the control system of a Compressor (C-101, C-102, C-103, C-104, C-105 and
C-106) with some safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram
respectively.

FT PT TT
C-101
2
ASC PT TT

Figure 6.26 Control System of Compressor (C-101)

FT PT TT
C-102
4
ASC PT TT

Figure 6.27 Control System of Compressor (C-102)

335
22

FT PT TT
C-103
23
ASC PT TT

Figure 6.28 Control System of Compressor (C-103)

24

FT PT TT
C-104
25
ASC PT TT

Figure 6.29 Control System of Compressor (C-104)

336
29

FT PT TT
C-105
30
ASC PT TT

Figure 6.30 Control System of Compressor (C-105)

31

FT PT TT
C-106
32
ASC PT TT

Figure 6.31 Control System of Compressor (C-106)

337
 Table 6.19 Hazop Sheet of Throttling Valve (V-101)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Throttling Valve (V-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To reduce the pressure of the feed before entering the
flash column (F-102)
Diagra m: Figure 6.31
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To reduce and maintain the pressure of the process
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Pressure of the  Inconsistent flow of  The outlet pressure of  Pressure indicator with  Regular inspection and monthly
outlet stream is the gas into the the valve is lower than alarm system is installed to maintenance are required for the
Low low. valve. the desired pressure. indicate the outlet pressure installed controller and valve to
 Leakage in the  May affects the yield of the valve. ensure that both controller and
pipeline may of the product for the valve are functioning well.
occurred. subsequent reaction.

 High flow of gas  The outlet pressure of  Pressure indicator with  Regular inspection and monthly
Pressure of the
into the valve till a the valve is higher alarm system is installed to maintenance are required for the
outlet stream is
high pressure is than the desired indicate the outlet pressure installed controller and valve to
high.
been build-up. pressure. of the valve. ensure that both controller and
High .
 May lead to explosion valve are functioning well.
of the valve due to the
excessive operating
condition.

338
Figure 6.31 below shows the control system of a Throttling Valve (V-101) with some
safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

PAH
PI
PAL

17 18
V-101
Figure 6.32 Control System of Throttling Valve (V-101)

339
 Table 6.20 Hazop Sheet of Centrifugal Pump (P-101)

P r oject: Production of Ammonia from Methane P a ge: 1 of 1

R e v no: 1 D ate: 21th April 2021
S u b s yste m d escriptio n: Pump (P-101) S u b s yste m I nte ntio n: To pump the water into the reactor (R-101)
Diagra m: Figure 6.32
P ara m eter: Pressure P a r a m e t e r D e si g n I nte n t: To maintain the outlet stream pressure at the desired value
GW Deviation Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendations
(Guide Word)
Pressure of the  Inconsistent flow  The outlet pressure of  Pressure indicator with  Regular inspection and monthly
outlet stream is of the water into the pump is lower than alarm system is installed to maintenance are required for the
Low low. the pump. the desired pressure. indicate the outlet pressure installed controller and pump to
 Leakage in the  May affects the yield of of the pump. ensure that both controller and
pipeline may the product for the pump are functioning well.
occurred. subsequent reaction.

 High flow of  The outlet pressure of  Pressure indicator with  Regular inspection and monthly
Pressure of the
water into the the pump is higher than alarm system is installed to maintenance are required for the
outlet stream is
pump till a high the desired pressure. indicate the outlet pressure installed controller and pump to
high.
pressure is been  May lead to malfunction of the pump. ensure that both controller and
High .
build-up. of the pump due to the pump are functioning well.
excessive operating
condition.

340
Figure 6.32 below shows the control system of a Centrifugal Pump (P-101) with some
safety measurement implementation in the P&ID Diagram.

PAH
PI
PAL

7
6

P-101
Figure 6.33 Control System of Centrifugal Pump (P-101)

341
6.7 Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA)

The main duty of an employer under the Occupational Safety and Health Act
1994 or mostly known as OSHA 1994 is to protect the employees and workers from
the adverse effects of chemicals. To undergo this duty, an assessment of all chemicals
used in the workplace must be carried out to identify, evaluate and control any health
risk associated with work activities. Thus, chemical health risk assessment (CHRA) is
been used as a guideline for the assessment.

Chemical health risk assessment or mostly known as CHRA is used to provide

safety guidelines for employers and safety and health practitioners. This manual has
been compiled to assist them on the procedures and protocol for conducting an
assessment. The main purpose of conducting this CHRA is to permit decisions to be
made on suitable control measures, induction and training of employees, monitor and
health observation activities as may be essential to protect the health of employees
who may be exposed to chemicals hazardous to health at work (Malaysia, 2018). The
purposes of carried out this CHRA is to enable the decisions to be made on:

 Identify the hazard

 Evaluate the exposure of employees to the chemicals hazardous to health
 Evaluate the adequate of existing control measures
 Recommend further appropriate control measures and priorities actions to be
taken to prevent or reduce risks

This manual had been prepared to provide guidance for assessors to conduct a
CHRA by going through a phase-by-phase procedure and using specified techniques
and format. Besides that, this manual is also been used by an inspector for the purpose
of conducting assessment of health risks arising from the use, handling, storage or
transportation of chemicals hazardous to health in the place of work as required by the
USECHH Regulations 2000.

342
 Table 6.21 Chemicals Used in Work Units (Form B1)

F O R M B: LIST O F C H E M I C A L S H A Z A R D O U S T O H E A L T H A SS E S S E D

W O R K U N I T : Q u a lit y C o n t r ol D e p a rt m e n t D A T E O F A S S E S S M E N T : 2 5th A p ril 2 0 2 1

T A B L E B1: C H E M I C A L S US E IN W O R K U NI T

N o. N a m e of H azardous P h ysical Hazard H- Code S o urce of H R Der mal I n g e stio n

C h e mical Ingre dient For m C l a ssific atio n Infor m atio n ( Y/ N) ( Y/ N)

Gases under H 280:

pressure: Contains gas under S D S of Air
1. Nitrogen Nitrogen Colourless C o m pressed gas pressure which may Liquide 1 Y N
gas explode if heated. (2020)

Flammable gases: H 220:

C ategory 1 Extremely flammable

2. Methane Methane Colourless gas S D S of Air
gas Liquide 3 Y Y
Gases under H 280: (2020)
pressure: Contains gas under
C o m pressed gas pressure which may
explode if heated.

343
 Acute toxicity: H 302:

C a t e g o r y 4 (or al) Harmful if −

swallowed

Skin H 315:
corrosion/irritation: Causes skin irritation −
C ategory 2

Serious eye H 318:

3. Diethanolamine Diethanolamine Colourless damage/eye Causes serious eye −

liquid irritation: damage
C ategory 1 S D S of ID E S A Y Y
(2017)
H 373:
Specific target
May cause damage to
organ toxicity - 3
organs
repeated exposure:
through prolonged or
C ategory 2
repeated exposure

Hazardous to the
aquatic environment
H 402:
- acute hazard:
Very toxic to aquatic −
C ategory 3
life

Hazardous to the
H 412:
aquatic environment
Harmful to aquatic
- chronic hazard:
life with long lasting
C ategory 3
effects −

344
 Skin sensitization: H 317:

C ategory 1 May cause an −

allergic skin reaction

Carcinogenicity: H350: 4
C ategory 1a May cause cancer

Specific target H372:

4. Nickel Catalyst Nickel Catalyst Solid organ toxicity Causes damage to S D S of A gile nt Y Y
catalyst (repeated exposure) organs through (2018) 4
(lungs): prolonged or
C ategory 1 repeated exposure

Aquatic hazard H413:

(long-term): May cause long −
C ategory 4 lasting harmful
effects to aquatic life

345
 Table 6.22 Chemicals Released by the Processes or Work Activities (Form B2)

F O R M B: LIST O F C H E M I C A L S H A Z A R D O U S T O H E A L T H A SS E S S E D

W O R K U N I T : Q u a lit y C o n t r ol D e p a rt m e n t D A T E O F A S S E S S M E N T : 2 5th A p ril 2 0 2 1

T A B L E B1: C H E M I C A L S R E L E A S E D by the P R O C E S S O R W O R K A C TI VI TIES

N o. N a m e of H azardous P h ysical Hazard H- Code S o urce of H R Derm I n g e stio n

C h e mical Ingre dient For m C l a ssific atio n Infor m atio n al ( Y/ N)

( Y/ N)
Gases under H 280:
pressure: Contains gas under S D S of Air
1. Nitrogen Nitrogen Colourless C o m pressed gas pressure which may Liquide 1 Y N
gas explode if heated. (2020)

Flammable gases: H 220:

C ategory 1 Extremely flammable

2. Methane Methane Colourless gas S D S of Air
gas Liquide 3 Y Y
Gases under H 280: (2020)
pressure: Contains gas under
C o m pressed gas pressure which may
explode if heated.

346
 Flammable gases: H 220:

C ategory 1 Extremely flammable

gas
3. Hydrogen Hydrogen Colourless S D S of Air 1 Y N
gas Gases under H 280: Liquide
pressure: Contains gas under (2020)

C o m pressed gas pressure which may

explode if heated.

Flammable gases: H 220:

C ategory 1 Extremely flammable −

gas

Gases under H 280:

pressure: Contains gas under −
C o m pressed gas pressure which may
explode if heated.
Acute Toxicity
4. Carbon Carbon Colourless (Inhalation): H331: S D S of Air 3 Y Y
monoxide monoxide gas C ategory 3 Toxic if inhaled Liquide

(2020)
Toxic to H360:
reproduction: May effects 5
C ategory 1 reproduction system

Specific target H 372:

organ toxicity Causes damage to 4
(repeated exposure): organs through
C ategory 1 prolonged exposure

347
5. Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide Colourless Gases under H 280: S D S of Pra xair 3 Y Y
gas pressure: Contains gas under (2016)

C o m pressed gas pressure which may

explode if heated.

Acute toxicity: H 302:

C a t e g o r y 4 (or al) Harmful if swallowed −

H 315:
Skin Causes skin irritation
corrosion/irritation: −
C ategory 2
H 318:

Serious eye Causes serious eye

6. Diethanolamine Diethanolamine Colourless damage/eye damage −
liquid irritation:
C ategory 1 S D S of ID E S A Y Y
H 373:
(2017)
May cause damage to
Specific target organ
organs
toxicity - repeated 3
through prolonged or
exposure: C a t e g o r y
repeated exposure
2

H 402:
Hazardous to the
Very toxic to aquatic
aquatic environment
life
- acute hazard: −
C ategory 3

348
 Hazardous to the H 412:
aquatic environment Harmful to aquatic life
- chronic hazard: with long lasting − Y Y
C ategory 3 effects

Flammable gases: H 221: −

C ategory 2 Flammable gases

Gases under H280:

pressure: Contains gas under −
Li q u efie d g as pressure which may
explode if heated.
Skin corrosion/
irritation: H 314: −
Causes severe skin
7. Ammonia Anhydrous Colourless C ategory 1B S D S of C S B P Y Y
burns and eye damage
Ammonia liquid (2017)

Acute toxicity - H 331:

inhalation: Toxic if inhaled

3
C ategory 3
H 400:

Aquatic Hazard Very toxic to aquatic

(acute): life
category 1
H 412:
Harmful to aquatic life −
Aquatic Hazard with long lasting
(chronic): effects
category

349
 Table 6.23 Inhalation Exposure Assessment (Form C1)

F O R M C: W O R K U NIT ASSESS M E N T

W O R K U N I T : Q u a lit y C o n t r ol D e p a rt m e n t D A T E O F A S S E S S M E N T : 2 5th A p ril 2 0 2 1

T A B L E C1: IN H A L A T IO N E X P O S U R E ASSE S S M E N T

Job or task N a m e of FR DR FDR PEL D e g ree of R elease D e gree of M R ER H R RR

C h e mical or Exposure C h e mical In h aled

Supply as
feedstock Nitrogen 5 3 4 - Low Moderate 2 3 1 3 (Low risk
level)

Supply as
feedstock Methane 5 3 4 - Moderate Moderate 3 4 3 12 (Moderate
risk level)

During
mixing Hydrogen 5 3 4 - Low Moderate 2 3 1 3 (Low risk
process level)

350
 Transfer
from
membrane Carbon 5 3 4 25ppm High Moderate 4 4 5 20 (High risk
separator to monoxide level)
waste
management

Transfer
from
membrane Carbon dioxide 5 3 4 TWA of High Moderate 4 4 3 12 (Moderate
separator to 5000ppm risk level)
waste
management

Loading
chemicals Diethanolamine 5 2 4 TWA of Moderate Moderate 3 4 3 12 (Moderate
into the 0.46ppm risk level)
absorber

Transfer
from flash Ammonia 5 3 4 TWA of Moderate Moderate 3 4 3 12 (Moderate
column to 25ppm risk level)
storage tank

351
Transfer the
catalyst into Nickel catalyst 1 3 2 TWA of Low Moderate 2 3 4 12 (Moderate
the reactor 1mg/m3 risk level)

352
 T a bl e 6.2 4 D e r m al Assess m e nt (For m C 2)

F O R M C: W O R K U NIT ASSESS M E N T

W O R K U N I T : Q u a lit y C o n t r ol D e p a rt m e n t D A T E O F A S S E S S M E N T : 2 5th A p ril 2 0 2 1

T A B L E C2: D E R M A L A S S ESS M E N T

D u r atio n of E x p o s u r e

Job or task N a m e of H azardous E xte nt of Der m al L e vel of Ris k

C h e mical P r o p e rties C o ntact

S hort Ter m (<15 Long Ter m (>15

m i n/s hift) m i n/s hift)

Supply as May explode if Large

feedstock Nitrogen heated −

Supply as Flammable and Large

feedstock Methane may explode if H2
heated

During Flammable and Large

mixing Hydrogen may explode if −
process heated

353
 Transfer
from
membrane Carbon Toxic gas Small H1
separator to monoxide
waste
management

Transfer
from
membrane Carbon dioxide Toxic gas Small H1
separator to
waste
management

Loading
chemicals Irritation,
into the Diethanolamine Corrosion, Skin Large H2
absorber absorption and
other properties

Transfer
from flash
column to Ammonia Corrosive Large H2
storage tank

354
Transfer the Skin sensitization,
catalyst into Nickel catalyst Carcinogenicity and Small
the reactor other properties M2

355
6.8 Pressure Relief System

Pressure relief system is known as a safety system which can be installed in any
kind of equipment in order to protect the equipment from an excessive pressure. In this
plant, three type of reactors which are Tubular Steam Reactor, Water Gas Shift Reactor
and Ammonia Synthesis Reactor were installed with this safety system to ensure the
pressure of the reactor does not exceed the desired pressure which is 30atm, 6atm and
30atm respectively. This pressure relief system is no to control the pressure nor to
regulate the pressure. Thus, the pressure relief valve used is not been considered as a
control valve. The main purpose of this system in the chemical plant is to prevent any
malfunction or damage to the equipment due to the excessive pressure and at the same
time to prevent the employees from any kind of injuries.

6.8.1 Pressure Relief Valve

A pressure relief valve is a safety valve which is designed to protect a

pressurized vessel during an overpressure event. (Palash, 2012). Commonly, a pressure
safety relief valve are attached with a spring loaded and characterized by a rapid full
opening or a “pop” action which is mostly used for any steam services. (Prakash Thapa,
2016). This valve is set to open at a predetermined set pressure (which is set at 32atm,
8atm and 32atm for R-101, R-102 and R-103 respectively), flow rate capacity at a
specified overpressure and close when the system pressure has returned to a safe level.
Pressure relief valves also must be designed with the materials compatible with many
process fluids from simple air and water to the most corrosive media so that it can be
used for a multiple purposes in the plant. They also must be designed to operate in a
smooth manner on a verity of fluid phases. Therefore, a pressure relief should capable
to operate for different type of fluids at all the time especially during a power failure
period as a backup system as well. (Prakash Thapa, 2016).

356
Figure 6.34 Pressure Relief Valve (Prakash Thapa, 2016)

357
6.9 Plant Start-Up and Shutdown Procedure

Basically, in a chemical processing plant, there are two main procedure which
are plant start-up and shutdown will be focused in order to operates and maintain the
plant with less hazardous and increased efficiency. These procedures should be simple,
safe and flexible in operation to ensure that there is no complication in the start-up and
shutdown operation and reduces the hazard to people and environment as well. There
are few important elements should be taken into consideration during the start-up and
shutdown procedure of the plant.

6.9.1 Plant Start-Up Procedure

In the start-up section, a commission phase have been included where the
physical inspection on the plant such as checking and calibrating equipment in the plant
are done. Before the actual start-up procedure is been carry out, a prestart-up procedure
is done in order to avoid any complication in the process. Below are the prestart-up
procedure that can be implanted in the plant. (Siddharta, 2005).

1. Inspection of the plant in order to ensure the equipment present in the plant
are ready to carry out the starting-up process and able to sustain the
capacity.
2. Activation of auxiliary equipment such as instrument and utilities system.
3. Removal of shutdown blinds and installation of running blinds.

After the overall equipment in the plant had undergoes the prestart-up
procedure with less hazard identification, then the actual start-up of the overall plant is
been carried out as shown below. (Siddharta, 2005). Once done with the start-up
procedure, the commission of the plant can be carried out.

358
 1. Check all the items in the “shutdown worklist” if they have been completed
and if all the equipment and associated lines have been reassembled
correctly.
2. If any heat exchangers have been opened for inspection, washing and
mechanical work during the shutdown, they must be evaluated
hydrostatically once assembled.
3. Check all the level gauge glasses for cleanliness.
4. Check the major and auxiliary equipment for operability.
5. Make sure all the control valves are operable.
6. Check all the utilities, power steam and cooling water. Check all the steam
traps are functioning.
7. Make sure all the safety valves are tested, installed and the block valve are
sealed in their respective operating conditions.
8. Check all the drains are unplugged and all the water drained from the
equipment.
9. Make sure all the flanges and man heads have a good gasket and re made
up tight.
10. Make sure all the steam tracing is operable.
11. Gas blanketing.
12. The safety valve header, the blowdown line and the purge system are
successfully commissioned.
13. All the blinds are required for tightness inspection and air freeing
equipment are available, removal or installed.
14. Catalyst should be activated and sufficiently warm reaction to commence
when the flow of reactants are started.
15. Check all the onsite fire protection equipment such as fire extinguishers,
water hoses and nozzles are in place and ready for immediate use.

In order to ensure the smooth start-up of the plant, the last phase of the
mechanical completion and the preparatory activities for commissioning are been
carried where at the same time it reduces the risk of the hazard for each equipment in
the plant. (Banergi, 2011). The activities involves in the last phase includes:

359
 1. Leaking testing pipelines and vessels.
2. Loading lubricants, chemicals and catalysts.
3. Installing the mechanical seals, columns and vessels intervals.
4. Aligning rotating equipment.
5. Inert the system.
6. Removing the temporary bracings.
7. Closing of columns and vessels.
8. Test runs of rotating equipment.
9. Calibrating of instruments used.
10. Performing loops and functional checks.

6.9.2 Plant Shutdown Procedure

In every chemical plant, plant shutdown is known as one of the most important
or critical time in the plant operation as it may have positive or negative impact to the
plant as well as to the future financial of the plant. A well-planned and conducted
shutdown of the plant will have a positive impact on the plant while a poor schedules
shutdown could extend the deadline and may goes over the set budget that may have a
bad impact to the plant. Usually, a major shutdown of the plant is carried out in order
to perform necessary maintenance, equipment replacement, repairs and also to perform
plant internal maintenance. (Regina, Sukran and Thorsten, 2014). Typically, in the
chemical process plant, the major shutdown operation is carried out every year once or
twice to avoid any necessary losses in the production and financial. Table 6.1 below
shows some preparation for the plant shutdown.

360
 Table 6.25 Preparation of Plant Shutdown Procedure

Plant Shutdown Schedule Detailed plan on the plant shutdown scheduled

such as date and time of the shutdown.
Plant Shutdown Worklist Prepare for inspection, repairing and
modification.
Before Shutdown  Make sure the fire extinguisher is located at
easily accessible location.
 A proper PPE should be worn during the
shutdown process as a precaution.
Backup units Include water hoses as a backup for the
emergency response and try to avoid any delay
in the mechanical work.

After the preparation of the plant shutdown is done, the actual procedure for the
shutdown is been carried out as below:

1. Depressurization and cooling of the units.

In order to operate the chemical plants and the equipment involved in a safe
and economical condition, the depressurization of the unit is highly
essential. This process is usually been carried for hydro processing unit with
an operating conditions range from 100bar to 207bar of pressure in each
equipment. (Plant Emergency Depressurization system, 2013).

2. Removal of residue hydrocarbon

There are many residues could be founded in the reactor as one of the result
of the process. Removal of residual hydrocarbon should be done in order to
prevent any contamination of the product. This removal can be done by
three main ways which includes overflowing of water, inert gas
displacement or combination of these methods.
361
3. Pumping out the unit

In the plant, every product should be pumped out from the specific
equipment to a prescribed location for the storage purposes. A reciprocating
pump can be used in the plant for the pumping process since it have a
superior suction characteristics which is best for this kind of process and
also it is less prone to injury. This pump should be closely controlled in
order to ensure that there is no entire suction losses until it totally shut down.
(Speegle, 2006). So, when the products are been drained from the system
by using the pumping process, it will be further processed by cooling in the
heat exchanger at a temperature where the product will not cause water
flickering in the distribution lines or storage tank.

362
6.10 Plant Layout

Plant layout is known as a crucial element in a plant design. It involves the

planning and integrating paths of component parts of a product in order to achieve the
most effective and economic interrelationships between the operating equipment and
personnel, the material movement, storage facilities, service function and auxiliary
equipment. (Muther, 2001). In our production plant, the line layout or the product will
be implemented for the arrangement of major processing equipment in the production
area. The hazardous process involved in the plant should be located at a safe distance
from other buildings. If the raw materials or the product are flammable, thus the
materials should be located further than the high temperature area. This layout is
adapted for high volume, highly standardized and repetitive production of products and
components. The raw material is supplied at one end of the line and goes from one
operation to the next quite rapidly with minimum work-in process, storage and material
handling. Future expansion of the plant also must be considered in order to extent the
capacity of the plant as the demand of the product increases for the improvisation of
the plant.

During the sketching of preliminary site layout, the major process units must
be sited first and arranged in a proper way in order to give a smooth flow of materials
through the various processing steps, from raw material to final product storage. After
the location of process units have been selected, the location of the principal ancillary
buildings should be decided and also arranged in an appropriate position which could
minimize the time spent by the employee and workers to reach a specific location.
Administration offices and laboratories, which involved a large number of people
should be located far away from the hazardous processes in order to reduce the risk of
the exposure of hazardous materials. Control rooms are normally located nearby to the
processing units, but those with potentially hazardous processes may have to be sited
at a safer distance.

363
 Figure 6.35 below shows the plant layout of the production of ammonia from
methane gas. Based on the sketched layout below, the consideration as stated before
have been follows where the location of the administration office, café, surau and
medical centre are placed far away from the processing units to reduce the risk of
exposure. Besides that, there are three emergency assembly points been located in the
plant for the employees and workers to assemble if there is any emergency cases
occurred in the plant. Other than that, this plant has a total of four gate for the entrance
and exit of the plant. The administrative area is located near to the main gate as well
as the medical centre in order to provide efficient service and first aid respectively
while the ones from the town arrives to the scene. While, the loading bay and
warehouse have been located at the 4th gate so that the transportation of lorries will
ease the journey in and out of the company because as it does not used the same gate
with the employees and workers path for plant entrance. Furthermore, the plant utilities
have been located near to the processing plant which ease the supplement of the
utilities for processing. Fire extinguishers also have been placed in each units as a
safety precautions for the fire hazard. Finally, the future expansion also have been
included in this layout in order to increase the capacity of the plant in the future.

364
 Emergency Loading
Wastewater Treatment Plant Tank Tank Security
Assembly Point Warehouse
C 1 2 Bay

Future Chemical Process Plant

Plant Utility
Control
Expansion
Room

Water Laboratory Workshop

Storage Tank

Emergency
Medical Centre Cafe Surau Office Assembly
Point B

Emergency
Fire Station Parking Security
Assembly Point A

Figure 6.34 Plant Layout Design of Ammonia Production Plan

365
 CHAPTER 7

PROCESS ECONOMIC

7.1 Introduction

Chemical plants are properly designed to ensure profit, and an estimate of the
expenditure, as well as the output cost, is required before the viability of the project can
be assessed. As a result, some method of comparing project economic performance is
needed. Many of the estimation in this chapter are forecasts used to build a cash flow
map and discounted cash flow. Estimating fixed capital spending, gross capital
investment, the overall cost of output, and sales revenue is thus needed for economic
analysis. Equipment cost that is selected for is calculated and provided in Appendix III
with the purchase cost at a Chemical Engineering index of 607.5 at 2019 with the base
index of 567 at 2013. Finally, the efficiency study is completed by analysing discounted
cash flow results. All major unit specifications for plant operation are estimated by
referring to Product and Process Design Principles fourth edition by Warren D. Seider.
The economic analysis is performed after the optimal process design has been
established, complete with the mass and energy balance, the selection of building
materials, and the development of the process control configuration as part of the P&ID.
The most significant difference is the cost of the connected tubing, such as made of
stainless steel or carbon steel, which will result it to be heavier under high pressure. The
analysis can be performed by dividing into several phases such as:

Phase 1: prepare a list of the equipment based on the configuration of the

machine, including the specification of the equipment such as label and scale, as well as
the construction material, design temperature, and design strain.

Phase 2: Based on the data from phase 1 for f.o.b. equipment purchase cost data,
add cost data, CPb, and the related cost index, Ib, to the equipment list. The purchasing

366
cost of the f.o.b. is the base cost relating to the near-environmental construction impact,
the steel as the building material and the base constructions.

Phase 3: Adjust the expense details for the most recent cost table. . For each piece
of equipment, deter the bare-module cost using bare-module variables, FBM, careful to
decide if the construction material is not stainless steel and/or the pressure is not near
normal, as shown in the equation below, and demonstrated by the following illustration,
before moving to Step 4, the bare-module cost accounts for shipping, insurance, taxes,
and direct matter.

𝑰
𝑪𝑩𝑴 = 𝑪𝑷 (𝑰𝒃) [𝑭𝑩𝑴 + (𝑭𝒅 + 𝑭𝒑 + 𝑭𝒎 − 𝟏)] (7.1)

Where:
FBM = Bare-module factor
Fd = Equipment design factor
Fm = Material factor
Fp = Pressure factor

The value of FBM depends on the type of equipment that can refer at Appendix
III. Once the CPB determined, the latest Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI)
for 2019 is used and it is compared to CEPCI 2013 which act as a basis for the overall
costing (Warren D, Seader, & Daniel R, 2017). Hence, the equation is used to calculate
inflation in equipment.

Phase 4: Obtain the total bare-module cost, CTBM by summing the bare-module
costs of the process equipment.

Phase 5: Estimate the total permanent investment. Add to this an estimate of the
working capital to obtain the total capital investment.

367
7.2 Equipment Costing

In this section, the costing of the major and auxiliary equipment, which involved
in this plant, will be discussed in order to obtain the total capital investment estimation
cost which plays an important role to determine the whole profitability of a plant and to
ensure that the plant runs smoothly without any production losses to the company. In this
Ammonia Production Plant, a total of 9 major unit operations are involved which
includes reactors (tubular steam reactor, water gas-shift reactor and packed bed reactor),
absorption column, membrane separator, flash column (for water, carbon dioxide and
ammonia separation), mixer and splitter. Auxiliary equipment such as heat exchanger,
heater, cooler, compressor, pump, expander and throttling valve also will be discussed in
this section.

7.2.1 Reactors

In this Ammonia Production Plant, steam methane reforming (SMR) reactor (R-
101) which acts as a furnace containing a burner and also a chemical reactor is been used.
The main function of this reactor is to produce syngas such as carbon monoxide, CO,
hydrogen, H2 and unreacted water, H2O. Steam reforming of natural gas and other
hydrocarbon is the most favourable route for the syngas production. About 85000kg/hr
of feed is been fed to this reactor to produce the syngas. A nickel-based catalyst is used
in this reactor to increase the reaction rate of the process. This steam reforming process
is known as an endothermic reaction, where heat must be supplied to the process in order
for the reaction to proceed.

Besides that, water gas shift reactor (R-102) also has been used in this plant in
order to increase the ratio of hydrogen present in the syngas produced by using the carbon
monoxide, CO so that the amount of hydrogen can be optimized in the ammonia synthesis
reaction where it will affect the yield of ammonia produced. The raw syngas consisting
of CO, H2O, H2 and CH4 is fed to the reactor and passed through the packed bed of Cu-
ZnO catalyst to alter the chemical reaction at 280℃ and 6atm. In this reaction, CO reacts

368
with H2O to produce additional hydrogen targeting a H2: CO ratio of 3:1. This is known
as an exothermic reaction where some of the heat will be released to the surroundings.

Finally, ammonia synthesis reactor (R-103) has been used in this production plant
in order to synthesis the ammonia by reacting one mole of nitrogen with 3 mole of
hydrogen. The nitrogen and hydrogen are fed into the reactor and passed through a fixed
bed of wustite, FeO catalyst to alter the chemical reaction at 400℃ and 30atm for the
ammonia production. Due to the use of FeO catalyst, the pressure of the reactor is able
to be lowered compared to the conventional catalyst and at the same it able to increases
the process efficiency. Therefore, these 3 reactors were constructed with a material of
stainless steel 316 to prevent the reactor from fouling and to withstand the operating
conditions of different type of reaction involved in the process. Table 7.1, Table 7.2 and
Table 7.3 below show the equipment specification sheet of each reactors along with the
equipment costing calculations.

369
 Table 7.1 Equipment Specification Sheet of SMR Reactor (R-101)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. SMR Reactor (R-101)
Function To produce syngas from methane and water
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Stainless steel 316
Operating Conditions
Operating temperature, Po
Operating Pressure, Po (atm) 30.00 700.00
(⁰C)
Operating temperature, Po
Operating pressure, Po (psig) 426.18 1292.00
(⁰F)
Design Temperature, Td
Design Pressure, Pd (atm) 34.89 727.78
(⁰C)
Design Temperature, Td
Design Pressure, Pd (psig) 498.02 1342.00
(⁰F)
Flow rate, Q (l/min) 2891.99 Flow rate, Q (gpm) 763.98
Catalyst Nickel
Characteristics of reactor
Maximum allowable stress,
Fractional Weld Efficiency, E % 0.85 20000.00
S, psi

Vessel volume, l 14459.96 Vessel volume in ft3 510.65

Tangent to Tangent length,
Length, L (in) 216.24 18.02
L (ft)
Internal diameter, Di (ft) 6.01 Outside diameter, Do (ft) 6.22
Internal diameter, Di (in) 72.08 Outside diameter, Do (inch) 74.58
Thickness to withstand internal Thickness to withstand wind
1.07 0.01
pressure, tp (inch) load, tw (inch)
Average wall thickness, tv 1.08
Shell thickness, Ts 1.25
Corrosion alllowance, tc (inch) 0.13
Material density, Ib/in3 0.29 Material factor, Fm 1.70
Weight, W (Ib) 22018.13 Bare-module factor (FBM) 4.16

Purchase cost of empty vessel with

Platform and ladders, CpL
the nozzles, manholes and 77750.26 11920.22
($USD)
supports, Cv (RM)

Purchase cost, Cp ($USD) 154,388.20

Bare module cost per equipment, CBM ($USD) 642,254.92
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 2,569,019.67
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 10,532,980.65

370
 Table 7.2 Equipment Specification Sheet of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)
Function To increase the ratio of hyrogen in the syngas
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Stainless steel 316
Operating Conditions
Operating temperature, Po
Operating Pressure, Po (atm) 6.00 280.00
(⁰ C)
Operating temperature, Po
Operating pressure, Po (psig) 73.48 536.00
(⁰ F)
Design Temperature, Td
Design Pressure, Pd (atm) 7.58 307.78
(⁰ C)
Design Temperature, Td
Design Pressure, Pd (psig) 96.70 586.00
(⁰ F)
Flow rate, Q (l/min) 23920.62 Flow rate, Q (gpm) 6319.16
Catalyst Copper Zinc Oxide
Characteristics of reactor
Maximum allowable stress,
Fractional Weld Efficiency, E % 0.85 20000.00
S, psi
Vessel volume, l 119603.09 Vessel volume in ft3 4223.75
Tangent to Tangent length,
Length, L (in) 437.32 36.44
L (ft)
Internal diameter, Di (ft) 12.15 Outside diameter, Do (ft) 12.24
Internal diameter, Di (in) 145.77 Outside diameter, Do (inch) 146.90
Thickness to withstand internal Thickness to withstand
0.42 0.02
pressure, tp (inch) wind load, tw (inch)
Average wall thickness, tv 0.42
Shell thickness, Ts 0.56
Corrosion alllowance, tc (inch) 0.13
Material density, Ib/in3 0.29 Material factor, Fm 1.70
Weight, W (Ib) 40545.47 Bare-module factor (FBM) 4.16
Purchase cost of empty vessel with
Platform and ladders, CpL
the nozzles, manholes and 116047.72 33013.38
($USD)
supports, Cv (RM)
Purchase cost, Cp ($USD) 246,744.10
Bare module cost per equipment, CBM ($USD) 1,026,455.47
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 4,105,821.88
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 16,833,869.70

371
 Table 7.3 Equipment Specification Sheet of Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Fix bed reactor R-103
Function To produce ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gas
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Stainless steel 316
Operating Conditions
Operating temperature, Po
Operating Pressure, Po (atm) 30.00 400.00
(⁰ C)
Operating temperature, Po
Operating pressure, Po (psig) 426.18 752.00
(⁰ F)
Design Temperature, Td
Design Pressure, Pd (atm) 34.89 427.78
(⁰ C)
Design Temperature, Td
Design Pressure, Pd (psig) 498.02 802.00
(⁰ F)
Flow rate, Q (l/min) 5302.24 Flow rate, Q (gpm) 1400.70
Catalyst Wustite
Characteristics of reactor
Maximum allowable
Fractional Weld Efficiency, E % 0.85 20000.00
stress, S, psi
Vessel volume, l 26511.19 Vessel volume in ft3 936.23
Tangent to Tangent length,
Length, L (in) 264.66 22.06
L (ft)
Internal diameter, Di (ft) 7.35 Outside diameter, Do (ft) 7.60
Outside diameter, Do
Internal diameter, Di (in) 88.22 91.22
(inch)
Thickness to withstand internal Thickness to withstand
1.32 0.01
pressure, tp (inch) wind load, tw (inch)
Average wall thickness, tv 1.32
Shell thickness, Ts 1.50
Corrosion alllowance, tc (inch) 0.13
Material density, Ib/in3 0.29 Material factor, Fm 2.10
Weight, W (Ib) 39584.26 Bare-module factor (FBM) 4.16
Purchase cost of empty vessel with
Platform and ladders, CpL
the nozzles, manholes and 114198.73 15966.69
($USD)
supports, Cv (RM)
Purchase cost, Cp ($USD) 274,054.32
Bare module cost per equipment, CBM ($USD) 1,140,065.99
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 4,560,263.95
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 18,697,082.19

372
The diameter and length of the reactor are calculated from the reactor volume, which is
calculated from the flow rate of the stream, Q and residence time, t as shown in equation
7.2.

Vessel volume, V = Q × t (7.2)

Initial flow rate is exceeding the limit of the reactor volume. Thus, the flow rate is divided
into 4 in a series arrangement.

Assuming the ratio of length to diameter of the reactor as 3:1, the internal diameter can
be calculated by using the formula as shown in equation 7.3.

(7.3)
𝟒𝑽 𝟑
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓, 𝑫𝒊 = √
𝟑𝝅

Since the operating pressure, Po of reactor 1 and 3 are at 426.18psig while reactor 2 is
73.48psig, the equation 7.3 is used as this equation is applicable for Po from 10psig to
1000psig:

𝑷𝒅 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟔𝟎𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟓[𝒍𝒏𝑷𝒐 ] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟓[𝒍𝒏𝑷𝒐 ]𝟐 } (7.4)

Moreover, in the absence of corrosion, wind and earthquake concerns and for internal
pressure greater than the external pressure, the cylindrical shell wall thickness, tp is
calculated from ASME pressure-vessel code formula as shown in equation 7.4.

𝑷𝒅 𝑫𝒊 (7.5)
𝒕𝒑 =
𝟐𝑺𝑬 − 𝟏. 𝟐𝑷𝒅
Where,
tp is wall thickness in inches to withstand the internal pressure
Pd is the internal design pressure in psig
S is the maximum allowable stress of the shell material in pounds per square inch
E is the fractional weld efficiency which is 0.85

373
Because of the vessel is vertical and because it is quite tall, the vessel may be subject to
wind load or earthquake. The additional tower wall thickness at the bottom of the
vessel can be calculated based on the equation 7.5.

𝟎. 𝟐𝟐(𝑫𝒐 + 𝟏𝟖)𝑳𝟐 (7.6)

𝒕𝒘 =
𝑺𝑫𝟐𝒐

where
tw is the wall thickness to withstand wind load
Do is the outside diameter of the vessel in inches;
L is the tangent to tangent length vessel in inches;
S is the maximum allowable stress of the shell for stainless steel in psi.

The average vessel wall thickness, tv is computed from the average of the thickness at
the top, tp and the thickness at the bottom, tp + tw. The average vessel wall thickness, tv is
as shown in equation 7.6

𝒕𝒑 + (𝒕𝒑 + 𝒕𝒘 ) (7.7)
𝒕𝒗 =
𝟐

For noncorrosive conditions, a corrosive allowance, tc should be added to tv to give the

value of ts to be used for vessel weight. The vessels are generally fabricated from metal
plate while thickness can be assumed to come in the following increments:
1/16- inch increments for 3/16 to 1/12 inch inclusive
1/8- inch increments for 5/8 to 2 inches inclusive
1/4- inch increments for 9/4 to 3 inches inclusive
The final vessel thickness is obtained by rounding up to next increment.

The added cost, CPL is depending on Di in feet, and on the length of the reactor, L in feet
which is shown in equation 7.7.

𝑪𝑷𝑳 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎(𝑫𝒊 )𝟎.𝟕𝟑𝟗𝟔𝟎 (𝑳)𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟖𝟒 (7.8)

where this equation is applicable for vertical vessels for 3 < Di < 21 ft and 12 < L < 40
ft.
374
The weight, W depends on the wall thickness of the shell and the two heads. The equation
7.9 is

𝑾 = 𝝅(𝑫𝒊 + 𝒕𝒔 )(𝑳 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝑫𝒊 )𝒕𝒔 𝝆 (7.9)

Where,
Di is the vessel inside diameter,
Ts is the shell thickness
L is the tangent-to-tangent length
𝝆 is the density of the stainless steel 316 which is 0.29 Ib/in3

Since all the reactor is the vertical vessel, hence 4,200 < W < 1,000,000 lb with the
correlating equation 7.9 (Warren D, Seader, & Daniel R, 2017).

𝑪𝑽 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟕. 𝟑𝟏𝟗𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟓𝟓 (𝐥𝐧 𝑾) + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟗𝟕(𝐥𝐧 𝑾)𝟐 } (7.10)

The purchase cost is calculated by using the equation 7.10.

𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 (7.11)
𝑪𝒑 = ( 𝑭𝑴 𝑪𝑽 + 𝑪𝑷𝑳 ) × ( )
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where,
FM is material factor;
CV is the cost of reactor;
CPL is the added cost for platforms and ladders;
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020);
I2013 is 567.

Thus, bare module cost can be calculated based on the following equation as reactors are
vertical pressure vessel with FBM, bare module factor 4.16 as shown in appendix III(C).

𝐂𝐁𝐌 = 𝐂𝐏 × 𝐅𝐁𝐌 (7.12)

375
The completed calculations for all the reactors were shown in Appendix II (A, B, C).

7.2.2 Absorption Column (A-101)

Absorption column (A-101) is used to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from feed
gas which contains hydrogen and carbon dioxide. At the inlet, stream 16 consist of
diethanolamine (DEA) while stream 14 consists of hydrogen in gaseous form. For the
absorption process, DEA is used as liquid solvent which acts as an absorbent to remove
CO2 from feed gas. At the top outlet pure syngas will be released while solvent rich with
CO2 will be released at the bottom outlet.

This vessel is usually in cylindrical shape and can be mounted horizontally or

vertically. In addition, the vessel contains nozzles for inbound and outbound streams,
manholes for inner entry, connections for relief valves and instruments, skirts, or support
saddles, depending on whether the vessel is horizontally or vertically oriented, and
platforms and ladders. When calculating the cost of a purchase, certain factors must be
considered. All of it is the container's internal diameter and tangent-to-tangent length, as
well as the design pressure, tube weight, scale, and amount of the nozzle and manhole.
The design pressure was measured using this formula to begin the measurement of the
flash drum purchase cost. Table 7.4 shows the equipment specification sheet of
absorption column.

376
 Table 7.4 Equipment Specification Sheet of Absorption Column (A-101)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Equipment name DEA Absorber (A-101)
Function To absorb carbon dioxide using DEA
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Carbon steel
Length: Diameter ratio 7:1
Tray type Sieve tray
Operating Conditions
Operating pressure, Po (atm) 6 Operating temperature, (⁰ C) 40
Operating pressure, Po (psig) 73.48 Operating temperature, (⁰ F) 104
Design pressure, Pd (psig) 96.71 Design temperature, Td (⁰ F) 154
Design pressure, Pd (atm) 7.58 Design temperature, Td (⁰ C) 67.78
Flow rate, Q (L/min) 80209.24
Characteristics of reactor
Vessel volume, V (L) 401046 Wall thickness to withstand
0.684
Vessel volume, V (ft3) 14,163 internal pressure, tp (in.)
Inside diameter, Di (ft) 13.71 Wall thickness to withstand wind
0.141
Inside diameter, Di (in.) 164.50 load, tw (in.)
Outside diameter, Do (in.) 166.50 Average wall thickness, tv (in.) 0.755
Tangent-to-tangent length, L (ft) 95.96 Corrosion allowance, tc (in.) 0.125
Tangent-to-tangent length, L (in.) 1151.51 Shell thickness, ts (in.) 1.0
Material density, ρ (lb/in3) 0.284 Weight, W (lb) 189466
Material factor, Fm 1 Number of trays, Nt 8
Maximum allowable stress, S (psi) 13750 Fnt 1.626
Fractional Weld Efficiency, E 0.85 Ftt 1
Bare-module factor, FBM 4.16 Ftm 1
Base cost for sieve trays, Cbt (USD) 3,569
Cost for installed trays, Ct (USD) 49,756
Cost of empty vessel, Cv (USD) 426,252
Cost of platforms and ladders, CpL (USD) 69,424
Purchase cost, Cp (USD) 531,082
Bare module cost, CBM (USD) 2,416,287
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 9,906,775.432

377
The diameter and length of the absorber are calculated from the absorber volume, which
is calculated from the flow rate of the stream, Q and residence time, t as shown in
equation 7.13.

Vessel volume, V = Q × t (7.13)

Assuming the ratio of length to diameter of the absorber as 7:1, the internal diameter can
be calculated by using the formula as shown in equation 7.14.

(7.14)
𝟒𝑽 𝟑
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓, 𝑫𝒊 = √
𝟕𝝅

Since the operating pressure of the absorption column is between 10 psig and 1000 psig,
equation 7.3 below was used.
𝑷𝒅 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟔𝟎𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟓[𝒍𝒏(𝑷𝒐 )] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟓[𝒍𝒏(𝑷𝒐 )]𝟐 } (7.15)

Where,
Pd is design pressure in pisg,
P0 is operating pressure in psig,

The cylindrical shell wall thickness is calculated using the ASME pressure vessel code
formula in the absence of corrosion, wind, and earthquake considerations, and for internal
pressures greater than the external pressure:
𝑷 𝑫
𝒅 𝒊
𝒕𝒑 = 𝟐𝑺𝑬−𝟏.𝟐𝑷 (7.16)
𝒅

Where,
tp is wall thickness in inch,
Pd is internal gauge pressure in psig,
Di is inside shell diameter in inches,
S is maximum allowable stress of the shell material at the design temperature in pounds
per square inch,
E is fractional weld efficiency.

378
The shell and two heads' wall thicknesses decide the weight, W, in cost correlations for
a pressure tower. Although the thickness of the heads can need to be slightly greater than
that of the shell, particularly at high pressures, head thicknesses of t are adequate for cost
estimation. For 2:1 elliptical head, the weight of the shell and the two heads is
approximately:

𝑾 = 𝝅(𝑫𝒊 + 𝒕𝒔 )(𝑳 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝑫𝒊 )𝒕𝒔 𝝆 (7.17)

Where,
W is the weight of tower,
Di is vessel inside diameter,
𝝆 is density of carbon steel,
tS is shell thickness.

The CV including nozzle, manholes, and supports was measured using the weight
of the shell and two heads, as well as the f.o.b purchasing cost of an empty tower.

Towers for 9,000 < W < 2,500,000 lb:

𝑪𝑽 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟏𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟗 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟕𝟐[𝒍𝒏(𝑾)] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟖𝟐[𝒍𝒏(𝑾)]𝟐 } (7.18)

Where,
CV is purchase cost of empty tower,
W is weight of the vessel.

The added cost, CPL, for platforms and ladders for towers depends on the tower
inside diameter, D, in feet and on the tangent-to-tangent length of the shell, L, in feet,
and is given by:

Towers for 3 < Di < 24 ft and 27< L < 170 ft:

379
 𝑪𝑷𝑳 = 𝟑𝟒𝟏(𝑫𝒊 )𝟎.𝟔𝟑𝟑𝟏𝟔 (𝑳)𝟎.𝟖𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟏 (7.19)

Where,
Di is vessel inside diameter,
L is tangent-to-tangent length of the shell,
CPL is the added cost for platform and ladder.

The f.o.b procurement cost for carbon-steel construction, which includes

provision for platforms, ladders, and a nominal number of nozzles and manholes, is
measured using the additional cost and the empty vessel cost as follows:

𝐼
𝐶𝑝 = ( 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿 ) × (𝐼2019) (7.20)
2013

Where:
FM is material factor,
CV is purchase cost of empty vessel,
CPL is the added cost for platform and ladder,
CP is purchase cost for carbon steel construction.
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020);
I2013 is 567.

Thus, bare module cost can be calculated based on the following equation as reactors are
vertical pressure vessel with FBM, bare module factor 4.16 as shown in appendix III(C).

𝐂𝐁𝐌 = 𝐂𝐏 × 𝐅𝐁𝐌 (7.21)

The completed calculation was shown in Appendix II (D).

380
7.2.3 Flash Column (F-101, F-102 and F-103)

One of the most basic separation methods is the flash column. A liquid stream
containing several components is partially vaporised in a flash drum at a specific pressure
and temperature, resulting in two phases: a vapour phase with more than 63 volatile
components and a liquid phase with fewer volatile components (Iggland & Mazzotti,
2015).

Therefore, in this process, three flash columns are being used because it can
separate components based on the boiling points. F-101 is being used to remove all the
water from the syngas. Meanwhile, for F-102, it is being used to separate unreacted
syngas, carbon monoxide, Diethylamine (DEA), methane and carbon dioxide. Then, for
F-103 is being used to separate our final product which is liquid ammonia from the
unreacted mixture of 𝐻2 and 𝑁2 .

The vessel is typically cylindrical and can be positioned horizontally or

vertically. The vessel also has nozzles for inbound and outbound streams, manholes for
inner entry, relief valve and instrument connections, skirts or support saddles, and
platforms and ladders, depending on whether the vessel is horizontally or vertically
oriented. When deciding the cost of a purchase, certain factors must be taken into
account. It may be the container's internal diameter and tangent-to-tangent length, as well
as the design pressure, tube weight, scale, and nozzle and manhole number. Table 7.5,
Table 7.6 and Table 7.7 below show the equipment specification sheet for flash column.

381
 Table 7.5 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-101)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Equipment name Flash Separator 1 (F-101)
Function To flash water out of the stream
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Carbon steel
Length : Diameter ratio 3:1
Operating Conditions
Operating pressure, Po (atm) 6 Operating temperature, (⁰ C) 40
Operating pressure, Po (psig) 73 Operating temperature, (⁰ F) 104
Design pressure, Pd (psig) 97 Design temperature, Td (⁰ F) 154
Design pressure, Pd (atm) 7.58 Design temperature, Td (⁰ C) 67.78
Flow rate, Q (L/min) 48,460.57
Characteristics of reactor
Maximum allowable stress, S
Vessel volume, V (L) 193842 13750
(psi)
Vessel volume, V (ft3) 6845 Fractional Weld Efficiency, E 0.85
Inside diameter, Di (ft) 14.27 Wall thickness to withstand
0.712
Inside diameter, Di (in.) 171.23 internal pressure, tp (in.)
Outside diameter, Do (in.) 172.98 Wall thickness to withstand wind
0.027
Tangent-to-tangent length, L (ft) 42.81 load, tw (in.)
Tangent-to-tangent length, L (in.) 513.69 Average wall thickness, tv (in.) 0.725
Material density, ρ (lb/in3) 0.284 Corrosion alllowance, tc (in.) 0.125
Material factor, Fm 1 Shell thickness, ts (in.) 0.875
Bare-module factor, FBM 4.16 Weight, W (lb) 87424
Cost of empty vessel, Cv (USD) 196,830
Cost of platforms and ladders, CpL (USD) 41,668
Purchase cost, Cp (USD) 255,533
Bare module cost per equipment, CBM (USD) 1,063,019
Bare module cost, CBM (USD) 3,189,055.757

Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 13,075,128.6

382
 Table 7.6 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-102)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Equipment name Flash Separator 2 (F-102)
Function To recover diethanolamine (DEA)
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Carbon steel
Length : Diameter ratio 3:1
Operating Conditions
Operating pressure, Po (atm) 4 Operating temperature, (⁰ C) 300
Operating pressure, Po (psig) 44 Operating temperature, (⁰ F) 572
Design pressure, Pd (psig) 60 Design temperature, Td (⁰ F) 622
Design pressure, Pd (atm) 5.09 Design temperature, Td (⁰ C) 327.78
Flow rate, Q (L/min) 78664.32
Characteristics of reactor
Maximum allowable stress, S
Vessel volume, V (L) 235993 13750
(psi)
Vessel volume, V (ft3) 8334 Fractional Weld Efficiency, E 0.85
Inside diameter, Di (ft) 15.24 Wall thickness to withstand
0.472
Inside diameter, Di (in.) 182.84 internal pressure, tp (in.)
Outside diameter, Do (in.) 184.09 Wall thickness to withstand wind
0.029
Tangent-to-tangent length, L (ft) 45.71 load, tw (in.)
Tangent-to-tangent length, L (in.) 548.51 Average wall thickness, tv (in.) 0.486
Material density, ρ (lb/in3) 0.284 Corrosion alllowance, tc (in.) 0.125
Material factor, Fm 1 Shell thickness, ts (in.) 0.625
Bare-module factor, FBM 4.16 Weight, W (lb) 71079
Cost of empty vessel, Cv (USD) 170,263
Cost of platforms and ladders, CpL (USD) 45,814
Purchase cost, Cp (USD) 231,511
Bare module cost per equipment, CBM (USD) 963,085
Bare module cost, CBM (USD) 2,889,255
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 11,845,944.76

383
 Table 7.7 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-103)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Equipment name Flash Separator 3 (F-103)
Function To flash water out of the stream
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Carbon steel
Length : Diameter ratio 3:1
Operating Conditions
Operating pressure, Po (atm) 30 Operating temperature, (⁰ C) 50
Operating pressure, Po (psig) 426 Operating temperature, (⁰ F) 122
Design pressure, Pd (psig) 498 Design temperature, Td (⁰ F) 172
Design pressure, Pd (atm) 34.89 Design temperature, Td (⁰ C) 77.78
Flow rate, Q (L/min) 8195.90
Characteristics of reactor
Maximum allowable stress, S
Vessel volume, V (L)
32784 (psi) 13750
Vessel volume, V (ft3) 1158 Fractional Weld Efficiency, E 0.85
Inside diameter, Di (ft) 7.89 Wall thickness to withstand
Inside diameter, Di (in.) 94.69 internal pressure, tp (in.) 2.070
Outside diameter, Do (in.) 99.19 Wall thickness to withstand wind
Tangent-to-tangent length, L (ft) 23.67 load, tw (in.) 0.015
Tangent-to-tangent length, L (in.) 284.08 Average wall thickness, tv (in.) 2.078
Material density, ρ (lb/in3) 0.284 Corrosion allowance, tc (in.) 0.125
Material factor, Fm 1 Shell thickness, ts (in.) 2.250
Bare-module factor, FBM 4.16 Weight, W (lb) 70027
Cost of empty vessel, Cv (USD) 168,506
Cost of platforms and ladders, CpL (USD) 17,688
Purchase cost, Cp (USD) 199,494
Bare module cost per equipment, CBM (USD) 829,895
Bare module cost, CBM (USD) 2,489,685
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 10,207,707.71

384
The diameter and length of the flash column are calculated from the flash column
volume, which is calculated from the flow rate of the stream, Q and residence time, t as
shown in equation 7.22.

Vessel volume, V = Q × t (7.22)

Assuming the ratio of length to diameter of the flash column as 3:1, the internal diameter
can be calculated by using the formula as shown in equation 7.23.

(7.23)
𝟒𝑽 𝟑
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓, 𝑫𝒊 = √
𝟑𝝅

The design pressure was measured using the formula below to begin calculating the
purchasing cost of the flash drum.

𝑷𝒅 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟔𝟎𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟓[𝐥𝐧( 𝑷𝒐 )] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟓[𝐥𝐧(𝑷𝒐 )]𝟐 } (7.24)

Where,
𝑃𝑑 is pressure design
𝑃𝑜 is operating pressure

The equation above was used because the operating pressure of the flash drum
operating pressure is between 10 psig to 1,000 psig. In the absence of corrosion, wind,
and earthquake consideration and for internal pressures greater than the external pressure,
the cylindrical shell wall thickness is computed from the ASME pressure vessel code
formula:

𝑷 𝑫
𝒅 𝒊
𝒕𝒑 = 𝟐𝑺𝑬−𝟏.𝟐𝑷 (7.25)
𝒅

Where;
𝑡𝑝 is wall thickness in inch,
𝑃𝑑 is internal gauge pressure in psig,
𝐷𝑖 is inside shell diameter in inches,

385
S is maximum allowable stress of the shell diameter in inch,
E is fractional weld efficiency.

The tower weight covers the wall thickness of the shell and the two heads. The head
thickness is assumed as equal to the shell thickness, TS. The weight of the shell and the
two head is approximately:

𝐖 = 𝛑(𝐃𝐢 + 𝐭 𝐬 )(𝐋 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝐃𝐢 )𝐭 𝐬 𝛒 (7.26)

Where;
W is weight of the vessel,
𝐷𝑖 is vessel inside diameter,
ρ is density of the carbon steel,
𝑡𝑠 is shell thickness.

By calculating the weight of the tower, the f.o.b purchase cost of empty tower,
𝐶𝑣 including nozzle, manholes, and supports was calculated based on the weight of the
shell and two heads.

Vertical vessels for 4,200 < W < 1,000,000 lb:

𝑪𝑽 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟏7. 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟓𝟓[𝒍𝒏(𝑾)] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟗𝟕[𝒍𝒏(𝑾)]𝟐 } (7.27)

Where
𝐶𝑣 is purchase cost of empty vessel,
W is weight of the vessel.

Next, the added cost 𝐶𝑣 for platforms and ladders depends on the tower inside
diameter,𝐷𝑖 ,in feet and, for a vertical tower, on the tangent-to-tangent length of the shell,
L, in feet, and is calculated by the formula below:

Vertical vessels for 3 < Di < 21 ft and 12 < L < 40 ft:

𝑪𝑷𝑳 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎(𝑫𝒊 )𝟎.𝟕𝟑𝟗𝟔𝟎 (𝑳)𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟔𝟖𝟒 (7.28)

386
Where,
Di is vessel inside diameter,
L is tangent-to-tangent length of the shell,
CPL is the added cost for platform and ladder.

By using the added cost and the empty vessel cost, the f.o.b purchase cost for carbon-
steel construction include allowance for platforms, ladder, and a nominal number of
nozzles and manholes is calculated by:

𝐼
𝐶𝑝 = ( 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿 ) × (𝐼2019) (7.29)
2013

Where
𝐹𝑀 is material factor,
𝐶𝑉 is purchase cost of empty vessel,
𝐶𝑃𝐿 is the added cost for platform and ladder,
𝐶𝑝 is purchase cost for carbon-steel construction.
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020);
I2013 is 567.

Thus, bare module cost can be calculated based on the following equation as reactors are
vertical pressure vessel with FBM, bare module factor 4.16 as shown in appendix III(C).

𝐂𝐁𝐌 = 𝐂𝐏 × 𝐅𝐁𝐌 (7.30)

The completed calculation was showed in Appendix II (E).

7.2.4 Membrane Separator (D-101)

Membrane separator is a process where a membrane is used to separate the

components by rejecting the components to pass through while allowing the remaining
component to pass through. In this plant, membrane separator is used to produce a pure

387
 hydrogen product stream. Due to the corrosive component in the stream, stainless steel
316 is used as the material of construction. Table 7.8 is the equipment specification sheet
for the membrane separator.

Table 7.8 Equipment Specification Sheet of Membrane Separator (D-101)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Membrane Separator
Function To obtain pure hydrogen product stream
Type of membrane separation Gas permeation
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Stainless steel 316
Operating Conditions
Operating Pressure, Po (atm) 30.00 Operating temperature, (⁰ C) 400.00
Operating pressure, Po (psig) 426.18 Operating temperature, (⁰ F) 752.00
Flow rate, Q (l/min) 16,985.41 Flow rate, Q (gpm) 4,487.07
Characteristics of membrane separator
Volume, l 84,927.06 Volume (ft3) 2999.17
Tangent to Tangent length,
Length, L (inch) 130.05 L (ft) 32.51
Internal diameter, Di (ft) 10.84 Membrane Area, A (ft2) 352.36
Bare-module factor (FBM) 4.16
Purchase cost, Cp ($USD) 19,253.73
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 80,095.53
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 328,391.68

The diameter and length of the membrane separator are calculated from the vessel
volume, which is calculated from the flow rate of the stream, Q and residence time, t as
shown in equation 7.31.

Vessel volume, V = Q × t (7.31)

388
Assuming the ratio of length to diameter of the reactor as 3:1, the internal diameter can
be calculated by using the formula as shown in equation 7.32.

(7.32)
𝟒𝐕 𝟑
𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫, 𝐃𝐢 = √
𝟑𝛑

While the membrane area is calculated using formula below

𝐌𝐞𝐦𝐛𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚, 𝐀 = 𝐃𝐢 × 𝐋 (7.33)

The purchase cost is calculated by using the equation 7.34.

𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 (7.34)
𝑪𝒑 = 𝟓𝟏 × 𝐀 × ( )
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where;
A is membrane area
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020);
I2013 is 567.

Thus, bare model cost can be calculated based on the following equation as reactors are
vertical pressure vessel with FBM, bare module factor 4.16 as shown in appendix III(C).

𝐂𝐁𝐌 = 𝐂𝐏 × 𝐅𝐁𝐌 (7.35)

The completed calculations for the membrane separator were shown in Appendix II (F).

7.2.5 Furnaces (HT-01 and HT-02)

Furnace are often used to heat liquid to a desired temperature. Furnace used is
direct heater that utilize burner to produce heating oil that transfer the heat energy to a
process liquid or gas flowing directly through furnace tubes. Heating oil is used as the
fuel of combustion to increase the temperature from 97.34℃ to 700℃ for furnace HT-01
or 127.58℃ to 700℃ for furnace HT-02 as shown in Table 7.9 and Table 7.10.

389
 Table 7.9 Equipment Specification Sheet of Furnace (HT-01)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Furnace HT-01
To increase the temperature from 97.34℃ to
Function
700℃ before entering the reactor
Heating medium Heating Oil
Material of construction

Cr-MO alloy steel

Operating Conditions
Outlet temperature, t2
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 97.34 700
(⁰ C)
Operating Pressure (psig) 426.18

Q, Heat duty (Btu/hr) 44587729.99

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.00

Material Factor, Fm 1.40
Base cost, CB 867,847.14
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 1,292,556.53
Bare module factor, FBM 1.86
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 2,404,155.15
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 9,857,036.13

390
 Table 7.10 Equipment Specification Sheet of Furnace (HT-02)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Furnace HT-02
To increase the temperature from 127.58℃ to
Function
700℃ before entering the reactor
Heating medium Heating Oil
Material of construction

Cr-Mo alloy steel

Operating Conditions

Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 127.58 Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 700

Operating Pressure (psig) 426.18

Q, Heat duty (Btu/hr) 90,345,243.94

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.00

Material Factor, Fm 1.40
Base cost, CB 1,510,757.76
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 2,250,096.50
Bare module factor, FBM 1.86
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 4,185,179.49
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 17,159,235.91

The base cost, 𝐶𝐵 , of furnace depends on the heat duty, Q, absorbed by the
process stream in Btu/hr. The base cost for Q from 10 to 500 million Btu/hr is:

𝑪𝑩 = 𝐞𝐱𝐩{−𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟒𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓[𝐥𝐧(𝑸)]} (7.36)

The total purchase cost, 𝐶𝑃 , can be determined from equation 7.37:

𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗
𝑪𝑷 = (𝑭𝑷 𝑭𝑴 𝑪𝑩 ) × ( ) (7.37)
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

391
Where,
𝐹𝑃 is the pressure factor;
𝐶𝐵 is the base cost;
𝐹𝑀 is the material factor which is 1.4 for Cr-Mo alloy steel;
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020);
I2013 is 567

The pressure factor, 𝐹𝑃 , for the range of pressure, P, from 500 to 3000 psig is given by
equation 7.17:

𝑷 𝑷 𝟐
𝑭𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓 ( ) + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓 ( ) (7.38)
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟎𝟎

The bare-module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀 , can be calculated using equation 7.18:

𝐂𝐁𝐌 = 𝐂𝐏 × 𝐅𝐁𝐌 (7.39)

Where;
𝐶𝑃 is the total purchase cost;
𝐹𝐵𝑀 is the bare module factor which is as shown in appendix III.

The detailed calculations for furnace are shown in Appendix II (G)

7.2.6 Heater (HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-07 and HT-08)

All the heaters equipped in this plant are responsible to heat up the process stream
to desire temperature by using high pressure steam as a heating medium. The type of
heater will be used is shell and tube heat exchanger (U-Tube). This type of heat
exchanger has good thermal compensation performance and easy to clean and
maintenance. However, for heater with areas less than 200 ft2, double-pipe heat
exchangers are used (Warren D, Seader, & Daniel R, 2017). Table 7.11, Table 7.12,
Table 7.13, Table 7.14, Table 7.15 and Table 7.16 are the equipment specification sheet.

392
 Table 7.11 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-03)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heater (HT-03)
Function To increase the temperature from 80.2℃ to 300℃
Type of heat exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid High Pressure Steam
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Stainless Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 80.2 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 500
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 300 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 90.2
Pressure (psig) 44.084 Pressure (psig) 573.14
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 136647.8 63.42
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U

4000 Tube Length, ft 20
(W/m2C)

Surface area, ft2 5797.78 Tube length factor, FL 1

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.14

Material Factor, Fm 3.45
Base cost, CB 56503.62
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 237627.53
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 753,279.28
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 3,088,445.06

393
 Table 7.12 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-04)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heater (HT-04)
To increase the temperature from 100.79℃ to
Function
300℃
Type of heat exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid High Pressure Steam
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Stainless Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 100.79 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 500
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 300 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 201
Pressure (psig) 44.084 Pressure (psig) 573.14
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 123843.28 144.40
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 4000 Tube Length, ft 20

Surface area, ft2 2307.83 Tube length factor, FL 1

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.14

Material Factor, Fm 3.25
Base cost, CB 29983.94
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 119095.78
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 377,533.61
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 1,547,887.81

394
 Table 7.13 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-05)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heater (HT-05)
To increase the temperature from 46.84℃ to
Function
300℃
Type of heat exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid High Pressure Steam
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Stainless Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 46.84 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 500
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 300 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 56.84
Pressure (psig) 44.084 Pressure (psig) 573.14
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 157386.47 63.42
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 4000 Tube Length, ft 20

Surface area, ft2 6677.69 Tube length factor, FL 1

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.14

Material Factor, Fm 3.48
Base cost, CB 63193.17
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 268184.82
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 850,145.87
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 3,485,598.06

395
 Table 7.14 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-06)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heater (HT-06)
To increase the temperature from 122.56℃ to
Function
400℃
Type of heat exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid High Pressure Steam
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Stainless Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 122.56 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 500
Outlet temperature, T2
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C)
400 (⁰ C) 223
Pressure (psig) 426.18 Pressure (psig) 573.14
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 11261.63 100.22
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 4000 Tube Length, ft 20

Surface area, ft2 302.38 Tube length factor, FL 1

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.14

Material Factor, Fm 2.90
Base cost, CB 13334.014
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 47278.97
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 149,874.34
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 614,484.79

396
 Table 7.15 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-07)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heater (HT-07)
To increase the temperature from 113.72℃ to
Function
400℃
Type of heat exchanger Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid High Pressure Steam
Material of construction
Outer pipe Carbon Steel
Inner pipe Carbon Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 113.72 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 500
Outlet temperature, T2
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C)
400 (⁰ C) 224
Pressure (psig) 426.18 Pressure (psig) 573.14
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 3782.5 105.06
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 4000 Surface area, ft2 96.89

Surface area, ft2 1.00

Material Factor, Fm 1.00
Pressure Factor, Fp 2991.61
Material Factor, Fm 3205.30
Base cost, CB 1.8
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 5,769.54
Bare module factor, FBM 23,655.11

397
 Table 7.16 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (HT-08)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heater (HT-08)

Function To increase the temperature from 50℃ to 400℃

Type of heat exchanger Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid High Pressure Steam
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Stainless Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 50 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 500
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 400 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 60
pressure (psig) 426.18 Pressure (psig) 573.14
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 1799.99 39.09
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 4000 Surface area, ft2 123.92

Surface area, ft2 1.00

Material Factor, Fm 2.00
Pressure Factor, Fp 3111.77
Material Factor, Fm 6668.07
Base cost, CB 1.8
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 12,002.53
Bare module factor, FBM 49,210.37

All surface areas, A of the following heaters are calculated based on the equation 7.40
𝐐 (7.40)
𝐀 = 𝐔×∆𝐓
𝐋𝐌

398
Where,
A is heat transfer surface area, m2;
Q is heat transfer per unit mean temperature difference in W;
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient in W/𝑚2 ∙ºC which is shown in appendix III (A);
ΔTLM is the log mean temperature difference

Then in calculating log mean temperature difference, ΔTLM the equation is shown as
equation 7.20.

(𝑻𝟏 − 𝒕𝟐 ) − (𝑻𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 ) (7.41)

∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 =
(𝑻 − 𝒕𝟐 )
𝐥𝐧 𝟏
(𝑻𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 )

Where,
T1 is an inlet hot fluid temperature;
T2 is an outlet of hot fluid temperature;
t1 is and inlet of cold fluid temperature;
t2 is an outlet of cold fluid temperature

When heat exchanger areas less than 200 ft2 normally a double pipe heat
exchanger will be used. Since HT-07 and HT-08 have an area less than 200 ft2, the f.o.b.
purchase cost, Cp is determined by using equation 7.10

𝐈𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 (7.42)
𝐂𝐩 = 𝐅𝐩 𝐅𝐌 𝐂𝐁 × ( )
𝐈𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where,
Fp is the pressure factor;
FM is the material factor which is 2.0 for an outer pipe of carbon steel and inner
pipe of stainless steel and 1.0 for outer and inner pipe of carbon steel
CB is the base cost
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020),
I2013 is 567

399
 Base cost is calculated as shown in equation 7.43.

𝑪𝑩 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟕. 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔[𝐥𝐧 𝑨]} (7.43)

Pressure factor for the range of pressure, P from 600 to 3000 psig is calculated by the
equation 7.44.

𝐏 𝐏 𝟐 (7.44)
𝐅𝐏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟐 ( ) + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖 ( )
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎

On the other hand, heat exchanger with an area more than 200ft2, U tube type shell and
tube heat exchanger is used. The calculation is slightly different with double pipe heat
exchanger. The f.o.b. purchase cost, Cp is determined by using equation 7.10.

𝐈𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 (7.45)
𝐂𝐏 = 𝐅𝐏 𝐅𝐌 𝐅𝐋 𝐂𝐁 × ( )
𝐈𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where
Fp is the pressure factor;
FM is the material factor;
CB is the base cost;
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020),
I2013 is 567

𝐂𝐁 = 𝐞𝐱𝐩{𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟖𝟔[𝐥𝐧 𝐀] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟎[𝐥𝐧 𝐀]𝟐 } (7.46)

Material factor, FM for various combination of tube and shell material as stated
in appendix III (B) as a function of the surface area, A in square feet according to the
equation 7.47.
𝐀 𝐛 (7.47)
𝐅𝐌 = 𝐚 + ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎

400
The tube length factor, FL is a tube-length correction which is as shown in table 7.17.

Table 7.17 Tube Length Factor

Tube Length (ft) FL

8 1.25
12 1.12
16 1.05
20 1.00

The pressure factor, FP is based on the shell side pressure P, in psig and is shown
at equation 7.25 which is applicable from 100 to 2,000 psig.

𝑷 𝑷 𝟐 (7.48)
𝑭𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖 ( ) + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕 ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Lastly, the bare module cost, CBM for the double pipe heater is calculated by using
the equation 7.49.

𝐂𝐁𝐌 = 𝐂𝐏 × 𝐅𝐁𝐌 (7.49)

Where,
FBM is bare module factor which is as shown in appendix III (C).

The detailed calculations for all the heaters are shown in Appendix II (H)

401
7.2.7 Cooler (CL-01, CL-02, CL-03 and CL-04)

The function of a cooler is to decrease the temperature from high temperature to

low temperature by cooling medium which is cooling water. Shell and tube heat
exchangers are used as cooler for heat exchanger surface area larger than 200 ft2 whereby
only two coolers will be utilized double pipe heat exchanger as the surface area is smaller
than 200 ft2. Table 7.18, Table 7.19, Table 7.20 and Table 7.21 are equipment
specification sheet for all the coolers.

402
 Table 7.18 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (CL-01)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Shell and tube cooler (CL-01)
Function To decrease the temperature from 50℃ to 25℃
Type of heat exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid cooling water
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Carbon Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, T1
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C)
10.00 (⁰ C) 50
Outlet temperature, T2
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C)
40.00 (⁰ C) 25
Pressure (psig) 0.00 Pressure (psig) 165.33
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 360.92 12.33
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 900.00 Tube Length, ft 12

Surface area, ft2 350.04 Tube length factor, FL 1.12

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.01

Material Factor, Fm 1.00
Base cost, CB 13758.42
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 15636.03
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 53,106.67
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 217,737.36

403
 Table 7.19 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (CL-02)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Shell and tube cooler (CL-02)
Function To decrease the temperature from 43.29℃ to 40℃
Type of heat exchanger Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid cooling water
Material of construction
Outer pipe Carbon Steel
Inner pipe Stainless Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, T1
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 10.00
(⁰ C) 43.29
Outlet temperature, T2
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 33.29
(⁰ C) 40.00
Pressure (psig) 0.00 Pressure (psig) 182.52
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 192.64 18.20
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 900.00 Surface area, ft2 126.56

Surface area, ft2 1.02

Material Factor, Fm 2.00
Pressure Factor, Fp 3,122.26
Material Factor, Fm 6,362.02
Base cost, CB 1.80
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 12,269.61
Bare module factor, FBM 50,305.38

404
 Table 7.20 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (CL-03)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Shell and tube cooler (CL-03)
Function To decrease the temperature from 50℃ to 25℃
Type of heat exchanger Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid cooling water
Material of construction
Outer pipe Carbon Steel
Inner pipe stainless steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, T1
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C)
10.00 (⁰ C) 97.34
Outlet temperature, T2
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C)
80.00 (⁰ C) 50.00
Pressure (psig) 0.00 Pressure (psig) 165.33
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 322.17 27.11
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 900.00 Surface area, ft2 142.13

Surface area, ft2 1.01

Material Factor, Fm 2.00
Pressure Factor, Fp 3,180.77
Material Factor, Fm 6,455.09
Base cost, CB 1.80
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 12,449.11
Bare module factor, FBM 51,041.35

405
 Table 7.21 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (CL-04)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Shell and tube cooler (CL-04)
Function To decrease the temperature from 97.34℃ to 50℃
Type of heat exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Type of fluid cooling water
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Carbon Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, T1
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C)
10.00 (⁰ C) 97.34
Outlet temperature, T2
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C)
80.00 (⁰ C) 50.00
pressure (psig) 0.00 Pressure (psig) 165.33
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 683.43 Driving force, ΔTLM 27.11
(⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 900.00 Tube Length, ft 12.00

Surface area, ft2 301.51 Tube length factor, FL 1.12

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.01

Material Factor, Fm 1.00
Base cost, CB 13,326.30
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 15,144.93
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 51,438.69
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 210,898.62

406
All surface areas, A of the following heaters are calculated based on the equation 7.50
𝐐 (7.50)
𝐀 = 𝐔×∆𝐓
𝐋𝐌

Where
A is heat transfer surface area, m2;
Q is heat transfer per unit mean temperature difference in W;
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient in W/𝑚2 ∙ºC which is shown in appendix III (A);
ΔTLM is the log mean temperature difference

Then in calculating log mean temperature difference, ΔTLM the equation is shown as
equation 7.51.

(𝑻𝟏 − 𝒕𝟐 ) − (𝑻𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 ) (7.51)

∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 =
(𝑻 − 𝒕𝟐 )
𝐥𝐧 𝟏
(𝑻𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 )

Where,
T1 is an inlet hot fluid temperature;
T2 is an outlet of hot fluid temperature;
t1 is and inlet of cold fluid temperature;
t2 is an outlet of cold fluid temperature

When heat exchanger areas less than 200 ft2 normally a double pipe heat exchanger will
be used. Since CL-02 and CL-03 have an area less than 200 ft2, the f.o.b. purchase cost,
Cp is determined by using equation 7.52.

𝐈𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 (7.52)
𝐂𝐩 = 𝐅𝐩 𝐅𝐌 𝐂𝐁 × ( )
𝐈𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where,
Fp is the pressure factor;
FM is the material factor which is 2.0 for an outer pipe of carbon steel and inner pipe of
stainless steel and 1.0 for outer and inner pipe of carbon steel
CB is the base cost

407
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020),
I2013 is 567

Base cost is calculated as shown in equation 7.53.

𝑪𝑩 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟕. 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔[𝐥𝐧 𝑨]} (7.53)

Pressure factor for the range of pressure, P from 600 to 3000 psig is calculated by the
equation 7.54.
𝐏 𝐏 𝟐 (7.54)
𝐅𝐏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟐 ( ) + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖 ( )
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎

On the other hand, heat exchanger with an area more than 200ft2, U tube type shell and
tube heat exchanger is used. The calculation is slightly different with double pipe heat
exchanger. The f.o.b. purchase cost, Cp is determined by using equation 7.55.

𝐈𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 (7.55)
𝐂𝐏 = 𝐅𝐏 𝐅𝐌 𝐅𝐋 𝐂𝐁 × ( )
𝐈𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where,
Fp is the pressure factor;
FM is the material factor
CB is the base cost
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020),
I2013 is 567

𝑪𝑩 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟖𝟔[𝐥𝐧 𝑨] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟎[𝐥𝐧 𝑨]𝟐 } (7.56)

Material factor, FM for various combination of tube and shell material as stated in
appendix III (C) as a function of the surface area, A in square feet according to the
equation 7.57.
𝐀 𝐛 (7.57)
𝐅𝐌 = 𝐚 + ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎

The tube length factor, FL is a tube-length correction which is as shown in table 7.22.

408
 Table 7.22 Tube Length Factor

Tube Length (ft) FL

8 1.25
12 1.12
16 1.05
20 1.00

The pressure factor, FP is based on the shell side pressure P, in psig and is shown at
equation 7.58 which is applicable from 100 to 2,000 psig.

𝐏 𝐏 𝟐 (7.58)
𝐅𝐏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖 ( ) + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕 ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Lastly, the bare module cost, CBM for the double pipe heater is calculated by using the
equation 7.59.

𝑪𝑩𝑴 = 𝑪𝑷 × 𝑭𝑩𝑴 (7.59)

Where
FBM is bare module factor which is as shown in appendix III (C).

The detailed calculations for all the coolers are shown in Appendix II (I)

409
7.2.8 Heat Exchanger (HE-01, HE-02, HE-04, HE-05, HE-06 and HE-07)

A heat exchanger is equipment which allows heat from a fluid to transfer to

another fluid without mixing both streams. There are a total 7 heat exchanger in the
Ammonia Plant. Shell and tube heat exchanger are the most common type of heat
exchanger that will be used. The type of flow configuration of a heat exchanger is finned
tubes, single or two-phase heat transfer, counter-current flow, co-current flow, or
crossflow arrangements, and single, two, or multiple pass configurations. The
configuration used in Ammonia Plant is counter-current flow as this type of configuration
distributes the heat more evenly and allows for maximum efficiency. Table 7.23, Table
7.24, Table 7.25, Table 7.26, Table 7.27, Table 7.28 and Table 7.29 are the equipment
specification sheet for all the heat exchanger.

410
 Table 7.23 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-01)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heat Exchanger (HE-01)
To exchange heat of hot stream (S12) with
Function
cold stream (S7a)
Type of Heat Exchanger U-tube type shell and tube

Flow configuration Countercurrent

Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Carbon Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 28.99 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 50
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 40 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 40
pressure (psig) 420.41 Pressure (psig) 72.32
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 1086.56 10.50
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 1000 Tube Length, ft 12

Surface area, ft2 1114.20 Tube length factor, FL 1.12

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.00

Material Factor, Fm 1.00
Base cost, CB 20,437.09
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 22889.55
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 77,742.71
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 318,745.10

411
 Table 7.24 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-02)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heat Exchanger (HE-02)
To exchange heat of hot stream (S23a) with
Function
cold stream (S7)
Type of Heat Exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Carbon Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 25 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 50
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 28.99 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 43.29
pressure (psig) 420.41 Pressure (psig) 179.94
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 393.4 19.62
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 1000 Tube Length, ft 12

Surface area, ft2 215.84 Tube length factor, FL 1.12

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.02

Material Factor, Fm 1.00
Base cost, CB 12605.10
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 14374.56
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 48,822.18
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 200,170.95

412
 Table 7.25 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-03)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heat Exchanger (HE-03)
To exchange heat of hot stream (S12) with
Function
cold stream (S18a)
Type of Heat Exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Stainless Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 40 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 280
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 80.2 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 50
pressure (psig) 43.32 Pressure (psig) 72.32
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 24990.97 63.38
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 1000 Tube Length, ft 20

Surface area, ft2 4244.38 Tube length factor, FL 1

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.00

Material Factor, Fm 3.38
Base cost, CB 44753.49
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 151170.82
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 513,440.90
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 2,105,107.70

413
 Table 7.26 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-04)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heat Exchanger (HE-04)
To exchange heat of hot stream (S35) with
Function
cold stream (S18d)
Type of Heat Exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Stainless Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 40 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 400
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 100.79 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 50
pressure (psig) 43.32 Pressure (psig) 420.41
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 37795.49 85.10
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 1000 Tube Length, ft 20

Surface area, ft2 4780.70 Tube length factor, FL 1

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.09

Material Factor, Fm 3.403232273
Base cost, CB 48806.82
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 180389.21
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 612,679.07
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 2,511,984.20

414
 Table 7.27 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-05)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heat Exchanger (HE-05)
To exchange heat of hot stream (S23) with
Function
cold stream (S18g)
Type of Heat Exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Stainless Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 40 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 122.56
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 46.84 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 50
pressure (psig) 43.32 Pressure (psig) 179.94
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 4252.3 32.46
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 1000 Tube Length, ft 12

Surface area, ft2 1409.95 Tube length factor, FL 1.12

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.02

Material Factor, Fm 3.16
Base cost, CB 22872.17
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 82436.97
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 279,991.28
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 1,147,964.25

415
 Table 7.28 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-06)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heat Exchanger (HE-06)
To exchange heat of hot stream (S30) with
Function
cold stream (S7b)
Type of Heat Exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Carbon Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 40 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 113.72
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 48.32 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 50
pressure (psig) 420.41 Pressure (psig) 162.97
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 821.15 29.50
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 1000 Tube Length, ft 12

Surface area, ft2 299.61 Tube length factor, FL 1.12

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.01

Material Factor, Fm 1.00
Base cost, CB 13309.65
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 15117.74
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 51,346.34
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 210,519.98

416
 Table 7.29 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (HE-07)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Heat Exchanger (HE-07)
To exchange heat of hot stream (S10) with
Function
cold stream (S7c)
Type of Heat Exchanger U-tube type shell and tube
Flow configuration Countercurrent
Material of construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Carbon Steel
Operating Conditions
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet temperature, t1 (⁰ C) 48.32 Inlet temperature, T1 (⁰ C) 398.09
Outlet temperature, t2 (⁰ C) 127.58 Outlet temperature, T2 (⁰ C) 280
pressure (psig) 420.41 Pressure (psig) 72.32
Log Mean Temperature
Heat duty (kW) 7819.8 250.59
Driving force, ΔTLM (⁰ C)

Heat Transfer Coefficient, U (W/m2C) 1000 Tube Length, ft 12

Surface area, ft2 335.89 Tube length factor, FL 1.12

Pressure Factor, Fp 1.00

Material Factor, Fm 1.00
Base cost, CB 13631.59
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 15267.38
Bare module factor, FBM 3.17
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 51854.57
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 212603.75

417
All surface areas, A of the following heaters are calculated based on the equation 7.60.
𝐐 (7.60)
𝐀=
𝐔 × ∆𝐓𝐋𝐌

Where
A is heat transfer surface area, m2;
Q is heat transfer per unit mean temperature difference in W;
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient in W/𝑚2 ∙ºC which is shown in appendix III (A);
ΔTLM is the log mean temperature difference

Then in calculating log mean temperature difference, ΔTLM the equation is shown
as equation 7.61.

(𝑻𝟏 − 𝒕𝟐 ) − (𝑻𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 ) (7.61)

∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 =
(𝑻 − 𝒕𝟐 )
𝐥𝐧 𝟏
(𝑻𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 )

Where,
T1 is an inlet hot fluid temperature;
T2 is an outlet of hot fluid temperature;
t1 is and inlet of cold fluid temperature;
t2 is an outlet of cold fluid temperature

For U tube type shell and tube heat exchanger is used, the f.o.b. purchase cost, Cp is
determined by using equation 7.62.

𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 (7.62)
𝑪 𝑷 = 𝑭𝑷 𝑭𝑴 𝑭𝑳 𝑪 𝑩 × ( )
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where
Fp is the pressure factor;
FM is the material factor;
CB is the base cost;
I2019 is 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020);
I2013 is 567

418
Base cost, CB is calculated as shown in equation 7.63 where A is surface areas.

𝑪𝑩 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑{𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟖𝟔[𝐥𝐧 𝑨] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟎[𝐥𝐧 𝑨]𝟐 } (7.63)

Material factor, FM for various combination of tube and shell material as stated in
appendix III (C) as a function of the surface area, A in square feet according to the
equation 7.64
𝑨 𝒃 (7.64)
𝑭𝑴 = 𝒂 + ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎

The tube length factor, FL is a tube-length correction which is as shown in table 7.30

Table 7.30 Tube Length Factor

Tube Length (ft) FL

8 1.25
12 1.12
16 1.05
20 1.00

The pressure factor, FP is based on the shell side pressure P, in psig and is shown
at equation 7.65 which is applicable from 100 to 2,000 psig.

𝑷 𝑷 𝟐 (7.65)
𝑭𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖 ( ) + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕 ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Lastly, the bare module cost, CBM for the double pipe heater is calculated by using
the equation 7.67.

𝑪𝑩𝑴 = 𝑪𝑷 × 𝑭𝑩𝑴 (7.67)

Where,
FBM is bare module factor which is as shown in appendix III (A).

The detailed calculations for all the heat exchangers are shown in Appendix II (J).
419
7.2.9 Expander (T-101)

In this production plant, an expander type of valve has been installed in order to
reduce the pressure of the syngas before been fed to the water gas shift reactor (R-102).
By using an expander, the process is able to reduce the pressure in a large amount and
able to withstand higher pressure. There are many types of expander are available for
reducing the pressure of gas however in this plant, a turbo-expander is been selected and
used to reduce the pressure of the syngas from 30atm to 6atm before it is been feed to the
R-102. At the same time, some heat has also been released to the surroundings where it
leads to the temperature drop. A cast-based iron material is been used for the construction
of the expander in order to withstand the higher pressure during operation. Table 7.31
below shows the equipment specification sheet of the expander along with the equipment
costing equations.

420
 Table 7.31 Equipment Specification Sheet of Expander (T-101)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Expander (T-101)
Function To decrease the pressure from 30atm to 6atm
Material of construction Cast iron
Characteristics of Expander (T-101)
Pressure inlet, Pi (atm) 30.00
Pressure inlet, P (psi) 435.12
Pressure outlet, Po (atm) 6.00
Flowrate, Qi (ft3/min) 1,195.84
Compression ratio (Po/Pi) 0.20
Specific heat ratio, k 1.30
Compressor efficiency (electric motor), ⴄc 0.90
Motor efficiency, ⴄM 0.95
Brake horsepower, PB (Hp) 3,388.79
Horsepower, Pc (Hp) 3,567.15
Design factor, FD 1.00
Material Factor, FM 1.00
Base purchase cost, CB ($USD) 2,513,059.03
Bare module factor, FBM 2.15
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 452,409.03
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 1,042,156.51
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 4,272,841.70

Based on the equation 7.68 below, the brake horsepower of the expander has been
calculated by using the formula below:

𝑲−𝟏
𝑲 𝑸𝒊 𝑷 𝑷
PB = |𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟑𝟔 ( ) [( 𝒐) 𝑲 − 𝟏]| (7.68)
𝑲−𝟏 𝒏𝑩 𝑷𝒊

Where,
PB = Brake horsepower (horsepower)
K = Specific heat ratio

421
Qi = Inlet volumetric flowrate (ft3/min)
P = Pressure inlet (psi)
nB = Expander efficiency (%)
Po = Pressure outlet (atm)
Pi = Pressure inlet (atm)

After the calculation of the brake horsepower been calculated, the power
consumption of the expander has been calculated based on the equation below:

𝑷𝑩
Pc =
𝒏𝒎 7(.69)

Where,
Pc = Power consumption (horsepower)
PB = Brake horsepower (horsepower)
nm = motor efficiency (%)

Then, the base purchase cost of the expander has been calculated by using the
equation below:

CB = exp {(4.6762 + 1.23[(𝐥𝐧(𝑷𝒄 )]} (7.70)

Where,
CB = Base purchase cost ($USD)
Pc = Power consumption (horsepower)

Next, the purchase cost of the expander has been calculated by using the equation
below:

𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗
Cp = 600 (𝑷𝒄 )𝟎.𝟖𝟏 ( ) (7.80)
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where,
Cp = Purchase cost ($USD)

422
Pc = Power consumption (horsepower)
I2019 = 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020);
I2013 = 567

Finally, the base module cost of the expander has been calculated by using the equation
below:

CBM = FBM 𝑪𝒑 (7.81)

Where,
CBM = Bare module cost ($USD)
FBM = Bare module factor
Cp = Purchase cost ($USD)

423
7.2.10 Compressor (C-101, C-102, C-103, C-104, C-105, C-106)

In this ammonia production plant, there are two compressors used which help to
regulate the pressure on the methane feed stream before coming into furnace (HT-01).
The type of compressor used in the plant is a reciprocating compressor with an electric
motor, which is more effective than a steam or gas-powered turbine. With horsepowers
up to 20,000 per machine, reciprocating compressors can accommodate the widest range
of pressures, from vacuum to 100,000 psig, but the narrowest range of flow speeds, from
5 to 7,000 ACFM (D.S Warren, 2017). Centrifugal compressors with multiple stages can
produce pressures up to 5,000 psig with flow rates ranging from 1,000 to 150,000 ACFM
and horsepower up to 2,000 per machine. Table 7.32, Table 7.33, Table 7.34, Table 7.35,
Table 7.36 and Table 7.37 below show the equipment specification sheet of the
compressor along with the equipment costing equations.

424
 Table 7.32 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-101)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Compressor (C-101)
Function To increase the pressure from 5atm to 12.2474atm
Material of construction Cast iron
Characteristics of compressor 1 (C-101)
Pressure inlet, Pi (atm) 5.00
Pressure inlet, P (psi) 72.52
Pressure outlet, Po (atm) 12.25
Flowrate, Qi (ft3/min) 397.54
Compression ratio (Po/Pi) 2.45
Specific heat ratio, k 1.32
Compressor efficiency (electric motor), ⴄc 0.90
Motor efficiency, ⴄM 0.95
Brake horsepower, PB (Hp) 139.75
Horsepower, Pc (Hp) 147.10
Drive factor, FD 1.00
Material Factor, FM 1.00
Base purchase cost, CB ($USD) 49,775.39
Bare module factor, FBM 2.15
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 49,775.39
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 114,661.18
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 470,110.82

425
 Table 7.33 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-102)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Compressor (C-102)
Function To increase the pressure from 12.2474atm to 30atm
Material of construction Cast iron
Characteristics of compressor 2 (C-102)
Pressure inlet, Pi (atm) 12.25
Pressure inlet, P (psi) 177.64
Pressure outlet, Po (atm) 30.00
Flowrate, Qi (ft3/min) 160.42
Compression ratio (Po/Pi) 2.45
Specific heat ratio, k 1.34
Compressor efficiency (electric motor), ⴄc 0.90
Motor efficiency, ⴄM 0.95
Brake horsepower, PB (Hp) 138.86
Horsepower, Pc (Hp) 146.17
Design factor, FD 1.15
Drive factor, FD 0.60
Base purchase cost, CB ($USD) 49,387.38
Bare module factor, FBM 2.15
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 34,077.29
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 78,499.47
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 321,847.83

426
 Table 7.34 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-103)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Compressor (C-103)
Function To increase the pressure from 6atm to 13.42atm
Material of construction Cast iron
Characteristics of compressor 3 (C-103)
Pressure inlet, Pi (atm) 6.00
Pressure inlet, P (psi) 87.02
Pressure outlet, Po (atm) 13.42
Flowrate, Qi (ft3/min) 1,386.51
Compression ratio (Po/Pi) 2.24
Specific heat ratio, k 1.40
Compressor efficiency (electric motor), ⴄc 0.90
Motor efficiency, ⴄM 0.95
Brake horsepower, PB (Hp) 529.05
Horsepower, Pc (Hp) 556.89
Drive factor, FD 1.15
Material Factor, FM 0.60
Base purchase cost, CB ($USD) 255,944.18
Bare module factor, FBM 2.15
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 176,601.48
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 406,814.13
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 1,667,937.94

427
 Table 7.35 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-104)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Compressor (C-104)
Function To increase the pressure from 13.42atm to 30atm
Material of construction Cast iron
Characteristics of compressor 4 (C-104)
Pressure inlet, Pi (atm) 13.42
Pressure inlet, P (psi) 194.64
Pressure outlet, Po (atm) 30.00
Flowrate, Qi (ft3/min) 622.87
Compression ratio (Po/Pi) 2.24
Specific heat ratio, k 1.41
Compressor efficiency (electric motor), ⴄc 0.90
Motor efficiency, ⴄM 0.95
Brake horsepower, PB (Hp) 532.31
Horsepower, Pc (Hp) 560.33
Drive factor, FD 1.15
Material Factor, FM 0.60
Base purchase cost, CB ($USD) 257,887.40
Bare module factor, FBM 2.15
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 177,942.30
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 409,902.81
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 1,680,601.51

428
 Table 7.36 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-105)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Compressor (C-105)
Function To increase the pressure from 5atm to 12.2474atm
Material of construction Cast iron
Characteristics of compressor 5 (C-105)
Pressure inlet, Pi (atm) 5.00
Pressure inlet, P (psi) 72.52
Pressure outlet, Po (atm) 12.25
Flowrate, Qi (ft3/min) 459.81
Compression ratio (Po/Pi) 2.45
Specific heat ratio, k 1.41
Compressor efficiency (electric motor), ⴄc 0.90
Motor efficiency, ⴄM 0.95
Brake horsepower, PB (Hp) 165.36
Horsepower, Pc (Hp) 174.07
Drive factor, FD 1.15
Material Factor, FM 0.60
Base purchase cost, CB ($USD) 61,224.94
Bare module factor, FBM 2.15
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 42,245.21
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 97,314.85
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 398,990.90

429
 Table 7.37 Equipment Specification Sheet of Compressors (C-106)

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Compressor (C-106)
Function To increase the pressure from 12.2474atm to 30atm
Material of construction Cast iron
Characteristics of compressor 6 (C-106)
Pressure inlet, Pi (atm) 12.25
Pressure inlet, P (psi) 177.64
Pressure outlet, Po (atm) 30.00
Flowrate, Qi (ft3/min) 187.93
Compression ratio (Po/Pi) 2.45
Specific heat ratio, k 1.42
Compressor efficiency (electric motor), ⴄc 0.90
Motor efficiency, ⴄM 0.95
Brake horsepower, PB (Hp) 165.89
Horsepower, Pc (Hp) 174.62
Drive factor, FD 1.15
Material Factor, FM 0.60
Base purchase cost, CB ($USD) 61,465.32
Bare module factor, FBM 2.15
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 42,411.07
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 97,696.93
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 400,557.41

𝒌−𝟏
𝒌 𝑸𝒊 𝑷 𝑷
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟑𝟔 (𝒌−𝟏) [( 𝑷𝒐) 𝒌 − 𝟏] (7.82)
𝛈𝑩 𝒊

Where
K is specific heat ratio
PB is brake horsepower
Qi is inlet volumetric flowrate (cubic feet per minute),
P is pressure inlet (Pound force per square inch)
Pi is pressure inlet (Bar)

430
 Po is pressure outlet,
η𝐵 is compressor efficiency

Next, the power consumption of the compressor was calculated using equation below
and the base purchase cost, CB of the compressor was calculated.

𝑷
𝑷𝒄 = 𝛈 𝑩 (7.83)
𝑴

Where
Pc is power consumption,
η𝑀 is electric motor efficiency (90%)

𝑪𝑩 = 𝐞𝐱𝐩{𝟒. 𝟔𝟕𝟔𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑[𝐥𝐧(𝑷𝑪 )]} (7.84)

Where
PC is power consumption
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗
𝐂𝐩 = 𝐅𝐦 × 𝐂𝐛 × ( )
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where
Fm is material factor of 0.6 for cast aluminum.
The bare module factor, FBM for compressor from 2013 is 2.15 and I2013=567
while I2019=607.5.
After, the value of CBM be found using equation below

𝑪𝑩𝑴 = 𝑭𝑩𝑴 𝑪𝑷 (7.85)

431
7.2.11 Centrifugal Pump (P-101)

Pumps operate similarly to compressors, with the exception of the phase

involved. Pumps work with liquids, while compressors deal with gases. The cost of the
pumps is divided into two parts that is the cost of the pump and the cost of the electric
motor. Pump head, brake horse strength, size factor, content factor, and shape factor are
all relevant factors to consider when calculating the pump. Table 7.38 below shows the
equipment specification sheet of the pump and electric motor along with the equipment
costing equation.

432
Table 7.38 Equipment Specification Sheet of Pump (P-101) with Electric Motor

Equipment Specification Sheet

Item no. Pump 1 (P-101)
To increase pressure from 1 atm to
Function 30 atm
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Cast Steel
Characteristics of pump (P-101)
Temperature inlet (⁰ C) 25
Temperature outlet (⁰ C) 25
Pressure inlet, Pi (atm) 1
Pressure outlet, Po (atm) 30
Mass flowrate, M (kg/hr) 62674.96
Density of liquid, ρ (Ib/ft3) 62.4
Flowrate, Qi (gal/min) 16556.97
Compression ratio (P2/P1) 30.00
Pump head, H (ft) 6.83
Size factor, S 43270.03
Type factor, FT 1.00
Material Factor, FM 1.35
Base purchase cost, CB ($USD) 17465.53
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 23578.47
(Electric motor) Brake horsepower, PB 241.50
(Electric motor) Efficiency of pump, ⴄP 0.89
(Electric motor) Efficiency of motor, ⴄM 0.92
(Electric motor) Power consumption. PC 262.43
(Electric motor) Motor type factor, FT 1.8
(Electric motor) Base purchase cost, CB
($USD) 15630.62
(Electric motor) Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 28135.12
Total purchase cost, CP ($USD) 55407.42
Bare module factor, FBM 3.30
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 182844.49
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 749662.41

433
The size factor, S of a centrifugal pump is
𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓, 𝑺 = 𝑸(𝑯)𝟎.𝟓 (7.86)

Where,

Q is the flow rate through the pump in gallons per minute

H is the pump head in feet of flowing (pressure rise/liquid density)

The base purchase cost valid from S=400 to S=100,000 is as shown in formula 7.33.
𝟐)
𝑪𝑩 = 𝒆(𝟏𝟐.𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟔−𝟏.𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟖[𝟏𝒏(𝑺)] + 𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟐[𝒍𝒏(𝑺)] (7.87)

Next, the purchase cost, Cp of pump can be obtained from the following equation:
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 (7.88)
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵 × ( )
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑
Where;
FT is the type factor.
FM is the material factor.
CB is the base cost.

I2019 = 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020);

I2013 = 567

A centrifugal pump is usually driven by an electric motor whose cost is added to pump
cost. The size parameter for the motor is its power consumption, Pc, which is given by
the following equation
𝑃𝐵 𝑄𝐻𝜌 (7.89)
𝑃𝐶 = =
𝜂𝑀 33000𝜂𝑀 𝜂𝑃
Where,
Q is the flow rate through the pump in gallons per minute;
H is the pump head in feet of fluid flowing;
PB is the pump brake horsepower with ρ equal to the liquid density in pounds per
gallon.
𝑽𝑷 is the volumetric flow rate
𝑩𝑷𝑴 is the pump brake horsepower

434
The base cost of the electric motor (CB) is calculated using the following equation
where Pc is the horsepower consumption:

𝐶𝐵 = exp{5.9332 + 0.16829[ln(𝑃𝐶 )] − 0.110056[𝑙𝑛(𝑃𝐶 )]2 + (7.90)

0.071413[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]3 − 0.0063788[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]4 }

The purchase cost, Cp of the motor is obtained from the equation 7.91.

𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 (7.91)
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐶𝐵 × ( )
𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

Where;
FT is type factor for electric motor.
CB is the base cost of the motor.
I2019 = 607.5 (Jenkins, 2020);
I2013 = 567

Finally, the bare model cost (CBM) can be obtained by multiplying the total purchase cost
of the pump and the motor, Cp, with the bare-module factor (FBM) of 3.3.

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀 (7.92)

Thus, the total bare module costs for all the equipment involve in the ammonia
production plant have been summarized as shown in Table 7.39 below.

435
 Table 7.39 Total Bare Module Cost of all Equipment

Equipment
No Equipment Cost (RM)
Tag
Steam Methane Reforming
1 R-101 10,532,980.65
Reactor
2 R-102 Water Gas Shift Reactor 16,833,869.70
3 R-103 Ammonia Synthesis Reactor 18,697,082.19
4 A-101 Absorber 9,906,775.43
5 F-101 Flash Column 13,075,128.60
6 F-102 Flash Column 11,845,944.76
7 F-103 Flash Column 10,207,707.71
8 D-101 Membrane Separator 328,391.68
9 HT-01 Furnace 9,857,036.12
10 HT-02 Furnace 17,159,235.91
11 HT-03 Heater 3,088,445.06
12 HT-04 Heater 1,547,887.81
13 HT-05 Heater 3,485,598.06
14 HT-06 Heater 614,484.79
15 HT-07 Heater 23,655.11
16 HT-08 Heater 49,210.37
17 CL-01 Cooler 217,737.36
18 CL-02 Cooler 50,305.38
19 CL-03 Cooler 51,041.35
20 CL-04 Cooler 210,898.62
21 HE-01 Heat Exchanger 318,745.10
22 HE-02 Heat Exchanger 200,170.95
23 HE-03 Heat Exchanger 2,105,107.70
24 HE-04 Heat Exchanger 2,511,984.20
25 HE-05 Heat Exchanger 1,147,964.25
26 HE-06 Heat Exchanger 210,519.98
27 HE-07 Heat Exchanger 212,603.75
28 T-101 Expander 4,272,841.70

436
 Equipment
No Equipment Cost (RM)
Tag
29 P-101 Pump 749,662.41
30 C-101 Compressor 470,110.82
31 C-102 Compressor 321,847.83
32 C-103 Compressor 1,667,937.94
33 C-104 Compressor 1,680,601.51
34 C-105 Compressor 398,990.90
35 C-106 Compressor 400,557.41
Total 144,453,063.10

7.3 Utilities Cost

Utility cost is generally costing that includes usage of electricity, water and also
heat. The expenses of the plant are included in the financial statements for the production
of ammonia. The list of utilities needed are electricity, process water, cooling water,
waste treatment plant and steam. The following Table 7.40 shows the overall utility cost
needed.

Table 7.40 Estimation of Utilities Cost

Type of utility Unit consumed Total Cost (MYR/year)

Electricity, kW/hr 100 55,440.00

Process water, m3/year 1.03E+06 278,100.00

Cooling water, kg/year 4.50E+06 121,500.00

Waste treatment plant - 588,533.00

Steam kg/year 6.00E+07 918,000.00

Total utility cost ($USD/year) 1,961,573.44

Total utility cost (RM/year) 8,042,451.08

437
7.4 Estimation Land Cost

The location is at Lot Q, Polymer Park, Kerteh as per selected earlier in Chapter
1. The following table 7.41 below shows the land cost estimation. It is calculated by using
the following equation:

Estimation land cost (RM) = land area (ft2) × current land cost per (ft2)

Table 7.41 Estimation Land Cost

Land Area Value

Square foot (ft2) 1082466.00

Cost per ft2 (MYR) 17.64

Estimation land cost (MYR) 19091111.11

7.5 Total Labor Operating Cost

For estimation labor cost, 330 working days per year is consider as an
assumption:

i. Average total working period for single operator is 47 weeks/year

ii. 3 weeks of vacation are off and sick leave for each operator
iii. Operator working 8 hours per shift and one shift per day.

438
 Table 7.42 Operating Labor Estimation Cost

Operator per
Equipment No of Unit Number of Shifts Total Operator
shift
Reactor 3 3 3 9
Absorber 1 1 3 3
Flash Column 3 3 3 9
Membrane Separator 1 1 3 3
Furnace 2 2 3 6
Heater 6 6 3 18
Cooler 4 4 3 12
Heat Exchanger 7 7 3 21
Expander 1 1 3 3
Pump 1 1 3 3
Compressor 6 6 3 18
Total 35 35 105

The labor cost in Malaysia is around RM 2000 per month multiply with the total
number of operators which is 105. Hence, the total operating labor cost is around
RM210,000 per month and RM2,520,000.00 per year respectively.

439
 7.6 Profit Margin

Fundamentally, the profit margin of ammonia production plant is the amount of

net profit gained by submission of the amount of the product revenue cost to the raw
material cost. The profit margin will present an estimation of the profitability for the
whole plant. The equation for profit margin per year was as presented below:

𝑅𝑀 𝑅𝑀
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 (𝑅𝑀) = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 ( ) − 𝑅𝑎𝑤 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 ( )
𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟

Methane and nitrogen as the raw materials. Specifically, the total required
methane and nitrogen per year is estimated to be 176814 and 354010.6073 tonne/year
respectively with the operation period of 345 days/year which is 49 weeks/year. Table
7.43 below present the raw material cost per year.

Table 7.43 Raw material cost (RM/year)

Raw material capacity Market Price

Raw material Raw material cost (RM/year)
(tonne/year) (RM/tonne)

Methane 176,814 194.05 34,311,110.33

Nitrogen 354,010.61 322.95 114,327,017.60
Total raw material cost (RM) 148,638,127.93

In this chemical plant, the main product is ammonia with the predictable capacity
of 429873.84. Table 7.44 present the product revenue cost per year.

440
 Table 7.44 Product Revenue (RM/year)

Predictable capacity Market price Product Revenue cost

Production
(tonne/year) (RM/tonne) (RM/year)

Ammonia 429,873.84 2620 1,126,269,460.80

Total Product Revenue, S (RM/year) 1,126,269,460.80

By using the equation mentioned above, the value of the profit margin is calculate
as shown below:
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 (𝑅𝑀) = 1,126,269,460.80 − 148,638,127.93
= 𝑅𝑀 977,631,332.87

Therefore, the ammonia production plant was estimate profitable since the profit margin
is in positive value.

7.7 Total Capital Investment

The total capital investment is a one-time expense for the design, construction,
and start-up of a new plant. Guthrie method had been used for the calculation of the total
capital investment (CTCI) which is shown in equation 7.93.

𝐂𝐓𝐂𝐈 = (𝐂𝐓𝐏𝐈 + 𝐂𝐖𝐂 ) (7.93)

Where CTPI is total permanent investment while CWC is the working capital. The
total permanent investment is calculated as shown in equation 7.94.

𝐂𝐓𝐏𝐈 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 (𝐂𝐓𝐏𝐌 + 𝐂𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞 + 𝐂𝐛𝐮𝐢𝐥𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 + 𝐂𝐨𝐟𝐟𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐞𝐬 ) (7.94)

441
 CTBM or total bare model cost is the summation of the bare module cost of each
equipment that had been calculated. Csite is the total site cost in which this ammonia plant
is assumed grassroot and there is an additional integrated complex. While, total cost
building Cbuildings includes process buildings and non-process buildings. Coffsite facilities

includes utility plants costs and other service outside the battery limit. Battery limit is
referred as an imaginary boundary that separate the processing equipment directly
associated with the manufacturing process from the auxiliary facilities. The factor 1.18
in the formula 7.94 included a contingency of 15% and a contractor fee of 3%.

Allocated cost, Calloc are included to provide or upgrade off-site utility plant such
as steam, electricity, cooling water and process water. The allocated capital costs for
utility plant is as shown as shown in table 7.45. Whereas the total cost is summarized at
table 7.46.

Table 7.45 Allocated Capital Costs for Utility Plants

Allocated cost,
Utility Size Factor, S Allocated cost, RM
USD
Steam 20,000Ib/hr 2,833,461.04 11,617,190.25
Electricity 0.5MW 1,631,334.80 6,688,472.69
Cooling water 1000gpm 120,612.60 494,511.67
Process water 50gpm 72,687.57 298,019.02
Total allocated, Calloc 19,098,193.63

1. Steam
Assuming flowrate of 20,000Ib/hr
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 = 930 × 𝑆 0.81
= 930 × 20,0000.81
= $2,833,461.04
= 𝑅𝑀11,617,190.25

442
 2. Electricity
Assuming power supply of 0.5MW
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 = 2,900,000 × 𝑆 0.83
= 2,900,000 × 0.50.83
= $1,631,334.80
= 𝑅𝑀6,688,472.69

3. Cooling water
Assuming flow rate of 1100gpm
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 = 1100 × 𝑆 0.68
= 1100 × 10000.68
= $120,612.60
= 𝑅𝑀494,511.67

4. Process Water
Assuming flow rate of 50gpm
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 = 1700 × 𝑆 0.96
= 1700 × 500.96
= $72,687.57
= 𝑅𝑀298,019.02

Table 7.46 Summarization of Total Costs

Cost Equation Total cost (RM)

CTBM - 144,453,063.10
Csite 15% of CTBM 21,667,959.47
Cbuilidings 20% of CTBM 28,890,612.62
26,320,846.79
5% of CTBM + Total Calloc (Steam,
Coffsite facilities electricity, cooling water and process
water)

261,172,328.7
CTPI 1.18(CTBM + Csite + Cbuilding +Coffsite facility)

CWC 17.6% of CTPI 45,966,329.86

CTCI CTPI + CWC 307,138,658.6

443
 7.8 Total Depreciable Capital, 𝑪𝑻𝑫𝑪

The value of a fixed asset after all accrued depreciation has been deducted is
known as total depreciable capital. Companies who use machinery for industrial purposes
benefit from depreciation because it allows them to minimize their taxes. Table 7.47
shows the total depreciable cost for this ammonia production plant along with its typical
factor.

Table 7.47 Total Depreciable Capital, 𝐶𝑇𝐷𝐶

Total Depreciation capital, CTDC Typical Factor Total CTDC (RM)

Total site and service cost, (Csite +

30% of CTBM 43,335,918.93
Cservice)
Direct permanent investment cost,
CTBM +Csite + Cservice+ Calloc 206,887,175.66
CDPI
Contingency cost and contractor
18% of CDPI 37,239,691.62
fee, Ccont
Total Depreciation capital, CTDC CDPI + CCONT 244,126,867.28

7.9 Total Annual Production Cost

In this section, the continuity of costing will be proceeded with the annual
production cost estimation of the plant. This total annual production cost is known as the
summation of the cost of manufacture (COM) and also other general expenses.
Commonly, the general expenses may include the activities that are conducted by the
operations of the company and are financed from profits made by the operating plan of
the company. These general expenses involve selling expenses, research expenses,
administrative expenses and management incentive compensation while the cost of
manufacture (COM) is known as the sum of direct manufacturing cost which consist of
feedstocks, utilities, labour related operations and maintenance cost, operating overhead

444
and fixed costs which includes property taxes, insurances and depreciation. Table 7.48
below shows the overall summary of the total annual production cost and the general
expenses for our ammonia production plant. The formula to calculate the total annual
production cost is shown as below:

Cost = COM + General Expenses (7.95)

445
 Table 7.48 Summary of Total Annual Production Cost

Annual Cost Summary

Cost Factor Typical Factor Annual Cost (RM)
Feedstocks (raw materials) - 148,638,127.93
Utilities (Steam, cooling water, process water,
- 8,042,451.09
electricity)
Labor Operation Cost (O)
Direct wages and benefits (DW&B) - 2,520,000.00
Direct salary and benefit 15% of DW&B 378,000.00
Operating supplies and service 6% of DW&B 151,200.00
Technical assistance to manufacturing - 738,000.00
Control laboratory - 799,500.00
Total labor-related operations 4,586,700.00
Maintenance (M)
Maintenance wages and benefits 3.5% of CTDC 8,544,440.35
Salaries and benefits 25% of MW&B 2,136,110.09
Material and services 100% of MW&B 8,544,440.35
Maintenance overhead 5% of MW&B 427,222.02
Total annual maintenance cost 19,652,212.82
Total M&O-SW&B 13,578,550.44
Operating Overhead
General plant overhead 7.1% of M&O-SW&B 964,077.08
Mechanical department service 2.4% of M&O-SW&B 325,885.21
Employee relation department 5.9% of M&O-SW&B 801,134.48
Business services 7.4% of M&O-SW&B 1,004,812.73
Total operating overhead 3,095,909.50
Property taxes and insurances
Property taxes and insurances 2% of CTDC 4,882,537.35
Depreciation
Direct plant 8% of (CTDC - 1.18Calloc) 17,727,279.90
Allocated plant 6% of 1.18Calloc 1,352,152.11
Total depreciation, D 19,079,432.01
Total cost of manufacture, COM 207,977,370.69
General expenses
General expenses Typical factor Total annual (RM)
Transfer expenses 3% of sales 33,788,083.82
Direct research 4.8% of sales 54,060,934.12
Allocated research 0.5% of sales 5,631,347.30
Administrative expense 2.0% of sales 22,525,389.22
Management incentive compensation 1.25% of sales 14,078,368.26
Total general expenses, GE 130,084,122.72
Total production cost, C COM+GE 338,061,493.41

446
7.10 Cash Flow Analysis

The cash flow analysis diagram visually represents an entity cash is being
generated and to observe the flow of the money over a specific period of time. It is very
important to analyze the liquidity and long-term solvency of a company.

The cash flow in a manufacturing company can be connected to the material

flows in the plant process. The input is the cash required to pay for operating expenses
including the feedstock, utilities, maintenance and general expense while the output is
product good for sale as cash return to the organization. It is calculated by minus the cash
outflow by cash inflow. After considering the cash flow of depreciation and related taxes,
net cash flow is replaced by cash flow before taxes (CFBT) and cash flow after tax
(CFAT). CFBT and CFAT are the best way to estimate the actual cash flow each year.

The calculation of cumulative cash flow shown in Table 7.49, cash flow diagram
can be plotted and determination of payback period can be obtained for ammonia
production plant. Payback period is the time taken for the plant to recover the expenses
or investment made by the company. It is also stated as the time taken for the company
to be able to pay off the initial investment from the income after the start of operation.
This parameter can be shown using the graphical method which is depicted in Figure 7.1.
There are a few assumptions that had been made for this cash flow analysis.

1. The total operating period is 20 years with 3 years at the beginning as the start-up
operation period. The plant will not generate any revenue on these 2 years.
2. The revenue will be assumed as 20%, 40% and 60% of the maximum for years 3,
4 and 5 respectively.
3. The capital investment will be 55% of Total Capital Investment for the first year,
CTCI while the second year is 35% and the third year is 10% of the Total Capital
Investment, CTCI

447
 Table 7.49 Cash Flow Analysis for Ammonia Production Plant (in million of Ringgit Malaysia)

Annual Total
Cash flow Cash flow
Capital Revenue, Operating Depreciation, Taxable Taxes, Te = Cumulative
Year before Taxes, after taxes,
Investment R expenses, OE D income, TI 0.24 cash flow
CFBT CFAT
cost, CTCI
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 169 0 0 -169 0 0 0 -169 -169
2 107 0 0 -107 0 0 0 -107 -276
3 31 225 338 -144 0 0 0 -144 -420
4 451 338 112 19 93 27 86 -334
5 676 338 338 19 319 92 246 -88
6 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 479
7 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 1,046
8 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 1,613
9 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 2,180
10 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 2,747
11 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 3,314
12 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 3,881
13 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 4,448
14 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 5,016
15 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 5,583
16 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 6,150
17 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 6,717
18 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 7,284
19 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 7,851
20 1,126 338 788 19 769 221 567 8,418

448
 10
Cumulative cash flow for 0% interest
Billions
rate
8
Cumulative Cash Flow (RM)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-2
Year

Figure 7.1 Cumulative Cash Flow Diagram with 0% Interest Rate

Based on the Table 7.49, the total capital CTCI is funded accordingly in the first,
second year and third year with different percentage stated in the assumption. From the
Figure 7.1, the graph shows negative value of cumulative annual cash flow for the first
5.2 year. The investment required to design and built the plant is from year 1 to year 3.
The cash flow curve turns up at year 4, as the process started to generate income from
the sales of ammonia. The net cash flow is positive but the cumulative amount remains
negative until the investment paid off around year 5.2. The payback time is between year
5 and year 6.

It is reasonable to estimate the chemical plant’s life about 15 years to 20 years.

The operating period is 20 years with the initial 3 years of start-up operation. Starting
from year 6, the project is continuously earning a return until the end of project.

The rate of investment (ROI) of the project is first calculated using the formula
7.35 to know the annual gross earning. The formula is calculated by minus product
production cost, C with product revenue, S. Then the annual gross earning is times with
449
(1-t) where t is Malaysia and state income tax rates. Rate of investment (ROI) is the
annual interest rate made by the profits on the original investment which shows the
profitability of the plant.

𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕 = 𝑺 − 𝑪 (7.96)

= 𝟏, 𝟏𝟐𝟔, 𝟐𝟔𝟗, 𝟒𝟔𝟏 − 𝟑𝟑𝟖, 𝟎𝟔𝟏, 𝟒𝟗𝟑. 𝟒𝟏
= 𝑹𝑴𝟕𝟖𝟖, 𝟐𝟎𝟕, 𝟗𝟔𝟕. 𝟑𝟗

𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕 = (𝟏 − 𝒕)𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 (7.97)

= 𝟎. 𝟕(𝟕𝟖𝟖, 𝟐𝟎𝟕, 𝟗𝟔𝟕. 𝟑𝟗)
= 𝑹𝑴 𝟓𝟓𝟏, 𝟕𝟒𝟓, 𝟓𝟕𝟕. 𝟏𝟕

𝐍𝐞𝐭 𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 (7.98)

𝐑𝐎𝐈 =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭
(𝟏 − 𝐭)(𝐒 − 𝐂)
=
𝐂𝐓𝐂𝐈
𝐑𝐌𝟓𝟓𝟏, 𝟕𝟒𝟓, 𝟓𝟕𝟕. 𝟏𝟕
=
𝐑𝐌 𝟑𝟎𝟕, 𝟏𝟑𝟖, 𝟔𝟓𝟖. 𝟔
= 𝟏𝟕𝟗%

Based on the calculation on the return of investment, it can be seen that the rate
of investment (ROI) of the ammonia plant is 179% which is more than 100%. Since the
ROI refer as the profitability of an investment, ROI which exceed 100% means that the
investment brings profit toward the investor.

Table 7.50 and Figure 7.2 constructed to analyse the cumulative cash flow trend
at discounted value at 0% and various discounted value which are 5%, 10% and 15%.
Present worth factor is a concept of time value money where it is different for different
discounted value. The factor can be determined from “Compound Interest Factor Table”
from Engineering Economic books where P is the present worth, F is the future worth, n
is number of years and i is the interest rate.

450
 𝟏 (7.99)
𝐏 = 𝐅[ ]
(𝟏 + 𝐢)𝐧

Based on Figure 7.2, the payback period shown are 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5 year for the
rate at 5%, 10% and 15% respectively after three years of start-up period. Therefore, this
means that the ammonia production plant is profitable to construct even though the
payback period is longer than undiscounted (i=0%) cash flow. This is because the
equipment will undergo regular maintenance and services throughout the operation
period in order to ensure the plant can sustain for more than 10 years of operation and
have a good net value profit.

451
 Table 7.50 Discounted Factor Cash Flow Analysis for 0%, 5% & 10% &15% (in million of Ringgit Malaysia)

i=0% i=5% i=10% i=15%

Cash Flow Non-
Discounted Discounted Discounted
Year After Tax, discounted Present Present
Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
CFAT cumulative Present Value, Value, (PV) Value, (PV)
Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow
cash (PV)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 -169 -169 -161 -161 -154 -154 -147 -147
2 -107 -276 -98 -258 -89 -242 -81 -228
3 -144 -420 -124 -382 -108 -350 -94 -323
4 86 -334 70 -312 58 -292 49 -274
5 246 -88 193 -119 153 -139 122 -151
6 567 479 423 304 320 181 245 94
7 567 1,046 403 707 291 472 213 307
8 567 1,613 384 1,091 265 737 185 492
9 567 2,180 366 1,456 240 977 161 654
10 567 2,747 348 1,805 219 1,196 140 794
11 567 3,314 332 2,136 199 1,395 122 916
12 567 3,881 316 2,452 181 1,575 106 1,022
13 567 4,448 301 2,753 164 1,740 92 1,114
14 567 5,016 286 3,039 149 1,889 80 1,194
15 567 5,583 273 3,312 136 2,025 70 1,264
16 567 6,150 260 3,572 123 2,148 61 1,324
17 567 6,717 247 3,819 112 2,260 53 1,377
18 567 7,284 236 4,055 102 2,362 46 1,423
19 567 7,851 224 4,279 93 2,455 40 1,463
20 567 8,418 214 4,493 84 2,539 35 1,497

452
 9
Billions
8

7 i=0%
Cumulative cash flow (RM)

i=5%
6 i=10%

5 i=15%

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-1
Yeat

Figure 7.2 Discounted cash flow diagram at i = 0%, 5%, 10% and 15%

453
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461
 APPENDIX I

A. Temperature Profile for Heat Exchanger

HE-01

T( ) T( )

50

40 40

Tx

Q = CP (T –Tx)
𝑄
𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇 − 𝐶𝑃

1086.56
𝑇𝑥 = 40 −
98.66
𝑇𝑥 = 28.99℃

462
HE-02

T( ) T( )

50

Tx 28.99

25

Q = CP (T – Tx)
𝑄
𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇 − 𝐶𝑃

393.40
𝑇𝑥 = 50 −
58.60
𝑇𝑥 = 43.29℃

HE-03

T( ) T( )

280

50 Tx

40

Q = CP (Tx – T )
𝑄
𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑃

463
 37795.485
𝑇𝑥 = 40 +
621.69
𝑇𝑥 = 100.79℃
HE-04

T( ) T( )

400

50 Tx

40

Q = CP (Tx – T )
𝑄
𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑃

24990.97
𝑇𝑥 = 40 +
621.69
𝑇𝑥 = 80.20℃

HE-05

T( ) T( )

122.56

50 Tx

40

Q = CP (Tx – T )

464
 𝑄
𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑃

4252.30
𝑇𝑥 = 40 +
621.69
𝑇𝑥 = 46.84℃
HE-07

T( ) T( )

398.09

280 Tx

48.32

Q = CP (Tx – T )
𝑄
𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑃

7819.82
𝑇𝑥 = 48.32 +
98.66
𝑇𝑥 = 46.84℃

465
 APPENDIX II

A) Tubular Steam Methane Reforming Reactor (R-101)

Volumetric Flowrate, Q
By substituting Q = 2891.99 l/min, t = 5min into equation

𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑉
Q = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒,𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑉
2891.99 L/min = 5𝑚𝑖𝑛

Inlet volume = 14459.96375 L

Internal Diameter, Di
By substituting V = 14459.96375 L into equation below

𝜋𝐷 2 (3𝐷)
V= 4
𝜋𝐷 2 (3𝐷)
14459.96375 L = 4

= 6.006717351 ft
= 6.006717351 ft x 12
Internal Diameter = 72.08060821 inch

Designed Pressure, Pd
Then, the designed pressure have been calculated based on the equation below.

Pd = exp {0.60608 + 0.91615[ln(𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655[ln(𝑃𝑜 )]2}

= exp {0.60608 + 0.91615[ln(426.18)] + 0.0015655[ln(426.18)]2}
= 498.02 psig

The maximum allowable stress (S) depends on the design temperature and the constructed
material. Also, by assuming the wall thickness is less than 1.25 inch, it gives s weld efficiency

466
(E) of 0.85%. Based on the designed temperature of 727.78℃ or 1342.0℉, the maximum
allowable stress value will be 20,000 psi.

Thickness to withstand internal pressure, tp

Next, the internal thickness of the reactor have been calculated based on the equation below.

𝑃 𝐷
𝑑 𝑖
tp = 2𝑆𝐸−1.2 𝑃 𝑑

498.02(72.08060821)
=
2(20,000)(0.85)−1.2 (498.02)

= 1.074695773 inch

Thickness to withstand wind load, tw

Later, the thickness to withstand the wind load of the reactor have been calculated based on the
equation below.

0.22(𝐷𝑜 +18)𝐿2
tw = 𝑆𝐷𝑜 2

0.22(74.33060821+18)(216.2418246)2
=
(20,000)(74.33060821)2

= 0.00859572283inch

Average Wall Thickness, tv

An average value of wall thickness of the reactor has been calculated based on the equation
below.
𝑡𝑝+𝑡𝑤
tv = 2
1.074695773+0.00859572283
=
2

= 1.08 inch

1
By adding the corrosion allowance of 8 inch, it gives a total thickness of 1.204 inch. The final

shell thickness, ts is obtained by rounding up to the next increment which is 1.25.

467
 W = 𝜋 (𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 )(𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 𝜌
= 𝜋 (72.0806 + 1.25)(216.2418 + 0.8(72.0806))(1.25)(0.29)
= 22018.45455 Ib

By substituting W into the equation,

Cv = exp {(7.3190 + 0.18255 (ln 𝑊) + 0.02297 (ln 𝑊)2}

= exp {(7.3190 + 0.18255 [ln(22018.45) + 0.02297 [(ln(22018.45)2]}
= $ 77750.9833

Based on the equation, the CpL was calculated as below

CPL = 410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73960 (𝐿)0.70684

= 410(6.0067)0.73960 (216.24)0.70684
= $ 19920.21553

Finally by using the equation 7.1 above, the purchase cost of the at a chemical engineering
index of 607.5 at 2019 with the base index of 567 at 2013 have been calculated by using FM =
1.7

𝐼
CP = (Fm CV + CPL) x (𝐼 )
𝐵

607.5
= [(1.7)(77750.09833)+(19920.21553)] x ( )
567

= $ 154,389.52
CBM = FBM CV

= (4.16)(274,504.32)
= $ 642,260.41 x 4
= $ 2,569,041.645 x 4.1
= RM 10,533,070.74

468
B) Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-102)

Volumetric Flowrate, Q
By substituting Q = 23920.6187 l/min, t = 5min into equation below.

𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑉
Q = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒,𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑉
23920.6187 L/min = 5𝑚𝑖𝑛

Inlet volume = 119603.0934 L

Internal Diameter, Di
By substituting V = 119603.0934 L into equation below

𝜋𝐷 2 (3𝐷)
V= 4
𝜋𝐷 2 (3𝐷)
119603.0934 L = 4

= 12.1447 ft
= 12.1447 ft x 12
Internal Diameter = 145.7729 inch

Designed Pressure, Pd
Then, the designed pressure have been calculated based on the equation below.

Pd = exp {0.60608 + 0.91615[ln(𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655[ln(𝑃𝑜 )]2}

= exp {0.60608 + 0.91615[ln(73.4760)] + 0.0015655[ln(73.4760)]2}
= 96.7030 psig

The maximum allowable stress (S) depends on the design temperature and the constructed
material. Also, by assuming the wall thickness is less than 1.25 inch, it gives s weld efficiency
(E) of 0.85%. Based on the designed temperature of 307.78℃ or 586.0℉, the maximum
allowable stress value will be 20,000 psi.

469
Thickness to withstand internal pressure, tp
Next, the internal thickness of the reactor have been calculated based on the equation below.

𝑑 𝑖𝑃 𝐷
tp = 2𝑆𝐸−1.2 𝑃 𝑑

96.7030(145.7729)
=
2(20,000)(0.85)−1.2 (96.7030)

= 0.4160 inch

Thickness to withstand wind load, tw

Later, the thickness to withstand the wind load of the reactor have been calculated based on the
equation below.

0.22(𝐷𝑜 +18)𝐿2
tw = 𝑆𝐷𝑜 2

0.22(146.8979+18)(437.3188)2
=
(20,000)(74.33060821)2

= 0.0161inch

Average Wall Thickness, tv

An average value of wall thickness of the reactor has been calculated based on the equation
below.
𝑡𝑝+𝑡𝑤
tv = 2
0.4160+0.0161
=
2

= 0.4241 inch

1
By adding the corrosion allowance of 8 inch, it gives a total thickness of 0.5491 inch. The final

shell thickness, ts is obtained by rounding up to the next increment which is 0.56.

W = 𝜋 (𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 )(𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 𝜌

= 𝜋 (145.7729 + 0.56)(437.3188 + 0.8(145.7729))(0.56)(0.29)
= 40545.4674 Ib

470
By substituting W into the equation,

Cv = exp {(7.3190 + 0.18255 (ln 𝑊) + 0.02297 (ln 𝑊)2}

=e𝑥𝑝 {(7.3190 + 0.18255 [ln(40545.4674 ) + 0.02297 [(ln(40545.4674 )2]}
= $ 116047.718

Based on the equation, the CpL was calculated as below

CPL = 410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73960 (𝐿)0.70684

= 410(12.1477)0.73960 (437.3188)0.70684
= $ 33013.37584

Finally, by using the equation below, the purchase cost of the at a chemical engineering index
of 607.5 at 2019 with the base index of 567 at 2013 have been calculated by using FM = 1.7

𝐼
CP = (Fm CV + CPL) x (𝐼 )
𝐵

607.5
= [(1.7)( 116047.718)+( 33013.37584)] x ( 567 )

= $ 246,744.10
CBM = FBM CV

= (4.16)(274,504.32)
= $ 1,026,455.47 x 4
= $ 4,105,821.879 x 4.1
= RM 16,833,869.70

471
C) Ammonia Synthesis Reactor (R-103)

Volumetric Flowrate, Q
By substituting Q = 5302.24 l/min, t = 5min into equation

𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑉
Q = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒,𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑉
5302.24 L/min = 5𝑚𝑖𝑛

Inlet volume = 26511.1887 L

Internal Diameter, Di
By substituting V = 26511.1887 L into equation below

𝜋𝐷 2 (3𝐷)
V= 4
𝜋𝐷 2 (3𝐷)
26511.1887 L = 4

= 7.35176 ft
= 7.35176 ft x 12
Internal Diameter = 88.2211 inch

Designed Pressure, Pd
Then, the designed pressure have been calculated based on the equation below.

Pd = exp {0.60608 + 0.91615[ln(𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655[ln(𝑃𝑜 )]2}

= exp {0.60608 + 0.91615[ln(426.18)] + 0.0015655[ln(426.18)]2}
= 498.02 psig

The maximum allowable stress (S) depends on the design temperature and the constructed
material. Also, by assuming the wall thickness is less than 1.25 inch, it gives s weld efficiency
(E) of 0.85%. Based on the designed temperature of 427.78℃ or 802.0℉, the maximum
allowable stress value will be 20,000 psi.

472
Thickness to withstand internal pressure, tp
Next, the internal thickness of the reactor has been calculated based on the equation below.

𝑑 𝑖𝑃 𝐷
tp = 2𝑆𝐸−1.2 𝑃 𝑑

498.02 (88.2211)
=
2(20,000)(0.85)−1.2 (498.02)

= 1.3153 inch

Thickness to withstand wind load, tw

Later, the thickness to withstand the wind load of the reactor have been calculated based on the
equation below.
0.22(𝐷𝑜 +18)𝐿2
tw = 𝑆𝐷𝑜 2

0.22(91.2211+18)(264.6633)2
=
(20,000)(91.2211)2

= 0.01011 inch

Average Wall Thickness, tv

An average value of wall thickness of the reactor have been calculated based on the equation
below.
𝑡𝑝+𝑡𝑤
tv = 2
1.3153 +0.01011
=
2

= 1.3204 inch

1
By adding the corrosion allowance of 8 inch, it gives a total thickness of 1.45 inch. The final

shell thickness, ts is obtained by rounding up to the next increment which is 1.50.

W = 𝜋 (𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 )(𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 𝜌

= 𝜋 (88.2211 + 1.50 )(437.3188 + 0.8(88.2211))(1.5 )(0.29)
= 41104.53414 Ib

473
By substituting W into the equation below,

Cv = exp {(7.3190 + 0.18255 (ln 𝑊) + 0.02297 (ln 𝑊)2}

= 𝑒𝑥𝑝{(7.3190 + 0.18255 [ln(41104.53414) + 0.02297 [(ln(41104.53414)2]}
= $ 117117.8624

Based on the equation, the CpL was calculated as below

CPL = 410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73960 (𝐿)0.70684

= 410(7.3518)0.73960 (264.6633)0.70684
= $ 15966.694

Finally by using the equation below, the purchase cost of the at a chemical engineering index
of 607.5 at 2019 with the base index of 567 at 2013 have been calculated by using FM = 1.7

𝐼
CP = (Fm CV + CPL) x (𝐼 )
𝐵

607.5
= [(1.7)( 117117.8624)+( 15966.694)] x ( 567 )

= $ 280, 622.36
CBM = FBM CV

= (4.16)( 280, 622.36)

= $ 1,167,389.03 x 4
= $ 4,669,556.11 x 4.1
= RM 19,145,180.06

474
D) Absorption Column A-101

The operating pressure, based on the highest pressure inside absorption column is:
Po = 73.48 psig
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{0.60608 + 0.91615[𝑙𝑛(𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655[𝑙𝑛(𝑃𝑜 )]2 }
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{0.60608 + 0.91615[𝑙𝑛(73.48)] + 0.0015655[𝑙𝑛(73.48)]2 }
𝑃𝑑 = 96.71 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔

ASME pressure-vessel code to determine maximum allowable stress, S:

𝑃 𝐷
𝑑 𝑖
𝑡𝑝 = 2𝑆𝐸−1.2𝑃
𝑑

114.575(164.50)
𝑡𝑝 = 2(13750)(0.85)−1.2(96.71)

𝑡𝑝 = 0.684 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

Calculation for weight, W

𝑊 = 𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 )(𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 𝜌
𝑊 = 𝜋(164.50 + 1.0)(1151.51 + 0.8(164.50)) × 1.0(0.284)
𝑊 = 189466 𝑙𝑏

Calculation for cost of empty vessel, CV

𝐶𝑉 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{10.5449 − 0.4672[𝑙𝑛(𝑊)] + 0.05482[𝑙𝑛(𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{10.5449 − 0.4672[𝑙𝑛(189466)] + 0.05482[𝑙𝑛(189466)]2 }
𝐶𝑉 = $ 426252

Calculation for base cost for sieve trays, CBT

𝐶𝐵𝑇 = 468 𝑒𝑥𝑝(0.1482𝐷𝑖 )
𝐶𝐵𝑇 = 468 𝑒𝑥𝑝(0.1482 × 164.50)
𝐶𝐵𝑇 = $ 3569

Calculation for cost for installed trays, CT

𝐶𝑇 = 𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑀 𝐶𝐵𝑇
𝐶𝑇 = 8 × 1.626 × 1 × 1 × 3569
𝐶𝑇 = $ 49756

475
The total f.o.b. purchase cost, CP at new CE index is:
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 341(𝐷𝑖 )0.63316 (𝐿)0.80161
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 341(164.50)0.63316 (95.96)0.80161
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = $ 69424
607.5
𝐶𝑃 = ( 567 ) (426252) + 69424

𝐶𝑃 = $ 531082

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐹𝐵𝑀 𝐶𝑃
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 4.16 × 531082
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 2416287
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 9906775.432

E) Flash Column F-01

The operating pressure of flash column:

𝑃𝑂 = 73 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{0.60608 + 0.91615[ln( 𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655[ln(𝑃𝑜 )]2 }
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{0.60608 + 0.91615[ln( 73)] + 0.0015655[ln(73)]2 }
𝑃𝑑 = 97 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔

𝑃 𝐷
𝑑 𝑖
𝑡𝑝 = 2𝑆𝐸−1.2𝑃
𝑑

(97)×171.23
𝑡𝑝 = 2(13750)(0.85)−1.2(97)

𝑡𝑝 = 0.712

The weight vessel, W is:

W = π(Di + t s )(L + 0.8Di )t s ρ
W = π(171.23 inches + 0.875 inches)(513.69 inches
+ 0.8(171.23 inches))(0.875 inches)(0.284 Ib/inches)
W = 87424 Ib

The purchase cost, 𝐶𝑣 is:

476
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{7.0132 + 0.18255[ln(𝑊)] + 0.02297[ln(𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{7.0132 + 0.18255[ln(87424)] + 0.02297[ln(87424)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = 196830

The total f.o.b. purchase cost, Cp at new CE index is:

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73960 (𝐿)0.70684
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(14.27 𝑓𝑡)0.73960 (42.81 𝑓𝑡)0.70684
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = $41668
607.5
𝐶𝑝 = [ 567 ][(1)($196830) + $41668]

𝐶𝑝 = $255533
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 4.16($ 255533)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 1063019

Flash Column F-02

The operating pressure of flash column:

𝑃𝑂 = 44 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{0.60608 + 0.91615[ln( 𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655[ln(𝑃𝑜 )]2 }
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{0.60608 + 0.91615[ln( 44)] + 0.0015655[ln(44)]2 }
𝑃𝑑 = 60 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔

𝑃𝑑 𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑝 =
2𝑆𝐸−1.2𝑃𝑑
(60)×182.84
𝑡𝑝 = 2(13750)(0.85)−1.2(60)

𝑡𝑝 = 0.472

The weight vessel, W is:

W = π(Di + t s )(L + 0.8Di )t s ρ
W = π(182.84 inches + 0.625 inches)(548.51 inches
+ 0.8(182.84 inches))(0.625 inches)(0.284 Ib/inches)
W = 71079 Ib

477
The purchase cost, 𝐶𝑣 is:
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{7.0132 + 0.18255[ln(𝑊)] + 0.02297[ln(𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{7.0132 + 0.18255[ln(71079)] + 0.02297[ln(71079)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = $ 170263

The total f.o.b. purchase cost, Cp at new CE index is:

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73960 (𝐿)0.70684
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(15.24 𝑓𝑡)0.73960 (45.71 𝑓𝑡)0.70684
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = $ 45814
607.5
𝐶𝑝 = [ 567 ][(1)($ 170263) + $ 45814]

𝐶𝑝 = $ 231511
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 4.16($ 231511)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 2889255

Flash Column F-03

The operating pressure of flash column:

𝑃𝑂 = 426 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{0.60608 + 0.91615[ln( 𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655[ln(𝑃𝑜 )]2 }
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{0.60608 + 0.91615[ln( 426)] + 0.0015655[ln(426)]2 }
𝑃𝑑 = 498 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔

𝑃 𝐷
𝑑 𝑖
𝑡𝑝 = 2𝑆𝐸−1.2𝑃
𝑑

(498)×94.69
𝑡𝑝 = 2(13750)(0.85)−1.2(498)

𝑡𝑝 = 2.070

The weight vessel, W is:

478
W = π(Di + t s )(L + 0.8Di )t s ρ
W = π( 94.69 inches + 2.250 inches)( 284.08 inches
+ 0.8( 94.69 inches))( 2.250 inches)(0.284 Ib/inches)
W = 70027 Ib

The purchase cost, 𝐶𝑣 is:

𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{7.0132 + 0.18255[ln(𝑊)] + 0.02297[ln(𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{7.0132 + 0.18255[ln(70027)] + 0.02297[ln(70027)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = 168506

The total f.o.b. purchase cost, Cp at new CE index is:

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73960 (𝐿)0.70684
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(7.89 𝑓𝑡)0.73960 (23.67 𝑓𝑡)0.70684
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = $ 17688
607.5
𝐶𝑝 = [ 567 ][(1)($ 168506) + $ 17688]

𝐶𝑝 = $ 199494
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 4.16($ 199494)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 829895

F) Membrane Separator

The wall thickness for the membrane separator is calculated based on the preliminary study on
the characteristics of D-101. Below is the calculation:

Flow rate, Q = 16985.41 l/min

Residence time, t = 5 minutes
Length: Diameter = 3 : 1

𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝑄 × 𝑡
= 16985.41 × 5
= 84927.06 𝑙
= 2999.17 𝑓𝑡 3

479
 3 4𝑉
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝐷𝑖 = √
3𝜋

3 4(2999.17 )
= √
3𝜋

= 10.84 ft
Tangent to tangent length, L = 32.51 ft

The membrane area is calculated as below

𝑀𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 𝐷𝑖 × 𝐿
= 10.84 × 32.51
= 352.36𝑓𝑡 2
Total purchase cost, Cp:
𝐼
𝐶𝑝 = 51 × 𝐴 × (𝐼2019 )
2013

607.5
= 51 × 352.36 × ( 567 )

= $19,253.73
Lastly, bare module cost is calculated as equation below:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
= $19,253.73 × 4.16
= $80,095.53
= 𝑅𝑀328,391.68

G) Furnace (HT-01)

The base cost of the furnace is calculated by using following equation.

𝑪𝑩 = 𝐞𝐱𝐩{−𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟒𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓[𝐥𝐧(𝑸)]}
= exp{−0.15241 + 0.785[ln(44587729.99)]}
= 867,847.14
The pressure factor, FP is calculated using following equation for the range of pressure, P,
from 500 to 3000 psig.
𝑷 𝑷 𝟐
𝑭𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓 (𝟓𝟎𝟎) + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓 (𝟓𝟎𝟎)

480
However, the pressure for furnace HT-01 is less than 500psig, so, the pressure factor is
assumed to be 1.
The purchase cost, Cp is calculated as follows:
𝑰
𝑪𝑷 = (𝑭𝑷 𝑭𝑴 𝑪𝑩 ) × (𝑰𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟗 )
𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑

𝟔𝟎𝟕.𝟓
𝑪𝑷 = (𝟏 × 𝟏. 𝟒 × 𝟖𝟔𝟕, 𝟖𝟒𝟕. 𝟏𝟒) × ( 𝟓𝟔𝟕 )

𝑪𝑷 = $𝟏, 𝟐𝟗𝟐, 𝟓𝟓𝟔. 𝟓𝟑

All in all, the bare module cost for this furnace is calculated as follows:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
= $𝟏, 𝟐𝟗𝟐, 𝟓𝟓𝟔. 𝟓𝟑 × 1.86
= $2,404,155.15
= RM9,857,036.13

Calculation stated above is similar to Furnace HT-02

H) Heaters (HT-03, HT-04, HT-05, HT-06, HT-07 & HT-08)

i. HT-03
Firstly, the log mean temperature difference is calculated by using following equation:

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
𝑇 −𝑡
ln (𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
2 1

(500 − 300) − (90.2 − 80.2)

=
500 − 300
ln (90.2 − 80.2)

= 63.42 °C.

Then, the surface area of the shell and tube heater is calculated as follows:
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈 × ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
136,647.8 × 1000 2
=( )𝑚 × 10.7639𝑓𝑡 2
4000 × 63.42
= 5797.78 𝑓𝑡 2

481
Next, in calculating the base cost, 𝐶𝐵 for this heater, value of A calculated above is inserted
into the following equation.

𝟐
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒 11.510−0.9816[ln(𝐴)]+0.09790[ln(𝐴)]
𝟐
= 𝑒 11.510−0.9816[ln(5797.78)]+0.09790[ln(5797.78)]
= $56,503.62

The value of 𝐹𝑃 is calculated first as the pressure is in range of between 100-2000 psig. The
𝐹𝑀 is material factor for various combinations of tube and shell material with the constant value
and as the material were chosen to be carbon steel/stainless steel, the value for a and b in the
equation below is 1.75 and 0.13, respectively.
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.018 ( ) + 0.0017 ( )
100 100
573.14 573.14 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.018 ( ) + 0.0017 ( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 1.14
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎+( )
100
5797.78 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75+ ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 3.45

After that, the cost of purchase for this heater is calculated as follows:

𝐼2019
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝐿 𝐶𝐵 × ( )
𝐼2013
607.5
= 1.14 × 3.45 × 1.00 × $56,503.62× ( 567 )

= $237,627.53

482
All in all, the bare-module cost for this heater is calculated as follows:

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
= $237,627.53 × 3.17
= $173102.39
= RM3,088,445.06
Above calculations are similar to HT-04, HT-05 and HT-06.

HT-07
Firstly, the log mean temperature difference is calculated by using following equation:

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
𝑇 −𝑡
ln (𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
2 1

(500 − 400) − (224 − 113.72)

=
500 − 400
ln (224 − 113,72)

= 105.06 °C.

Then, the surface area of the double pipe heaterr is calculated as follows:
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈 × ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
3782.5 × 1000
=( ) 𝑚2 × 10.7639𝑓𝑡 2
4000 × 105.06
= 96.89 𝑓𝑡 2

Next, in calculating the base cost, 𝐶𝐵 for this heater, value of A calculated above is inserted
into the following equation.

𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒 7.2718+0.16[ln(𝐴)]
= 𝑒 7.2718+0.16[ln(96.89 )]
= $2991.61

483
The value of 𝐹𝑃 is excluded due to the pressure is out of range in between 100-2000 psig,
resulting in 𝐹𝑃 = 1. The 𝐹𝑀 is material factor for various combinations of tube and shell
material with the constant value and as the material were chosen to be carbon steel/carbon steel,
the value for a and b in the equation below is 0 and 0, respectively.

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎+( )
100
87.53 0
𝐹𝑀 = 0+ ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 1
After that, the cost of purchase for this cooler is calculated as follows:

𝐼2019
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐵 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵 × ( )
𝐼2013
607.5
= 1 × 1 × $2991.61× ( 567 )

= $3205.30

All in all, the bare-module cost for this heater is calculated as follows:

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
= $3205.30 × 1.8
= $5769.54
= 𝑅𝑀23,655.11

Above calculations are similar to HT-08.

I) Coolers (CL-01, CL-02, CL-03, CL04)

i. CL-01
Firstly, the log mean temperature difference is calculated by using following equation:

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
𝑇 −𝑡
ln (𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
2 1

484
 (50 − 40) − (25 − 10)
=
50 − 40
ln ( )
25 − 10
= 12.23 °C.

Then, the surface area of the shell and tube cooler is calculated as follows:
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈 × ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
360.92 × 1000
=( ) 𝑚2 × 10.7639𝑓𝑡 2
900 × 12.33
= 350.04 𝑓𝑡 2

Next, in calculating the base cost, 𝐶𝐵 for this cooler, value of A calculated above is inserted
into the following equation.

𝟐
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒 11.510−0.9816[ln(𝐴)]+0.09790[ln(𝐴)]
𝟐
= 𝑒 11.510−0.9816[ln(350.04 )]+0.09790[ln(350.04 )]
= $13,758.42

The value of 𝐹𝑃 is calculated first as the pressure is in range of between 100-2000 psig. The
𝐹𝑀 is material factor for various combinations of tube and shell material with the constant value
and as the material were chosen to be carbon steel/carbon steel, the value for a and b in the
equation below is 0 and 0, respectively.
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.018 ( ) + 0.0017 ( )
100 100
165.33 165.33 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.018 ( ) + 0.0017 ( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 1.01

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎+( )
100

485
 9473.46 0
𝐹𝑀 = 0+ ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 1

After that, the cost of purchase for this cooler is calculated as follows:
𝐼2019
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐵 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵 𝐹𝐿 × ( )
𝐼2013
607.5
= 1.01 × 1 × 1.12 × $13,758.42 × ( 567 )

= $15,636.03

All in all, the bare-module cost for this cooler is calculated as follows:

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
= $15,636.03 × 3.17
= $53,106.67
= $217,737.36

Above calculation is similar to CL-04

ii. CL-03
Firstly, the log mean temperature difference is calculated by using following equation:

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
𝑇 −𝑡
ln (𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
2 1

(97.34 − 80) − (50 − 10)

=
97.34 − 80
ln ( )
50 − 10
= 27.11 °C.

Then, the surface area of the double pipe cooler is calculated as follows:

486
 𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈 × ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
322.17 × 1000
=( ) 𝑚2 × 10.7639𝑓𝑡 2
900 × 27.11
= 142.13 𝑓𝑡 2

Next, in calculating the base cost, 𝐶𝐵 for this cooler, value of A calculated above is inserted
into the following equation.

𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒 7.2718+0.16[ln(𝐴)]
)]
= 𝑒 7.2718+0.16[ln(142.13
= $3,180.77

The value of 𝐹𝑃 is calculated first as the pressure is in range of between 100-2000 psig.
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.018 ( ) + 0.0017 ( )
100 100
165.33 165.33 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.018 ( ) + 0.0017 ( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 1.01

The 𝐹𝑀 is material factor for carbon steel/stainless steel is 2.0

𝐹𝑀 = 2.0

After that, the cost of purchase for this cooler is calculated as follows:

𝐼2019
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵 × ( )
𝐼2013
607.5
= 1.01 × 2.00 × $3,180.77× ( 567 )

= $6455.09

All in all, the bare-module cost for this cooler is calculated as follows:

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
= $8043.81 × 1.8

487
 = $12,449.11
= RM51,041.35
Above calculation is similar to CL-02

J) Heat Exchangers (HE-01, HE-02, HE-03, HE-04, HE-05, HE-06 & HE-07)
i. HE-01
Firstly, the log mean temperature difference is calculated by using following equation:

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
𝑇 −𝑡
ln (𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
2 1

(50 − 40) − (40 − 28.99)

=
50 − 40
ln (40 − 28.99)

= 10.50 °C.

Then, the surface area of the shell and tube heat exchanger is calculated as follows:
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈 × ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
1086.56 × 1000
=( ) 𝑚2 × 10.7639𝑓𝑡 2
1000 × 10.50
= 1,114.20 𝑓𝑡 2

Next, in calculating the base cost, 𝐶𝐵 for this heat exchanger, value of A calculated above is
inserted into the following equation.

𝟐
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒 11.510−0.9816[ln(𝐴)]+0.09790[ln(𝐴)]
𝟐
= 𝑒 11.510−0.9816[ln(1,114.20 )]+0.09790[ln(1,114.20 )]
= $20,437.09

The value of 𝐹𝑃 is excluded due to the pressure is out of range in between 100-2000 psig,
resulting in 𝐹𝑃 = 1. The 𝐹𝑀 is material factor for various combinations of tube and shell

488
material with the constant value and as the material was carbon steel/carbon steel, the value
for a and b are 0.00 and 0.00.

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎+( )
100
754.23 0
𝐹𝑀 = 0+ ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 1.00

After that, the cost of purchase for this heat exchanger is calculated as follows:

𝐼2019
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝐿 𝐶𝐵 × ( )
𝐼2013
607.5
= 1.00 × 1.00 × 1.12 × $20,437.09 × ( 567 )

= $22,889.55

All in all, the bare-module cost for this heat exchanger is calculated as follows:

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
= $22,889.55 × 3.17
= $77,742.71
= $318,746.10

Above calculations are similar to HE-03 and HE-07.

ii. HE-04

Firstly, the log mean temperature difference is calculated by using following equation:

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
𝑇 −𝑡
ln (𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
2 1

489
 (400 − 100.79) − (50 − 40)
=
400 − 100.79
ln ( )
50 − 40
= 85.10 °C.

Then, the surface area of the shell and tube heat exchanger is calculated as follows:
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈 × ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
37795.49 × 1000 2
=( )𝑚 × 10.7639𝑓𝑡 2
1000 × 85.10
= 4,780.70 𝑓𝑡 2

Next, in calculating the base cost, 𝐶𝐵 for this heat exchanger, value of A calculated above is
inserted into the following equation.

𝟐
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒 11.510−0.9816[ln(𝐴)]+0.09790[ln(𝐴)]
𝟐
= 𝑒 11.510−0.9816[ln(4780.70 )]+0.09790[ln(4780.70 )]
= $48,806.82

The value of 𝐹𝑃 is calculated first as the pressure is in range of between 100-2000 psig. The
𝐹𝑀 is material factor for various combinations of tube and shell material with the constant
value and as the material were chosen to be carbon steel/stainless. The value for a and b for
carbon steel/stainless steel in the equation below is 1.75 and 0.13, respectively.

𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.018 ( ) + 0.0017 ( )
100 100
420.14 420.14 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.018 ( ) + 0.0017 ( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 1.09

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎+( )
100

490
 4,780.70 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75+ ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 3.40

After that, the cost of purchase for this heat exchanger is calculated as follows:

𝐼2019
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝐿 𝐶𝐵 × ( )
𝐼2013
607.5
= 1.09 × 3.40 × 1.00 × $48,806.82 × ( 567 )

= $180,389.21

All in all, the bare-module cost for this heat exchanger is calculated as follows:

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
= $180,389.21 × 3.17
= $612,679.07
= 𝑅𝑀2,511,984.20
Above calculations are similar to HE-02, HE-05 and HE-06.

K) Expander (T-101)

The specific heat ratio, K for expander T-101 is an average of the specific heat ratio for
each component that passes through the expander which is 1.3 for expander in our plant. The
expander efficiency is based on the type of expander been used in the plant which is the turbo
expander which can be assumed as 0.90.

Based on the equation below, the brake horsepower of the expander can be calculated by using
the equation below.

491
 𝐾−1
𝐾 𝑄𝑖 𝑃 𝑃
PB = |0.00436 (𝐾−1) [( 𝑃𝑜 ) 𝐾 − 1]|
𝑛𝐵 𝑖

1.3 (1195.8437)(435.12) 6 1.3−1

= |0.00436 (1.3−1) [(30) 1.3 − 1]|
0.90

= 3388.7896 Hp

Besides that, the motor efficiency also depend on the type of motor is used for the expander
operation to reduce the pressure. Since electric type of motor been used in the expander, thus
the efficiency of motor can be assumed as 0.95.

After the brake horsepower of the expander have been calculated, the power consumption of
the expander also been calculated by using below.

𝑃𝐵
Pc =
𝑛𝑚
3388.7896
=
0.95

= 3567.1470 Hp

Then, the base purchase cost of the expander have been calculated by using the equation below.

CB = exp {(4.6762 + 1.23[(ln(3567.1470)]}

= $ 2,513,059.0327

Next, the purchase cost of the expander have been calculated by using the equation below.

Cp = 600 (3567.1470)0.81
= $ 452,409.0283

492
Finally, the base module cost of the expander have been calculated by using the equation below.

607.5
CBM = 2.15 ( 567 ) (452,409.0283)

= $ 1,042,156.51 x 4.1
= RM 4,272,841.70

L) Compressor (C-101)
The specific heat ratio, k for C-101 is 1.3. The compressor efficiency, 𝜂𝐵 is based on the
type of compressor. Which is assumed to have compressor efficiency of 0.90. Qi is inlet volumetric
flow rate in cubic feet per minute which equal to 397.5353 ft3/min obtained from aspen table. Pi
and Po is pressure inlet and outlet in bar which equal to 5.0000 and 12.2474 atm respectivelyP is
pressure inlet in pound force per square inch that is 72.5200 psi. The formula to calculate brake
horsepower is as shown below:

𝑘 𝑄𝑖 𝑃 𝑃𝑜 𝑘−1
𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 𝑘 − 1]
𝑘 − 1 η𝐵 𝑃𝑖

1.3 397.5353 ∗ 72.5200 12.2474 1.3−1

𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 1.3 − 1]
1.3 − 1 0.9 5.0000
𝑃𝐵 = 139.7459

The motor efficiency, η𝑀 depends of the type motor used with is between steam, gas or
electric motor. For C-101, we are using an electric motor with a motor efficiency of 0.950
𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑃𝑐 = η 𝐵
𝑀

𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝑐 =
η𝑀
138.9926
𝑃𝐶 =
0.950
𝑃𝐶 = 146.3080

493
Base purchase cost, 𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]}
𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(146.3080)]}
𝐶𝐵 = $ 49445.5769

Design factor, 𝐹𝐷 = 1.1500

Material Factor, 𝐹𝑀 = 0.600
Bare module factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 2.1500

Purchase cost, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐷 ∗ 𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = 1.1500 ∗ 0.600 ∗ 49445.5769
𝐶𝑃 = $ 34117.4480

Bare module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀

𝐼
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∗
𝐼2013
607.5
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 34117.4480 ∗ 2.1500 ∗
567
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 78591.98
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 322227.11

Compressor (C-102)

𝑘 𝑄𝑖 𝑃 𝑃𝑜 𝑘−1
𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 𝑘 − 1]
𝑘 − 1 η𝐵 𝑃𝑖

1.3 160.4180 ∗ 177.6363 30.0000 1.3−1

𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 1.3 − 1]
1.3 − 1 0.9 12.2474
𝑃𝐵 = 138.8595

494
 The motor efficiency, η𝑀 depends of the type motor used with is between steam, gas or
electric motor. For C-101, we are using an electric motor with a motor efficiency of 0.950
𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑃𝑐 = η 𝐵
𝑀

𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝑐 =
η𝑀

138.8595
𝑃𝐶 =
0.950
𝑃𝐶 = 146.1679

Base purchase cost, 𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]}

𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(146.1679)]}
𝐶𝐵 = $ 49387.3764

Design factor, 𝐹𝐷 = 1.1500

Material Factor, 𝐹𝑀 = 0.600
Bare module factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 2.1500

Purchase cost, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐷 ∗ 𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = 1.1500 ∗ 0.600 ∗ 49387.3764
𝐶𝑃 = $ 34077.2897

Bare module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀

𝐼
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∗
𝐼2013
607.5
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 34077.2897 ∗ 2.1500 ∗
567
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 78499.47
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 321847.83

Compressor (C-103)

𝑘 𝑄𝑖 𝑃 𝑃𝑜 𝑘−1
𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 𝑘 − 1]
𝑘 − 1 η𝐵 𝑃𝑖

495
 1.3 1386.5078 ∗ 87.0240 13.4200 1.3−1
𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 1.3 − 1]
1.3 − 1 0.9 6.0000
𝑃𝐵 = 529.0465

The motor efficiency, η𝑀 depends of the type motor used with is between steam, gas or
electric motor. For C-101, we are using an electric motor with a motor efficiency of 0.950
𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑃𝑐 = η 𝐵
𝑀

𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝑐 =
η𝑀

529.0465
𝑃𝐶 =
0.950
𝑃𝐶 = 556.8911

Base purchase cost, 𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]}

𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(556.8911)]}
𝐶𝐵 = $ 255944.1794

Design factor, 𝐹𝐷 = 1.1500

Material Factor, 𝐹𝑀 = 0.600
Bare module factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 2.1500

Purchase cost, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐷 ∗ 𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = 1.1500 ∗ 0.600 ∗ 255944.1794
𝐶𝑃 = $ 176601.4838

Bare module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀

𝐼
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∗
𝐼2013
607.5
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 176601.4838 ∗ 2.1500 ∗
567
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 406814.13
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 1667937.94

496
Compressor (C-104)

𝑘 𝑄𝑖 𝑃 𝑃𝑜 𝑘−1
𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 𝑘 − 1]
𝑘 − 1 η𝐵 𝑃𝑖

1.3 622.8680 ∗ 194.6437 30.0000 1.3−1

𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 1.3 − 1]
1.3 − 1 0.9 13.4200
𝑃𝐵 = 532.3098

The motor efficiency, η𝑀 depends of the type motor used with is between steam, gas or
electric motor. For C-101, we are using an electric motor with a motor efficiency of 0.950
𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑃𝑐 =
η𝑀

𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝑐 =
η𝑀
532.3098
𝑃𝐶 =
0.950
𝑃𝐶 = 560.3261

Base purchase cost, 𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]}

𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(560.3261)]}
𝐶𝐵 = $ 257887.3977

Design factor, 𝐹𝐷 = 1.1500

Material Factor, 𝐹𝑀 = 0.600
Bare module factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 2.1500

Purchase cost, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐷 ∗ 𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = 1.1500 ∗ 0.600 ∗ 257887.3977
𝐶𝑃 = $ 177942.3044

497
Bare module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀
𝐼
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∗
𝐼2013
607.5
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 177942.3044 ∗ 2.1500 ∗
567
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 409902.81
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 1680601.51

Compressor (C-105)

𝑘 𝑄𝑖 𝑃 𝑃𝑜 𝑘−1
𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 𝑘 − 1]
𝑘 − 1 η𝐵 𝑃𝑖

1.3 459.8098 ∗ 72.5200 12.2500 1.3−1

𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 1.3 − 1]
1.3 − 1 0.9 5.0000
𝑃𝐵 = 165.3634

The motor efficiency, η𝑀 depends of the type motor used with is between steam, gas or
electric motor. For C-101, we are using an electric motor with a motor efficiency of 0.950
𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑃𝑐 = η 𝐵
𝑀

𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝑐 =
η𝑀

165.3634
𝑃𝐶 =
0.950
𝑃𝐶 = 174.0668

Base purchase cost, 𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]}

𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(174.0668)]}
𝐶𝐵 = $ 61224.9395

Design factor, 𝐹𝐷 = 1.1500

Material Factor, 𝐹𝑀 = 0.600

498
Bare module factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 2.1500

Purchase cost, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐷 ∗ 𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = 1.1500 ∗ 0.600 ∗ 61224.9395
𝐶𝑃 = $ 42245.2083

Bare module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀

𝐼
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∗
𝐼2013
607.5
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 42245.2083 ∗ 2.1500 ∗
567
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 97314.85
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 398990.90

Compressor (C-106)

𝑘 𝑄𝑖 𝑃 𝑃𝑜 𝑘−1
𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 𝑘 − 1]
𝑘 − 1 η𝐵 𝑃𝑖

1.3 187.9257 ∗ 177.6363 30.0000 1.3−1

𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 ( ) [( ) 1.3 − 1]
1.3 − 1 0.9 12.2474
𝑃𝐵 = 165.8911

The motor efficiency, η𝑀 depends of the type motor used with is between steam, gas or
electric motor. For C-101, we are using an electric motor with a motor efficiency of 0.950
𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑃𝑐 = η 𝐵
𝑀

𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝑐 =
η𝑀

165.8911
𝑃𝐶 =
0.950
𝑃𝐶 = 174.6222

499
 Base purchase cost, 𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]}
𝐶𝐵 = exp{4.6762 + 1.23[ln(174.6222)]}
𝐶𝐵 = $ 61465.3194

Design factor, 𝐹𝐷 = 1.1500

Material Factor, 𝐹𝑀 = 0.600
Bare module factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 2.1500

Purchase cost, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐷 ∗ 𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = 1.1500 ∗ 0.600 ∗ 61465.3194
𝐶𝑃 = $ 42411.0704

Bare module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀

𝐼
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∗
𝐼2013
607.5
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 42411.0704 ∗ 2.1500 ∗
567
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 97696.93
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 400557.41

M) Centrifugal Pump, P-101 (Pump + motor)

Mass flowrate, M = 62674.96 kg/hr
Density of liquid, ρ = 62.4 lb/ft3
Flowrate, Qi = 16556.97 gal/min
Compression ratio (P2/P1) = 30.00

Pump head, H (ft)

( 𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝑖 ) × 14.696
𝐻=
ρ
( 30 − 1) × 14.696
𝐻=
62.4
𝐻 = 6.83𝑓𝑡

500
The pump size parameter
𝑆 = 𝑄(𝐻)0.5
𝑆 = 365.15(6.83)0.5
𝑆 = 43,270.03

The base purchase cost

𝐶𝐵 = exp{(12.1656 − 1.1448(ln 𝑆) + 0.0862(ln 𝑆) 2 }

𝐶𝐵 = exp{(12.1656 − 1.1448(ln 43,270.03) + 0.0862(ln 43,270.03)2 }
𝐶𝐵 = $17,465.53

The type factor, 𝐹𝑇 = 1

The material factor, 𝐹𝑀 = 1.35

The purchase cost

CP = 𝐹𝑇 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵
CP = 1 × 1.35 × 17,465.53
CP = $23,578.47

(Electric motor) Brake horsepower, 𝑃𝐵

𝑄𝐻ρ𝜂𝑀
𝑃𝐵 =
33000𝜂𝑃 𝜂𝑀
16556.97 × 6.83 × 62.4
𝑃𝐵 =
33000 × 0.89
PB = 241.50

(Electric motor) Efficiency of pump, 𝜂𝑃

𝜂𝑃 = −0.316 + 0.2401(ln 𝑄) − 0.01199(ln 𝑄)2
𝜂𝑃 = −0.316 + 0.2401(ln 16556.97 ) − 0.01199(ln 16556.97 )2
𝜂𝑃 = 0.89

(Electric motor) Efficiency of motor, 𝜂𝑀

𝜂𝑀 = 0.80 + 0.0319(𝑙𝑛𝑃𝐵 ) − 0.00182(𝑙𝑛𝑃𝐵 )2
𝜂𝑀 = 0.80 + 0.0319(𝑙𝑛 241.50) − 0.00182(𝑙𝑛 241.50)2 = 0.92

501
(Electric motor) Power consumption. 𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝐶 =
𝜂𝑀
241.50
𝑃𝐶 =
0.92
𝑃𝐶 = 262.43

(Electric motor) Motor type factor, 𝐹𝑇 =1.8

(Electric motor) Base purchase cost, 𝐶𝐵 ($USD)
𝐶𝐵 = exp{5.9332 + 0.16829[ln(𝑃𝐶 )] − 0.110056[𝑙𝑛(𝑃𝐶 )]2 + 0.071413[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]3 −
0.0063788[ln(𝑃𝐶 )]4 }
= exp{5.9332 + 0.16829[ln(262.43)] − 0.110056[𝑙𝑛(262.43)]2 +
0.071413[ln(262.43)]3 − 0.0063788[ln(262.43)]4 }
= $15,630.62

(Electric motor) Purchase cost, 𝐶𝑃 ($USD)

𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = 1.8(15,630.62)
𝐶𝑃 = 28,135.12

Total purchase cost, 𝐶𝑃 ($USD)

607.5
𝐶𝑃 = (23,578.47 + 28,135.12) ×
567
𝐶𝑃 = $ 55,407.42
Bare module cost, CBM

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 55,407.42 × 3.30
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $182,844.49
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 182,844.49 × 4.1
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀749,662

502
 APPENDIX III

B. Overall Coefficient for Shell and Tube Exchanger

503
504
 B. Material of Construction Factors, FM for Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

C. Bare Module Factors of Guthrie (1974) for Ordinary Materials of Construction

and Low to Moderate Pressure

505
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SAFETY DATA SHEET Revised edition no : 2.0
Revision date : 2020-07-17
Supersedes : 2018-07-16

Nitrogen NOAL_0089A
Country : DK / Language : EN

SECTION 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking

1.1. Product identifier

Trade name : Nitrogen, Nitrogen compressed, Nitrogen N48, Nitrogen N52, Nitrogen HG, Lasal 1, Lasal
2001, Aligal 1, Alphagaz N2 1, Alphagaz N2 2, Alphagaz 1 Nitrogen, Alphagaz 2 Nitrogen,
Lasal 1, Phargalis 1, Albee Cool N2
SDS no : NOAL_0089A
Chemical description : Nitrogen
CAS-No. : 7727-37-9
EC-No. : 231-783-9
EC Index-No. : ---
Registration-No. : Listed in Annex IV / V REACH, exempted from registration.
Chemical formula : N2

1.2. Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against
Relevant identified uses : Industrial and professional uses. Perform risk assessment prior to use.
Test gas/Calibration gas.
Laboratory use.
Purge gas, diluting gas, inerting gas.
Shield gas for welding processes.
Use for manufacture of electronic/photovoltaic components.
Contact supplier for more information on uses.
Uses advised against : Consumer use.

1.3. Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet

Company identification

AIR LIQUIDE Denmark A/S

Høje Taastrupvej 42
2630 Taastrup - DENMARK
T +45 76 25 25 25
[email protected]

E-Mail address (competent person) : [email protected]

1.4. Emergency telephone number

Emergency telephone number : 112
Availability
( 24 / 7 )

SECTION 2: Hazards identification

2.1. Classification of the substance or mixture

Classification according to Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 [CLP]

Physical hazards Gases under pressure : Compressed gas H280

2.2. Label elements

Labelling according to Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 [CLP]

Hazard pictograms (CLP) :

GHS04
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Nitrogen NOAL_0089A
Country : DK / Language : EN
Signal word (CLP) : Warning
Hazard statements (CLP) : H280 - Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
Precautionary statements (CLP)
- Storage : P403 - Store in a well-ventilated place.

2.3. Other hazards

: Asphyxiant in high concentrations.

SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients

3.1. Substances
Name Product identifier Composition Classification according to
[V-%]: Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 [CLP]
Nitrogen (CAS-No.) 7727-37-9 100 Press. Gas (Comp.), H280
(EC-No.) 231-783-9
(EC Index-No.) ---
(Registration-No.) *1

Contains no other components or impurities which will influence the classification of the product.
*1: Listed in Annex IV / V REACH, exempted from registration.
*2: Registration deadline not expired.
*3: Registration not required: Substance manufactured or imported < 1t/y.

3.2. Mixtures : Not established.

SECTION 4: First aid measures

4.1. Description of first aid measures

- Inhalation : Remove victim to uncontaminated area wearing self contained breathing apparatus. Keep
victim warm and rested. Call a doctor. Perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation if breathing
stopped.
- Skin contact : Adverse effects not expected from this product.
- Eye contact : Adverse effects not expected from this product.
- Ingestion : Ingestion is not considered a potential route of exposure.
4.2. Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed
: In high concentrations may cause asphyxiation. Symptoms may include loss of
mobility/consciousness. Victim may not be aware of asphyxiation.
Refer to section 11.
4.3. Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed

: None.

SECTION 5: Firefighting measures

5.1. Extinguishing media

- Suitable extinguishing media : Water spray or fog.

- Unsuitable extinguishing media : Do not use water jet to extinguish.
5.2. Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture

Specific hazards : Exposure to fire may cause containers to rupture/explode.

Hazardous combustion products : None.
5.3. Advice for firefighters
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Country : DK / Language : EN
Specific methods : Use fire control measures appropriate for the surrounding fire. Exposure to fire and heat
radiation may cause gas receptacles to rupture. Cool endangered receptacles with water spray
jet from a protected position. Prevent water used in emergency cases from entering sewers and
drainage systems.
If possible, stop flow of product.
Use water spray or fog to knock down fire fumes if possible.
Move containers away from the fire area if this can be done without risk.
Special protective equipment for fire fighters : In confined space use self-contained breathing apparatus.
Standard protective clothing and equipment (Self Contained Breathing Apparatus) for fire
fighters.
Standard EN 137 - Self-contained open-circuit compressed air breathing apparatus with full
face mask.
Standard EN 469 - Protective clothing for firefighters. Standard - EN 659: Protective gloves for
firefighters.

SECTION 6: Accidental release measures

6.1. Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures

: Try to stop release.

Evacuate area.
Wear self-contained breathing apparatus when entering area unless atmosphere is proved to
be safe.
Ensure adequate air ventilation.
Act in accordance with local emergency plan.
Stay upwind.
Oxygen detectors should be used when asphyxiating gases may be released.
6.2. Environmental precautions

: Try to stop release.

6.3. Methods and material for containment and cleaning up

: Ventilate area.
6.4. Reference to other sections

: See also sections 8 and 13.

SECTION 7: Handling and storage

7.1. Precautions for safe handling

Safe use of the product : The product must be handled in accordance with good industrial hygiene and safety
procedures.
Only experienced and properly instructed persons should handle gases under pressure.
Consider pressure relief device(s) in gas installations.
Ensure the complete gas system was (or is regularily) checked for leaks before use.
Do not smoke while handling product.
Use only properly specified equipment which is suitable for this product, its supply pressure and
temperature. Contact your gas supplier if in doubt.
Avoid suck back of water, acid and alkalis.
Do not breathe gas.
Avoid release of product into atmosphere.
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Nitrogen NOAL_0089A
Country : DK / Language : EN
Safe handling of the gas receptacle : Refer to supplier's container handling instructions.
Do not allow backfeed into the container.
Protect cylinders from physical damage; do not drag, roll, slide or drop.
When moving cylinders, even for short distances, use a cart (trolley, hand truck, etc.) designed
to transport cylinders.
Leave valve protection caps in place until the container has been secured against either a wall
or bench or placed in a container stand and is ready for use.
If user experiences any difficulty operating valve discontinue use and contact supplier.
Never attempt to repair or modify container valves or safety relief devices.
Damaged valves should be reported immediately to the supplier.
Keep container valve outlets clean and free from contaminants particularly oil and water.
Replace valve outlet caps or plugs and container caps where supplied as soon as container is
disconnected from equipment.
Close container valve after each use and when empty, even if still connected to equipment.
Never attempt to transfer gases from one cylinder/container to another.
Never use direct flame or electrical heating devices to raise the pressure of a container.
Do not remove or deface labels provided by the supplier for the identification of the content of
the container.
Suck back of water into the container must be prevented.
Open valve slowly to avoid pressure shock.
7.2. Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities

: Observe all regulations and local requirements regarding storage of containers.

Containers should not be stored in conditions likely to encourage corrosion.
Container valve guards or caps should be in place.
Containers should be stored in the vertical position and properly secured to prevent them from
falling over.
Stored containers should be periodically checked for general condition and leakage.
Keep container below 50°C in a well ventilated place.
Store containers in location free from fire risk and away from sources of heat and ignition.
Keep away from combustible materials.
7.3. Specific end use(s)

: None.

SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection

8.1. Control parameters

OEL (Occupational Exposure Limits) : No data available.

DNEL (Derived-No Effect Level) : No data available.

PNEC (Predicted No-Effect Concentration) : No data available.

8.2. Exposure controls

8.2.1. Appropriate engineering controls

: Provide adequate general and local exhaust ventilation.
Systems under pressure should be regularily checked for leakages.
Oxygen detectors should be used when asphyxiating gases may be released.
Consider the use of a work permit system e.g. for maintenance activities.
8.2.2. Individual protection measures, e.g. personal protective equipment
: A risk assessment should be conducted and documented in each work area to assess the risks
related to the use of the product and to select the PPE that matches the relevant risk. The
following recommendations should be considered:
PPE compliant to the recommended EN/ISO standards should be selected.

• Eye/face protection : Wear safety glasses with side shields.

Standard EN 166 - Personal eye-protection - specifications.

• Skin protection
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Nitrogen NOAL_0089A
Country : DK / Language : EN
- Hand protection : Wear working gloves when handling gas containers.
Standard EN 388 - Protective gloves against mechanical risk.
- Other : Wear safety shoes while handling containers.
Standard EN ISO 20345 - Personal protective equipment - Safety footwear.

• Respiratory protection : Self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) or positive pressure airline with mask are to be
used in oxygen-deficient atmospheres.
Standard EN 137 - Self-contained open-circuit compressed air breathing apparatus with full
face mask.

• Thermal hazards : None in addition to the above sections.

8.2.3. Environmental exposure controls

: None necessary.

SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties

9.1. Information on basic physical and chemical properties

Appearance
 Physical state at 20°C / 101.3kPa : Gas.
 Colour : Colourless.
Odour : No odour warning properties.
Odour threshold : Odour threshold is subjective and inadequate to warn of overexposure.
pH value : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.
Molar mass : 28 g/mol
Melting point : -210 °C
Boiling point : -196 °C
Flash point : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.
Critical temperature [°C] : -147 °C
Evaporation rate (ether=1) : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.
Flammability range : Non flammable.
Vapour pressure [20°C] : Not applicable.
Vapour pressure [50°C] : Not applicable.
Relative density, gas (air=1) : 0.97
Relative density, liquid (water=1) : Not applicable.
Solubility in water : 20 mg/l
Partition coefficient n-octanol/water [log Kow] : Not applicable for inorganic products.
Auto-ignition temperature : Non flammable.
Decomposition point [°C] : Not applicable.
Viscosity [20°C] : No reliable data available.
Explosive Properties : Not applicable.
Oxidising Properties : Not applicable.

9.2. Other information

Other data : No additional information available

SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity

10.1. Reactivity
: No reactivity hazard other than the effects described in sub-sections below.
10.2. Chemical stability
: Stable under normal conditions.
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10.3. Possibility of hazardous reactions

: None.
10.4. Conditions to avoid
: Avoid moisture in installation systems.
10.5. Incompatible materials
: None.
For additional information on compatibility refer to ISO 11114.
10.6. Hazardous decomposition products
: None.

SECTION 11: Toxicological information

11.1. Information on toxicological effects

Acute toxicity : No known toxicological effects from this product.

Skin corrosion/irritation : No known effects from this product.

Serious eye damage/irritation : No known effects from this product.
Respiratory or skin sensitisation : No known effects from this product.
Germ cell mutagenicity : No known effects from this product.
Carcinogenicity : No known effects from this product.
Reproductive toxicity : No known effects from this product.
No known effects from this product.
STOT-single exposure : No known effects from this product.
STOT-repeated exposure : No known effects from this product.
Aspiration hazard : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.

SECTION 12: Ecological information

12.1. Toxicity

Assessment : No ecological damage caused by this product.

EC50 48h - Daphnia magna [mg/l] : No data available.

EC50 72h - Algae [mg/l] : No data available.
LC50 96 h - Fish [mg/l] : No data available.

12.2. Persistence and degradability

Assessment : No ecological damage caused by this product.

12.3. Bioaccumulative potential

Assessment : No data available.

12.4. Mobility in soil

Assessment : Because of its high volatility, the product is unlikely to cause ground or water pollution.
Partition into soil is unlikely.

12.5. Results of PBT and vPvB assessment

Assessment : No data available.

12.6. Other adverse effects

Other adverse effects : No known effects from this product.
Effect on the ozone layer : None.
Effect on global warming : None.
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Nitrogen NOAL_0089A
Country : DK / Language : EN

SECTION 13: Disposal considerations

13.1. Waste treatment methods

May be vented to atmosphere in a well ventilated place.
Do not discharge into any place where its accumulation could be dangerous.
Return unused product in original container to supplier.
List of hazardous waste codes (from : 16 05 05 : Gases in pressure containers other than those mentioned in 16 05 04.
Commission Decision 2000/532/EC as
amended)
13.2. Additional information
: External treatment and disposal of waste should comply with applicable local and/or national
regulations.

SECTION 14: Transport information

14.1. UN number

UN-No. : 1956
14.2. UN proper shipping name

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : COMPRESSED GAS, N.O.S. (Nitrogen)

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR) : Compressed gas, n.o.s. (Nitrogen)

Transport by sea (IMDG) : COMPRESSED GAS, N.O.S. (Nitrogen)

14.3. Transport hazard class(es)

Labelling :

2.2 : Non-flammable, non-toxic gases.

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID)
Class : 2.
Classification code : 1A.
Hazard identification number : 20.
Tunnel Restriction : E - Passage forbidden through tunnels of category E.
Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR)
Class / Div. (Sub. risk(s)) : 2.2
Transport by sea (IMDG)
Class / Div. (Sub. risk(s)) : 2.2
Emergency Schedule (EmS) - Fire : F-C.
Emergency Schedule (EmS) - Spillage : S-V.
14.4. Packing group

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : Not established.

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR) : Not established.
Transport by sea (IMDG) : Not established.

14.5. Environmental hazards

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : None.

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR) : None.

Transport by sea (IMDG) : None.

14.6. Special precautions for user

Packing Instruction(s)
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Nitrogen NOAL_0089A
Country : DK / Language : EN
Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : P200.
Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR)
Passenger and Cargo Aircraft : 200.
Cargo Aircraft only : 200.
Transport by sea (IMDG) : P200.

Special transport precautions : Avoid transport on vehicles where the load space is not separated from the driver's
compartment.
Ensure vehicle driver is aware of the potential hazards of the load and knows what to do in the
event of an accident or an emergency.
Before transporting product containers:
- Ensure there is adequate ventilation.
- Ensure that containers are firmly secured.
- Ensure valve is closed and not leaking.
- Ensure valve outlet cap nut or plug (where provided) is correctly fitted.
- Ensure valve protection device (where provided) is correctly fitted.

14.7. Transport in bulk according to Annex II of Marpol and the IBC Code

: Not applicable.

SECTION 15: Regulatory information

15.1. Safety, health and environmental regulations/legislation specific for the substance or mixture
EU-Regulations

Restrictions on use : None.

Seveso Directive : 2012/18/EU (Seveso III) : Not covered.

National regulations
National legislation : Ensure all national/local regulations are observed.

15.2. Chemical safety assessment

A CSA does not need to be carried out for this product.

SECTION 16: Other information

Indication of changes : Revised safety data sheet in accordance with commission regulation (EU) No 453/2010.
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Nitrogen NOAL_0089A
Country : DK / Language : EN
Abbreviations and acronyms : ATE - Acute Toxicity Estimate
CLP - Classification Labelling Packaging Regulation; Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008
REACH - Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals Regulation (EC)
No 1907/2006
EINECS - European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances
CAS# - Chemical Abstract Service number
PPE - Personal Protection Equipment
LC50 - Lethal Concentration to 50 % of a test population
RMM - Risk Management Measures
PBT - Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic
vPvB - Very Persistent and Very Bioaccumulative
STOT- SE : Specific Target Organ Toxicity - Single Exposure
CSA - Chemical Safety Assessment
EN - European Standard
UN - United Nations
ADR - European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by
Road
IATA - International Air Transport Association
IMDG code - International Maritime Dangerous Goods
RID - Regulations concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail
WGK - Water Hazard Class
Training advice : The hazard of asphyxiation is often overlooked and must be stressed during operator training.

Full text of H- and EUH-statements

Press. Gas (Comp.) Gases under pressure : Compressed gas

H280 Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated

DISCLAIMER OF LIABILITY : Before using this product in any new process or experiment, a thorough material compatibility
and safety study should be carried out.
Details given in this document are believed to be correct at the time of going to press.
Whilst proper care has been taken in the preparation of this document, no liability for injury or
damage resulting from its use can be accepted.
 Safety Data Sheet
METHANE (CH4)
Date of first issue: 13/08/2010 Revised date: 18/12/2016 Supersedes: 19/11/2012 Version: 4.0

SDS reference: 50006

Danger

SECTION 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking

1.1. Product identifier

Trade name : Methane
SDS no : 50006
Chemical description : Methane
CAS No : 74-82-8
EC no : 200-812-7
EC index no : 601-001-00-4
Registration-No. : Listed in Annex IV / V REACH, exempted from registration.
Chemical formula : CH4

1.2. Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against

Relevant identified uses : Industrial and professional. Perform risk assessment prior to use.
Test gas/Calibration gas.
Laboratory use.
Chemical reaction / Synthesis.
Use as a fuel.
Use for manufacture of electronic/photovoltaic components.
Contact supplier for more information on uses.

1.3. Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet

Company identification : Air Liquide Australia Limited
Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road
3004 Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
[email protected]
1.4. Emergency telephone number
Emergency telephone number : 1800 812 588

SECTION 2: Hazards identification

2.1. Classification of the substance or mixture

Classification according to WHS Regulation

Physical hazards Flammable gases, Category 1 H220
Gases under pressure : Compressed gas H280

2.2. Label elements

Classification according to WHS Regulation

Air Liquide Australia Limited EN (English) SDS Ref.: 50006 1/9

Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road 3004
Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
 METHANE (CH4)

SDS Ref.: 50006

Hazard pictograms :

GHS02 GHS04
Signal word : Danger
Hazard statements : H220 - Extremely flammable gas.
H280 - Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
Precautionary statements

- Prevention : P210 - Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open flames and other ignition sources. No
smoking.
- Response : P377 - Leaking gas fire: Do not extinguish, unless leak can be stopped safely.
P381 - Eliminate all ignition sources if safe to do so.
- Storage : P403 - Store in a well-ventilated place.

2.3. Other hazards

: None.

SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients

3.1. Substance
Name Product identifier % Classification according to WHS
Regulation
Methane (CAS No) 74-82-8 100 Flam. Gas 1, H220
(EC no) 200-812-7 Press. Gas (Comp.), H280
(EC index no) 601-001-00-4
(Registration-No.) *1

Contains no other components or impurities which will influence the classification of the product.
*1: Listed in Annex IV / V REACH, exempted from registration.
*2: Registration deadline not expired.
*3: Registration not required: Substance manufactured or imported < 1t/y.

Full text of R-phrases see section 16. Full text of H-statements see section 16.

3.2. Mixture : Not applicable

SECTION 4: First aid measures

4.1. Description of first aid measures

- Inhalation : Remove victim to uncontaminated area wearing self contained breathing apparatus. Keep
victim warm and rested. Call a doctor. Apply artificial respiration if breathing stopped.
- Skin contact : Adverse effects not expected from this product.
- Eye contact : Adverse effects not expected from this product.
- Ingestion : Ingestion is not considered a potential route of exposure.
4.2. Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed

: In high concentrations may cause asphyxiation. Symptoms may include loss of

mobility/consciousness. Victim may not be aware of asphyxiation.
In low concentrations may cause narcotic effects. Symptoms may include dizziness, headache,
nausea and loss of co-ordination.
4.3. Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed

: None.

Air Liquide Australia Limited EN (English) SDS Ref.: 50006 2/9

Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road 3004
Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
 METHANE (CH4)

SDS Ref.: 50006

SECTION 5: Firefighting measures

5.1. Extinguishing media

- Suitable extinguishing media : Water spray or fog.

Dry powder.
- Unsuitable extinguishing media : Carbon dioxide.
Do not use water jet to extinguish.
5.2. Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture

Specific hazards : Exposure to fire may cause containers to rupture/explode.

Hazardous combustion products : Incomplete combustion may form carbon monoxide.
5.3. Advice for fire-fighters

Specific methods : Use fire control measures appropriate for the surrounding fire. Exposure to fire and heat
radiation may cause gas receptacles to rupture. Cool endangered receptacles with water spray
jet from a protected position. Prevent water used in emergency cases from entering sewers and
drainage systems.
If possible, stop flow of product.
Use water spray or fog to knock down fire fumes if possible.
Do not extinguish a leaking gas flame unless absolutely necessary. Spontaneous/explosive re-
ignition may occur. Extinguish any other fire.
Move containers away from the fire area if this can be done without risk.
Special protective equipment for fire fighters : In confined space use self-contained breathing apparatus.
Standard protective clothing and equipment (Self Contained Breathing Apparatus) for fire
fighters.
Standard EN 137 - Self-contained open-circuit compressed air breathing apparatus with full
face mask.
Standard EN 469 - Protective clothing for firefighters. Standard - EN 659: Protective gloves for
firefighters.
Hazchemcode : 2SE

SECTION 6: Accidental release measures

6.1. Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures

: Try to stop release.

Evacuate area.
Consider the risk of potentially explosive atmospheres.
Wear self-contained breathing apparatus when entering area unless atmosphere is proved to
be safe.
Eliminate ignition sources.
Ensure adequate air ventilation.
Act in accordance with local emergency plan.
Stay upwind.
6.2. Environmental precautions

: Try to stop release.

6.3. Methods and material for containment and cleaning up

: Ventilate area.
6.4. Reference to other sections

: See also sections 8 and 13.

SECTION 7: Handling and storage

7.1. Precautions for safe handling

Air Liquide Australia Limited EN (English) SDS Ref.: 50006 3/9

Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road 3004
Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
 METHANE (CH4)

SDS Ref.: 50006

Safe use of the product : The substance must be handled in accordance with good industrial hygiene and safety
procedures.
Only experienced and properly instructed persons should handle gases under pressure.
Consider pressure relief device(s) in gas installations.
Ensure the complete gas system was (or is regularily) checked for leaks before use.
Do not smoke while handling product.
Use only properly specified equipment which is suitable for this product, its supply pressure and
temperature. Contact your gas supplier if in doubt.
Assess the risk of potentially explosive atmospheres and the need for explosion-proof
equipment.
Purge air from system before introducing gas.
Take precautionary measures against static discharge.
Keep away from ignition sources (including static discharges).
Consider the use of only non-sparking tools.
Do not breathe gas.
Avoid release of product into atmosphere.
Safe handling of the gas receptacle : Refer to supplier's container handling instructions.
Do not allow backfeed into the container.
Protect cylinders from physical damage; do not drag, roll, slide or drop.
When moving cylinders, even for short distances, use a cart (trolley, hand truck, etc.) designed
to transport cylinders.
Leave valve protection caps in place until the container has been secured against either a wall
or bench or placed in a container stand and is ready for use.
If user experiences any difficulty operating cylinder valve discontinue use and contact supplier.
Never attempt to repair or modify container valves or safety relief devices.
Damaged valves should be reported immediately to the supplier.
Keep container valve outlets clean and free from contaminants particularly oil and water.
Replace valve outlet caps or plugs and container caps where supplied as soon as container is
disconnected from equipment.
Close container valve after each use and when empty, even if still connected to equipment.
Never attempt to transfer gases from one cylinder/container to another.
Never use direct flame or electrical heating devices to raise the pressure of a container.
Do not remove or deface labels provided by the supplier for the identification of the cylinder
contents.
Containers should be stored in the vertical position and properly secured to prevent them from
falling over.
Suck back of water into the container must be prevented.
7.2. Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities

: Observe all regulations and local requirements regarding storage of containers.

Containers should not be stored in conditions likely to encourage corrosion.
Container valve guards or caps should be in place.
Containers should be stored in the vertical position and properly secured to prevent them from
falling over.
Stored containers should be periodically checked for general condition and leakage.
Keep container below 50°C in a well ventilated place.
Store containers in location free from fire risk and away from sources of heat and ignition.
Keep away from combustible materials.
Segregate from oxidant gases and other oxidants in store.
All electrical equipment in the storage areas should be compatible with the risk of a potentially
explosive atmosphere.
7.3. Specific end use(s)

: None.

SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection

8.1. Control parameters

OEL (Occupational Exposure Limits) : No data available.

DNEL (Derived-No Effect Level) : No data available.

PNEC (Predicted No-Effect Concentration) : No data available.

Air Liquide Australia Limited EN (English) SDS Ref.: 50006 4/9

Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road 3004
Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
 METHANE (CH4)

SDS Ref.: 50006

8.2. Exposure controls

8.2.1. Appropriate engineering controls

: Provide adequate general and local exhaust ventilation.
Systems under pressure should be regularily checked for leakages.
Gas detectors should be used when flammable gases/vapours may be released.
The substance is not classified for human health hazards or for environment effects and it is not
PBT or vPvB so that no exposure assessment or risk characterisation is required. For tasks
where the intervention of workers is required, the substance must be handled in accordance
with good industrial hygiene and safety procedures.
Consider work permit system e.g. for maintenance activities.
8.2.2. Individual protection measures, e.g. personal protective equipment
: A risk assessment should be conducted and documented in each work area to assess the risks
related to the use of the product and to select the PPE that matches the relevant risk. The
following recommendations should be considered:
PPE compliant to the recommended EN/ISO standards should be selected.

• Eye/face protection : Wear safety glasses with side shields.

Standard EN 166 - Personal eye-protection.

• Skin protection
- Hand protection : Wear working gloves when handling gas containers.
Standard EN 388 - Protective gloves against mechanical risk.
- Other : Consider the use of flame resistant anti-static safety clothing.
Standard EN ISO 14116 - Limited flame spread materials.
Wear safety shoes while handling containers.
Standard EN ISO 20345 - Personal protective equipment - Safety footwear.

• Respiratory protection : Gas filters may be used if all surrounding conditions e.g. type and concentration of the
contaminant(s) and duration of use are known.
Recommended: Filter AX (brown).
Consult respiratory device supplier´s product information for the selection of the appropriate
device.
Gas filters do not protect against oxygen deficiency.
Standard EN 14387 - Gas filter(s), combined filter(s) and full face mask - EN 136.

• Thermal hazards : None necessary.

8.2.3. Environmental exposure controls

: Refer to local regulations for restriction of emissions to the atmosphere. See section 13 for
specific methods for waste gas treatment.

SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties

9.1. Information on basic physical and chemical properties

Appearance
• Physical state at 20°C / 101.3kPa : Gas.
• Colour : Colourless.
Odour : Odourless.
Odour threshold : No data available
pH value : Not applicable.
Molar mass : 16 g/mol
Melting point : -182 °C
Boiling point : -161 °C
Flash point : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.
Critical temperature [°C] : -82 °C

Air Liquide Australia Limited EN (English) SDS Ref.: 50006 5/9

Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road 3004
Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
 METHANE (CH4)

SDS Ref.: 50006

Evaporation rate (ether=1) : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.
Flammability range : 4.4 - 17 vol %
Vapour pressure [20°C] : Not applicable.
Vapour pressure [50°C] : Not applicable.
Relative density, gas (air=1) : 0.6
Relative density, liquid (water=1) : 0.42
Solubility in water : 26 mg/l
Partition coefficient n-octanol/water [log Kow] : 1.09
Auto-ignition temperature : 595 °C
Viscosity [20°C] : Not applicable.
Explosive Properties : Not applicable.
Oxidising Properties : None.

9.2. Other information

Other data : None.

SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity

10.1. Reactivity
: No reactivity hazard other than the effects described in sub-sections below.
10.2. Chemical stability
: Stable under normal conditions.
10.3. Possibility of hazardous reactions
: May react violently with oxidants.
Can form explosive mixture with air.
10.4. Conditions to avoid
: Keep away from heat/sparks/open flames/hot surfaces. – No smoking.
10.5. Incompatible materials
: Air, Oxidiser.
For additional information on compatibility refer to ISO 11114.
10.6. Hazardous decomposition products
: Under normal conditions of storage and use, hazardous decomposition products should not be
produced.

SECTION 11: Toxicological information

11.1. Information on toxicological effects

Acute toxicity : No toxicological effects from this product.

Skin corrosion/irritation : No known effects from this product.

Serious eye damage/irritation : No known effects from this product.
Respiratory or skin sensitisation : No known effects from this product.
Germ cell mutagenicity : No known effects from this product.
Carcinogenicity : No known effects from this product.
Toxic for reproduction : Fertility : No known effects from this product.
Toxic for reproduction : unborn child : No known effects from this product.
STOT-single exposure : No known effects from this product.
STOT-repeated exposure : No known effects from this product.
Aspiration hazard : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.

Air Liquide Australia Limited EN (English) SDS Ref.: 50006 6/9

Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road 3004
Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
 METHANE (CH4)

SDS Ref.: 50006

SECTION 12: Ecological information

12.1. Toxicity
No additional information available

12.2. Persistence and degradability

Assessment : The substance is biodegradable. Unlikely to persist.

12.3. Bioaccumulative potential

Assessment : Not expected to bioaccumulate due to the low log Kow (log Kow < 4). Refer to section 9.
12.4. Mobility in soil

Assessment : Because of its high volatility, the product is unlikely to cause ground or water pollution.
12.5. Results of PBT and vPvB assessment

Assessment : Not classified as PBT or vPvB.

12.6. Other adverse effects

Effect on ozone layer : None.
Global warming potential [CO2=1] : 25
Effect on the global warming : When discharged in large quantities may contribute to the greenhouse effect.
Contains greenhouse gas(es) not covered by Regulation (EC) 842/2006.

SECTION 13: Disposal considerations

13.1. Waste treatment methods

Avoid discharge to atmosphere.
Do not discharge into areas where there is a risk of forming an explosive mixture with air.
Waste gas should be flared through a suitable burner with flash back arrestor.
Do not discharge into any place where its accumulation could be dangerous.
Ensure that the emission levels from local regulations or operating permits are not exceeded.
Refer to the EIGA code of practice Doc.30 "Disposal of Gases", downloadable at
http://www.eiga.org for more guidance on suitable disposal methods.
List of hazardous waste codes (from : 16 05 04: Gases in pressure containers (including halons) containing dangerous substances.
Commission Decision 2001/118/EC)
13.2. Additional information
: None.

SECTION 14: Transport information

14.1. UN number

UN-No. : 1971
14.2. UN proper shipping name

Transport by road/rail (ADG) : METHANE, COMPRESSED

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR) : METHANE, COMPRESSED

Transport by sea (IMDG) : METHANE, COMPRESSED

14.3. Transport hazard class(es)

Air Liquide Australia Limited EN (English) SDS Ref.: 50006 7/9

Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road 3004
Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
 METHANE (CH4)

SDS Ref.: 50006

Labelling :

2.1 : Flammable gases

Transport by road/rail (ADG)

Class : 2
Hazchemcode 2SE
Hazard identification number : 23
Tunnel Restriction : B/D - Tank carriage : Passage forbidden through tunnels of category B, C, D and E. Other
carriage : Passage forbidden through tunnels of category D and E

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR)

Class / Div. (Sub. risk(s)) : 2.1

Transport by sea (IMDG)

Class / Div. (Sub. risk(s)) : 2.1
Emergency Schedule (EmS) - Fire : F-D
Emergency Schedule (EmS) - Spillage : S-U
14.4. Packing group

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : Not applicable

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR) : Not applicable
Transport by sea (IMDG) : Not applicable

14.5. Environmental hazards

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : None.

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR) : None.

Transport by sea (IMDG) : None.

14.6. Special precautions for user

Packing Instruction(s)
Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : P200
Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR)
Passenger and Cargo Aircraft : Forbidden
Cargo Aircraft only : 200
Transport by sea (IMDG) : P200

Special transport precautions : Avoid transport on vehicles where the load space is not separated from the driver's
compartment.
Ensure vehicle driver is aware of the potential hazards of the load and knows what to do in the
event of an accident or an emergency.
Before transporting product containers:
- Ensure there is adequate ventilation.
- Ensure that containers are firmly secured.
- Ensure cylinder valve is closed and not leaking.
- Ensure valve outlet cap nut or plug (where provided) is correctly fitted.
- Ensure valve protection device (where provided) is correctly fitted.

Air Liquide Australia Limited EN (English) SDS Ref.: 50006 8/9

Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road 3004
Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
 METHANE (CH4)

SDS Ref.: 50006

HAZCHEMCODE : 2SE

14.7. Transport in bulk according to Annex II of MARPOL 73/78 and the IBC Code

: Not applicable.

SECTION 15: Regulatory information

15.1. Safety, health and environmental regulations/legislation specific for the substance or mixture
National regulations
Ensure all national/local regulations are observed.

15.2. Chemical safety assessment

: A CSA has been carried out.
Refer to section 8.2.

SECTION 16: Other information

Indication of changes : Revised safety data sheet in accordance with commission regulation (EU) No 453/2010.

Training advice : Ensure operators understand the flammability hazard. The hazard of asphyxiation is often
overlooked and must be stressed during operator training.

Full text of H-statements

Flam. Gas 1 Flammable gases, Category 1

Press. Gas Gases under pressure : Compressed gas
(Comp.)
H220 Extremely flammable gas
H280 Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated
R12 Extremely flammable
F+ Extremely flammable

DISCLAIMER OF LIABILITY : Before using this product in any new process or experiment, a thorough material compatibility
and safety study should be carried out.
Details given in this document are believed to be correct at the time of going to press.
Whilst proper care has been taken in the preparation of this document, no liability for injury or
damage resulting from its use can be accepted.

End of document
Air Liquide Australia Limited EN (English) SDS Ref.: 50006 9/9
Level 9 / 380 St. Kilda Road 3004
Melbourne VIC Australia
+61 3 9697 9888
 Page : 1/9
SAFETY DATA SHEET Revised edition no : 4.0
Revision date : 2020-07-15
Supersedes : 2020-06-26

Hydrogen NOAL_0067A
Country : SE / Language : EN

SECTION 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking

1.1. Product identifier

Trade name : Hydrogen, Alphagaz 1 Hydrogen, Alphagaz 2 Hydrogen, Hydrogen N50, Hydrogen N56,
Hydrogen N35, Hydrogen N25 Tubetrailer
SDS no : NOAL_0067A
Chemical description : Hydrogen
CAS-No. : 1333-74-0
EC-No. : 215-605-7
EC Index-No. : 001-001-00-9
Registration-No. : Listed in Annex IV / V REACH, exempted from registration.
Chemical formula : H2

1.2. Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against
Relevant identified uses : Industrial and professional uses. Perform risk assessment prior to use.
Test gas/Calibration gas.
Laboratory use.
Chemical reaction / Synthesis.
Use as a fuel.
Shield gas for welding processes.
Use for manufacture of electronic/photovoltaic components.
Laser gas.
Contact supplier for more information on uses.
Uses advised against : Do not inflate in party balloons because of the risk of explosion.
Consumer use.

1.3. Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet

Company identification

AIR LIQUIDE GAS AB

Lundavägen 151
21209 Malmö - SWEDEN
T +46 40 38 10 00
[email protected]

E-Mail address (competent person) : [email protected]

1.4. Emergency telephone number

Emergency telephone number : 112
Availability
( 24 / 7 )

SECTION 2: Hazards identification

2.1. Classification of the substance or mixture

Classification according to Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 [CLP]

Physical hazards Flammable gases, Category 1 H220
Gases under pressure : Compressed gas H280

2.2. Label elements

Labelling according to Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 [CLP]

 Page : 2/9
SAFETY DATA SHEET Revised edition no : 4.0
Revision date : 2020-07-15
Supersedes : 2020-06-26

Hydrogen NOAL_0067A
Country : SE / Language : EN
Hazard pictograms (CLP) :

GHS02 GHS04
Signal word (CLP) : Danger
Hazard statements (CLP) : H220 - Extremely flammable gas.
H280 - Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
Precautionary statements (CLP)
- Prevention : P210 - Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open flames and other ignition sources. No
smoking.
- Response : P377 - Leaking gas fire: Do not extinguish, unless leak can be stopped safely.
P381 - In case of leakage, eliminate all ignition sources.
- Storage : P403 - Store in a well-ventilated place.

2.3. Other hazards

: None.

SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients

3.1. Substances
Name Product identifier Composition Classification according to
[V-%]: Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 [CLP]
Hydrogen (CAS-No.) 1333-74-0 100 Flam. Gas 1, H220
(EC-No.) 215-605-7 Press. Gas (Comp.), H280
(EC Index-No.) 001-001-00-9
(Registration-No.) *1

Contains no other components or impurities which will influence the classification of the product.
*1: Listed in Annex IV / V REACH, exempted from registration.
*2: Registration deadline not expired.
*3: Registration not required: Substance manufactured or imported < 1t/y.

3.2. Mixtures : Not established.

SECTION 4: First aid measures

4.1. Description of first aid measures

- Inhalation : Remove victim to uncontaminated area wearing self contained breathing apparatus. Keep
victim warm and rested. Call a doctor. Perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation if breathing
stopped.
- Skin contact : Adverse effects not expected from this product.
- Eye contact : Adverse effects not expected from this product.
- Ingestion : Ingestion is not considered a potential route of exposure.
4.2. Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed
: Refer to section 11.
4.3. Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed

: None.

SECTION 5: Firefighting measures

 Page : 3/9
SAFETY DATA SHEET Revised edition no : 4.0
Revision date : 2020-07-15
Supersedes : 2020-06-26

Hydrogen NOAL_0067A
Country : SE / Language : EN

5.1. Extinguishing media

- Suitable extinguishing media : Water spray or fog.

Dry powder.
- Unsuitable extinguishing media : Carbon dioxide.
Do not use water jet to extinguish.
5.2. Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture

Specific hazards : Exposure to fire may cause containers to rupture/explode.

Hazardous combustion products : None.
5.3. Advice for firefighters

Specific methods : Use fire control measures appropriate for the surrounding fire. Exposure to fire and heat
radiation may cause gas receptacles to rupture. Cool endangered receptacles with water spray
jet from a protected position. Prevent water used in emergency cases from entering sewers and
drainage systems.
If possible, stop flow of product.
Use water spray or fog to knock down fire fumes if possible.
Do not extinguish a leaking gas flame unless absolutely necessary. Spontaneous/explosive re-
ignition may occur. Extinguish any other fire.
Move containers away from the fire area if this can be done without risk.
Special protective equipment for fire fighters : In confined space use self-contained breathing apparatus.
Standard protective clothing and equipment (Self Contained Breathing Apparatus) for fire
fighters.
Standard EN 137 - Self-contained open-circuit compressed air breathing apparatus with full
face mask.
Standard EN 469 - Protective clothing for firefighters. Standard - EN 659: Protective gloves for
firefighters.

SECTION 6: Accidental release measures

6.1. Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures

: Try to stop release.

Evacuate area.
Monitor concentration of released product.
Consider the risk of potentially explosive atmospheres.
Wear self-contained breathing apparatus when entering area unless atmosphere is proved to
be safe.
Eliminate ignition sources.
Ensure adequate air ventilation.
Act in accordance with local emergency plan.
Stay upwind.
6.2. Environmental precautions

: Try to stop release.

6.3. Methods and material for containment and cleaning up

: Ventilate area.
6.4. Reference to other sections

: See also sections 8 and 13.

SECTION 7: Handling and storage

7.1. Precautions for safe handling

 Page : 4/9
SAFETY DATA SHEET Revised edition no : 4.0
Revision date : 2020-07-15
Supersedes : 2020-06-26

Hydrogen NOAL_0067A
Country : SE / Language : EN
Safe use of the product : The product must be handled in accordance with good industrial hygiene and safety
procedures.
Only experienced and properly instructed persons should handle gases under pressure.
Consider pressure relief device(s) in gas installations.
Ensure the complete gas system was (or is regularily) checked for leaks before use.
Do not smoke while handling product.
Use only properly specified equipment which is suitable for this product, its supply pressure and
temperature. Contact your gas supplier if in doubt.
Avoid suck back of water, acid and alkalis.
Assess the risk of potentially explosive atmospheres and the need for explosion-proof
equipment.
Purge air from system before introducing gas.
Take precautionary measures against static discharge.
Keep away from ignition sources (including static discharges).
Consider the use of only non-sparking tools.
Do not breathe gas.
Avoid release of product into atmosphere.
Ensure equipment is adequately earthed.
Safe handling of the gas receptacle : Refer to supplier's container handling instructions.
Do not allow backfeed into the container.
Protect cylinders from physical damage; do not drag, roll, slide or drop.
When moving cylinders, even for short distances, use a cart (trolley, hand truck, etc.) designed
to transport cylinders.
Leave valve protection caps in place until the container has been secured against either a wall
or bench or placed in a container stand and is ready for use.
If user experiences any difficulty operating valve discontinue use and contact supplier.
Never attempt to repair or modify container valves or safety relief devices.
Damaged valves should be reported immediately to the supplier.
Keep container valve outlets clean and free from contaminants particularly oil and water.
Replace valve outlet caps or plugs and container caps where supplied as soon as container is
disconnected from equipment.
Close container valve after each use and when empty, even if still connected to equipment.
Never attempt to transfer gases from one cylinder/container to another.
Never use direct flame or electrical heating devices to raise the pressure of a container.
Do not remove or deface labels provided by the supplier for the identification of the content of
the container.
Suck back of water into the container must be prevented.
Open valve slowly to avoid pressure shock.
7.2. Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities

: Observe all regulations and local requirements regarding storage of containers.

Containers should not be stored in conditions likely to encourage corrosion.
Container valve guards or caps should be in place.
Containers should be stored in the vertical position and properly secured to prevent them from
falling over.
Stored containers should be periodically checked for general condition and leakage.
Keep container below 50°C in a well ventilated place.
Store containers in location free from fire risk and away from sources of heat and ignition.
Keep away from combustible materials.
Segregate from oxidant gases and other oxidants in store.
All electrical equipment in the storage areas should be compatible with the risk of a potentially
explosive atmosphere.
7.3. Specific end use(s)

: None.

SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection

8.1. Control parameters

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OEL (Occupational Exposure Limits) : No data available.

DNEL (Derived-No Effect Level) : No data available.

PNEC (Predicted No-Effect Concentration) : No data available.

8.2. Exposure controls

8.2.1. Appropriate engineering controls

: Provide adequate general and local exhaust ventilation.
Product to be handled in a closed system.
Systems under pressure should be regularily checked for leakages.
Gas detectors should be used when flammable gases/vapours may be released.
Consider the use of a work permit system e.g. for maintenance activities.
8.2.2. Individual protection measures, e.g. personal protective equipment
: A risk assessment should be conducted and documented in each work area to assess the risks
related to the use of the product and to select the PPE that matches the relevant risk. The
following recommendations should be considered:
PPE compliant to the recommended EN/ISO standards should be selected.

• Eye/face protection : Wear safety glasses with side shields.

Standard EN 166 - Personal eye-protection - specifications.

• Skin protection
- Hand protection : Wear working gloves when handling gas containers.
Standard EN 388 - Protective gloves against mechanical risk.
- Other : Consider the use of flame resistant anti-static safety clothing.
Standard EN ISO 14116 - Limited flame spread materials.
Standard EN 1149-5 - Protective clothing: Electrostatic properties.
Wear safety shoes while handling containers.
Standard EN ISO 20345 - Personal protective equipment - Safety footwear.

• Respiratory protection : None necessary.

• Thermal hazards : None in addition to the above sections.

8.2.3. Environmental exposure controls

: Refer to local regulations for restriction of emissions to the atmosphere. See section 13 for
specific methods for waste gas treatment.

SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties

9.1. Information on basic physical and chemical properties

Appearance
 Physical state at 20°C / 101.3kPa : Gas.
 Colour : Colourless.
Odour : Odourless.
Odour threshold : Odour threshold is subjective and inadequate to warn of overexposure.
pH value : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.
Molar mass : 2 g/mol
Melting point : -259 °C
Boiling point : -253 °C
Flash point : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.
Critical temperature [°C] : -240 °C
Evaporation rate (ether=1) : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.
Flammability range : 4 - 77 vol %
Vapour pressure [20°C] : Not applicable.
Vapour pressure [50°C] : Not applicable.
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Country : SE / Language : EN
Relative density, gas (air=1) : 0.07
Relative density, liquid (water=1) : 0.07
Solubility in water : 1.6 mg/l
Partition coefficient n-octanol/water [log Kow] : Not applicable for inorganic products.
Auto-ignition temperature : 560 °C
Decomposition point [°C] : Not applicable.
Viscosity [20°C] : No reliable data available.
Explosive Properties : Not applicable.
Oxidising Properties : Not applicable.

9.2. Other information

Other data : Burns with an invisible flame.

SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity

10.1. Reactivity
: No reactivity hazard other than the effects described in sub-sections below.
10.2. Chemical stability
: Stable under normal conditions.
10.3. Possibility of hazardous reactions
: Can form explosive mixture with air.
May react violently with oxidants.
10.4. Conditions to avoid
: Keep away from heat/sparks/open flames/hot surfaces. – No smoking.
Avoid moisture in installation systems.
10.5. Incompatible materials
: Air, Oxidisers.
For additional information on compatibility refer to ISO 11114.
10.6. Hazardous decomposition products
: Under normal conditions of storage and use, hazardous decomposition products should not be
produced.

SECTION 11: Toxicological information

11.1. Information on toxicological effects

Acute toxicity : No known toxicological effects from this product.

Skin corrosion/irritation : No known effects from this product.

Serious eye damage/irritation : No known effects from this product.
Respiratory or skin sensitisation : No known effects from this product.
Germ cell mutagenicity : No known effects from this product.
Carcinogenicity : No known effects from this product.
Reproductive toxicity : No known effects from this product.
No known effects from this product.
STOT-single exposure : No known effects from this product.
STOT-repeated exposure : No known effects from this product.
Aspiration hazard : Not applicable for gases and gas mixtures.

SECTION 12: Ecological information

12.1. Toxicity

Assessment : No ecological damage caused by this product.

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EC50 48h - Daphnia magna [mg/l] : No data available.

EC50 72h - Algae [mg/l] : No data available.
LC50 96 h - Fish [mg/l] : No data available.

12.2. Persistence and degradability

Assessment : No ecological damage caused by this product.

12.3. Bioaccumulative potential

Assessment : No data available.

12.4. Mobility in soil

Assessment : Because of its high volatility, the product is unlikely to cause ground or water pollution.
Partition into soil is unlikely.

12.5. Results of PBT and vPvB assessment

Assessment : No data available.

12.6. Other adverse effects

Other adverse effects : No known effects from this product.
Effect on the ozone layer : None.
Global warming potential [CO2=1] : 6
Effect on global warming : Contains greenhouse gas(es).
When discharged in large quantities may contribute to the greenhouse effect.

SECTION 13: Disposal considerations

13.1. Waste treatment methods

Contact supplier if guidance is required.
Do not discharge into areas where there is a risk of forming an explosive mixture with air.
Waste gas should be flared through a suitable burner with flash back arrestor.
Do not discharge into any place where its accumulation could be dangerous.
Ensure that the emission levels from local regulations or operating permits are not exceeded.
Refer to the EIGA code of practice Doc.30 "Disposal of Gases", downloadable at
http://www.eiga.org for more guidance on suitable disposal methods.
Return unused product in original container to supplier.
List of hazardous waste codes (from : 16 05 04 *: Gases in pressure containers (including halons) containing hazardous substances.
Commission Decision 2000/532/EC as
amended)
13.2. Additional information
: External treatment and disposal of waste should comply with applicable local and/or national
regulations.

SECTION 14: Transport information

14.1. UN number

UN-No. : 1954
14.2. UN proper shipping name

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : COMPRESSED GAS, FLAMMABLE, N.O.S. (Hydrogen)

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR) : Compressed gas, flammable, n.o.s. (Hydrogen)

Transport by sea (IMDG) : COMPRESSED GAS, FLAMMABLE, N.O.S. (Hydrogen)

14.3. Transport hazard class(es)

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Labelling :

2.1 : Flammable gases.

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID)
Class : 2.
Classification code : 1F.
Hazard identification number : 23.
Tunnel Restriction : B/D - Tank carriage : Passage forbidden through tunnels of category B, C, D and E. Other
carriage : Passage forbidden through tunnels of category D and E.
Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR)
Class / Div. (Sub. risk(s)) : 2.1
Transport by sea (IMDG)
Class / Div. (Sub. risk(s)) : 2.1
Emergency Schedule (EmS) - Fire : F-D.
Emergency Schedule (EmS) - Spillage : S-U.
14.4. Packing group

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : Not established.

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR) : Not established.
Transport by sea (IMDG) : Not established.

14.5. Environmental hazards

Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : None.

Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR) : None.

Transport by sea (IMDG) : None.

14.6. Special precautions for user

Packing Instruction(s)
Transport by road/rail (ADR/RID) : P200.
Transport by air (ICAO-TI / IATA-DGR)
Passenger and Cargo Aircraft : Forbidden.
Cargo Aircraft only : 200.
Transport by sea (IMDG) : P200.

Special transport precautions : Avoid transport on vehicles where the load space is not separated from the driver's
compartment.
Ensure vehicle driver is aware of the potential hazards of the load and knows what to do in the
event of an accident or an emergency.
Before transporting product containers:
- Ensure there is adequate ventilation.
- Ensure that containers are firmly secured.
- Ensure valve is closed and not leaking.
- Ensure valve outlet cap nut or plug (where provided) is correctly fitted.
- Ensure valve protection device (where provided) is correctly fitted.

14.7. Transport in bulk according to Annex II of Marpol and the IBC Code

: Not applicable.

SECTION 15: Regulatory information

15.1. Safety, health and environmental regulations/legislation specific for the substance or mixture
EU-Regulations
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Restrictions on use : None.
Seveso Directive : 2012/18/EU (Seveso III) : Listed.

National regulations
National legislation : Ensure all national/local regulations are observed.

15.2. Chemical safety assessment

A CSA does not need to be carried out for this product.

SECTION 16: Other information

Indication of changes : Revised safety data sheet in accordance with commission regulation (EU) No 453/2010.

Abbreviations and acronyms : ATE - Acute Toxicity Estimate

CLP - Classification Labelling Packaging Regulation; Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008
REACH - Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals Regulation (EC)
No 1907/2006
EINECS - European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances
CAS# - Chemical Abstract Service number
PPE - Personal Protection Equipment
LC50 - Lethal Concentration to 50 % of a test population
RMM - Risk Management Measures
PBT - Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic
vPvB - Very Persistent and Very Bioaccumulative
STOT- SE : Specific Target Organ Toxicity - Single Exposure
CSA - Chemical Safety Assessment
EN - European Standard
UN - United Nations
ADR - European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by
Road
IATA - International Air Transport Association
IMDG code - International Maritime Dangerous Goods
RID - Regulations concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail
WGK - Water Hazard Class
Training advice : Ensure operators understand the flammability hazard.

Full text of H- and EUH-statements

Flam. Gas 1 Flammable gases, Category 1

Press. Gas (Comp.) Gases under pressure : Compressed gas
H220 Extremely flammable gas
H280 Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated

DISCLAIMER OF LIABILITY : Before using this product in any new process or experiment, a thorough material compatibility
and safety study should be carried out.
Details given in this document are believed to be correct at the time of going to press.
Whilst proper care has been taken in the preparation of this document, no liability for injury or
damage resulting from its use can be accepted.
 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Carbon Monoxide

Section 1. Identification
GHS product identifier : Carbon Monoxide
Chemical name : carbon monoxide
Other means of : Monoxide; Flue gas; Carbon oxide; carbonic oxide; Monoxide of carbon; Carbon
identification monooxide
Product type : Gas.
Product use : Synthetic/Analytical chemistry.
Synonym : Monoxide; Flue gas; Carbon oxide; carbonic oxide; Monoxide of carbon; Carbon
monooxide
SDS # : 001014
Supplier's details : Airgas USA, LLC and its affiliates
259 North Radnor-Chester Road
Suite 100
Radnor, PA 19087-5283
1-610-687-5253

24-hour telephone : 1-866-734-3438

Section 2. Hazards identification

OSHA/HCS status : This material is considered hazardous by the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard
(29 CFR 1910.1200).
Classification of the : FLAMMABLE GASES - Category 1
substance or mixture GASES UNDER PRESSURE - Compressed gas
ACUTE TOXICITY (inhalation) - Category 3
TOXIC TO REPRODUCTION - Category 1
SPECIFIC TARGET ORGAN TOXICITY (REPEATED EXPOSURE) - Category 1

GHS label elements

Hazard pictograms :

Signal word : Danger

Hazard statements : Extremely flammable gas.
Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
Toxic if inhaled.
May damage fertility or the unborn child.
Causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure.
Asphyxiating even with adequate oxygen.
May form explosive mixtures with air.
Precautionary statements
General : Read and follow all Safety Data Sheets (SDS’S) before use. Read label before use.
Keep out of reach of children. If medical advice is needed, have product container or
label at hand. Close valve after each use and when empty. Use equipment rated for
cylinder pressure. Do not open valve until connected to equipment prepared for use.
Use a back flow preventative device in the piping. Use only equipment of compatible
materials of construction. Approach suspected leak area with caution.
Prevention : Obtain special instructions before use. Wear protective gloves. Wear protective
clothing. Wear eye or face protection. Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open
flames and other ignition sources. No smoking. Use only outdoors or in a well-
ventilated area. Do not breathe gas. Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this
product.

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Carbon Monoxide

Section 2. Hazards identification

Response : Leaking gas fire: Do not extinguish, unless leak can be stopped safely. In case of
leakage, eliminate all ignition sources. IF exposed or concerned: Get medical advice or
attention. IF INHALED: Remove person to fresh air and keep comfortable for breathing.
Call a POISON CENTER or doctor.
Storage : Store locked up. Protect from sunlight. Store in a well-ventilated place.
Disposal : Dispose of contents and container in accordance with all local, regional, national and
international regulations.
Hazards not otherwise : None known.
classified

Section 3. Composition/information on ingredients

Substance/mixture : Substance
Chemical name : carbon monoxide
Other means of : Monoxide; Flue gas; Carbon oxide; carbonic oxide; Monoxide of carbon; Carbon
identification monooxide
Product code : 001014

CAS number/other identifiers

CAS number : 630-08-0
Ingredient name % CAS number
carbon monoxide 100 630-08-0
Any concentration shown as a range is to protect confidentiality or is due to batch variation.
There are no additional ingredients present which, within the current knowledge of the supplier and in the
concentrations applicable, are classified as hazardous to health or the environment and hence require reporting
in this section.
Occupational exposure limits, if available, are listed in Section 8.

Section 4. First aid measures

Description of necessary first aid measures
Eye contact : Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water, occasionally lifting the upper and lower
eyelids. Check for and remove any contact lenses. Continue to rinse for at least 10
minutes. Get medical attention.
Inhalation : Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a position comfortable for breathing. If it
is suspected that fumes are still present, the rescuer should wear an appropriate mask
or self-contained breathing apparatus. If not breathing, if breathing is irregular or if
respiratory arrest occurs, provide artificial respiration or oxygen by trained personnel. It
may be dangerous to the person providing aid to give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
Get medical attention. If necessary, call a poison center or physician. If unconscious,
place in recovery position and get medical attention immediately. Maintain an open
airway. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.
Skin contact : Flush contaminated skin with plenty of water. Remove contaminated clothing and
shoes. To avoid the risk of static discharges and gas ignition, soak contaminated
clothing thoroughly with water before removing it. Continue to rinse for at least 10
minutes. Get medical attention. Wash clothing before reuse. Clean shoes thoroughly
before reuse.
Ingestion : As this product is a gas, refer to the inhalation section.

Most important symptoms/effects, acute and delayed

Potential acute health effects
Eye contact : Contact with rapidly expanding gas may cause burns or frostbite.
Inhalation : Toxic if inhaled.
Skin contact : Contact with rapidly expanding gas may cause burns or frostbite.
Frostbite : Try to warm up the frozen tissues and seek medical attention.

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Carbon Monoxide

Section 4. First aid measures

Ingestion : As this product is a gas, refer to the inhalation section.
Over-exposure signs/symptoms
Eye contact : No specific data.
Inhalation : Adverse symptoms may include the following:, reduced fetal weight, increase in fetal
deaths, skeletal malformations
Skin contact : Adverse symptoms may include the following:, reduced fetal weight, increase in fetal
deaths, skeletal malformations
Ingestion : Adverse symptoms may include the following:, reduced fetal weight, increase in fetal
deaths, skeletal malformations

Indication of immediate medical attention and special treatment needed, if necessary

Notes to physician : Treat symptomatically. Contact poison treatment specialist immediately if large
quantities have been ingested or inhaled.
Specific treatments : No specific treatment.
Protection of first-aiders : No action shall be taken involving any personal risk or without suitable training. If it is
suspected that fumes are still present, the rescuer should wear an appropriate mask or
self-contained breathing apparatus. It may be dangerous to the person providing aid to
give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Wash contaminated clothing thoroughly with water
before removing it, or wear gloves.

See toxicological information (Section 11)

Section 5. Fire-fighting measures

Extinguishing media
Suitable extinguishing : Use an extinguishing agent suitable for the surrounding fire.
media
Unsuitable extinguishing : None known.
media

Specific hazards arising : Contains gas under pressure. Extremely flammable gas. In a fire or if heated, a
from the chemical pressure increase will occur and the container may burst, with the risk of a subsequent
explosion.
Hazardous thermal : Decomposition products may include the following materials:
decomposition products carbon dioxide
carbon monoxide

Special protective actions : Promptly isolate the scene by removing all persons from the vicinity of the incident if
for fire-fighters there is a fire. No action shall be taken involving any personal risk or without suitable
training. Contact supplier immediately for specialist advice. Move containers from fire
area if this can be done without risk. Use water spray to keep fire-exposed containers
cool. If involved in fire, shut off flow immediately if it can be done without risk. If this is
impossible, withdraw from area and allow fire to burn. Fight fire from protected location
or maximum possible distance. Eliminate all ignition sources if safe to do so.
Special protective : Fire-fighters should wear appropriate protective equipment and self-contained breathing
equipment for fire-fighters apparatus (SCBA) with a full face-piece operated in positive pressure mode.

Section 6. Accidental release measures

Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures
For non-emergency : Accidental releases pose a serious fire or explosion hazard. No action shall be taken
personnel involving any personal risk or without suitable training. Evacuate surrounding areas.
Keep unnecessary and unprotected personnel from entering. Shut off all ignition
sources. No flares, smoking or flames in hazard area. Do not breathe gas. Provide
adequate ventilation. Wear appropriate respirator when ventilation is inadequate. Put
on appropriate personal protective equipment.

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Carbon Monoxide

Section 6. Accidental release measures

For emergency responders : If specialized clothing is required to deal with the spillage, take note of any information in
Section 8 on suitable and unsuitable materials. See also the information in "For non-
emergency personnel".

Environmental precautions : Ensure emergency procedures to deal with accidental gas releases are in place to avoid
contamination of the environment. Inform the relevant authorities if the product has
caused environmental pollution (sewers, waterways, soil or air).

Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up

Small spill : Immediately contact emergency personnel. Stop leak if without risk. Use spark-proof
tools and explosion-proof equipment.
Large spill : Immediately contact emergency personnel. Stop leak if without risk. Use spark-proof
tools and explosion-proof equipment. Note: see Section 1 for emergency contact
information and Section 13 for waste disposal.

Section 7. Handling and storage

Precautions for safe handling
Protective measures : Put on appropriate personal protective equipment (see Section 8). Contains gas under
pressure. Do not get in eyes or on skin or clothing. Use only with adequate ventilation.
Wear appropriate respirator when ventilation is inadequate. Do not enter storage areas
and confined spaces unless adequately ventilated. Do not puncture or incinerate
container. Use equipment rated for cylinder pressure. Close valve after each use and
when empty. Protect cylinders from physical damage; do not drag, roll, slide, or drop.
Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder movement.
Use only non-sparking tools. Empty containers retain product residue and can be
hazardous. Store and use away from heat, sparks, open flame or any other ignition
source. Use explosion-proof electrical (ventilating, lighting and material handling)
equipment. Do not breathe gas. Avoid exposure - obtain special instructions before
use. Do not handle until all safety precautions have been read and understood. Avoid
exposure during pregnancy.
Advice on general : Eating, drinking and smoking should be prohibited in areas where this material is
occupational hygiene handled, stored and processed. Workers should wash hands and face before eating,
drinking and smoking. Remove contaminated clothing and protective equipment before
entering eating areas. See also Section 8 for additional information on hygiene
measures.

Conditions for safe storage, : Store in accordance with local regulations. Store in a segregated and approved area.
including any Store away from direct sunlight in a dry, cool and well-ventilated area, away from
incompatibilities incompatible materials (see Section 10). Eliminate all ignition sources. Cylinders
should be stored upright, with valve protection cap in place, and firmly secured to
prevent falling or being knocked over. Cylinder temperatures should not exceed 52 °C
(125 °F). Store locked up. Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use.
See Section 10 for incompatible materials before handling or use.

Section 8. Exposure controls/personal protection

Control parameters
Occupational exposure limits
Ingredient name Exposure limits
carbon monoxide California PEL for Chemical Contaminants (
Table AC-1) (United States).
PEL: 25 ppm 8 hours.
CEIL: 200 ppm
ACGIH TLV (United States, 3/2019).
TWA: 25 ppm 8 hours.
TWA: 29 mg/m³ 8 hours.
OSHA PEL 1989 (United States, 3/1989).
TWA: 35 ppm 8 hours.
TWA: 40 mg/m³ 8 hours.
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Carbon Monoxide

Section 8. Exposure controls/personal protection

CEIL: 200 ppm
CEIL: 229 mg/m³
NIOSH REL (United States, 10/2016).
TWA: 35 ppm 10 hours.
TWA: 40 mg/m³ 10 hours.
CEIL: 200 ppm
CEIL: 229 mg/m³
OSHA PEL (United States, 5/2018).
TWA: 50 ppm 8 hours.
TWA: 55 mg/m³ 8 hours.

Appropriate engineering : Use only with adequate ventilation. Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation or
controls other engineering controls to keep worker exposure to airborne contaminants below any
recommended or statutory limits. The engineering controls also need to keep gas,
vapor or dust concentrations below any lower explosive limits. Use explosion-proof
ventilation equipment.
Environmental exposure : Emissions from ventilation or work process equipment should be checked to ensure
controls they comply with the requirements of environmental protection legislation. In some
cases, fume scrubbers, filters or engineering modifications to the process equipment
will be necessary to reduce emissions to acceptable levels.

Individual protection measures

Hygiene measures : Wash hands, forearms and face thoroughly after handling chemical products, before
eating, smoking and using the lavatory and at the end of the working period.
Appropriate techniques should be used to remove potentially contaminated clothing.
Wash contaminated clothing before reusing. Ensure that eyewash stations and safety
showers are close to the workstation location.
Eye/face protection : Safety eyewear complying with an approved standard should be used when a risk
assessment indicates this is necessary to avoid exposure to liquid splashes, mists,
gases or dusts. If contact is possible, the following protection should be worn, unless
the assessment indicates a higher degree of protection: safety glasses with side-
shields.
Skin protection
Hand protection : Chemical-resistant, impervious gloves complying with an approved standard should be
worn at all times when handling chemical products if a risk assessment indicates this is
necessary. Considering the parameters specified by the glove manufacturer, check
during use that the gloves are still retaining their protective properties. It should be
noted that the time to breakthrough for any glove material may be different for different
glove manufacturers. In the case of mixtures, consisting of several substances, the
protection time of the gloves cannot be accurately estimated.
Body protection : Personal protective equipment for the body should be selected based on the task being
performed and the risks involved and should be approved by a specialist before
handling this product. When there is a risk of ignition from static electricity, wear anti-
static protective clothing. For the greatest protection from static discharges, clothing
should include anti-static overalls, boots and gloves.
Other skin protection : Appropriate footwear and any additional skin protection measures should be selected
based on the task being performed and the risks involved and should be approved by a
specialist before handling this product.
Respiratory protection : Based on the hazard and potential for exposure, select a respirator that meets the
appropriate standard or certification. Respirators must be used according to a
respiratory protection program to ensure proper fitting, training, and other important
aspects of use. Respirator selection must be based on known or anticipated exposure
levels, the hazards of the product and the safe working limits of the selected respirator.

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Carbon Monoxide

Section 9. Physical and chemical properties

Appearance
Physical state : Gas. [Compressed gas.]
Color : Colorless.
Odor : Odorless.
Odor threshold : Not available.
pH : Not available.
Melting point : -211.6°C (-348.9°F)
Boiling point : -191.52°C (-312.7°F)
Critical temperature : -140.15°C (-220.3°F)
Flash point : Not available.
Evaporation rate : Not available.
Flammability (solid, gas) : Extremely flammable in the presence of the following materials or conditions: open
flames, sparks and static discharge and oxidizing materials.
Lower and upper explosive : Lower: 10.9%
(flammable) limits Upper: 74.2%
Vapor pressure : Not available.
Vapor density : 0.97 (Air = 1)
Specific Volume (ft 3/lb) : 13.8889
Gas Density (lb/ft ) 3
: 0.072
Relative density : Not applicable.
Solubility : Not available.
Solubility in water : Not available.
Partition coefficient: n- : Not available.
octanol/water
Auto-ignition temperature : 607°C (1124.6°F)
Decomposition temperature : Not available.
Viscosity : Not applicable.
Flow time (ISO 2431) : Not available.
Molecular weight : 28.01 g/mole
Aerosol product
Heat of combustion : -10101818 J/kg

Section 10. Stability and reactivity

Reactivity : No specific test data related to reactivity available for this product or its ingredients.

Chemical stability : The product is stable.

Possibility of hazardous : Under normal conditions of storage and use, hazardous reactions will not occur.
reactions

Conditions to avoid : Avoid all possible sources of ignition (spark or flame). Do not pressurize, cut, weld,
braze, solder, drill, grind or expose containers to heat or sources of ignition.

Incompatible materials : Oxidizers

Hazardous decomposition : Under normal conditions of storage and use, hazardous decomposition products should
products not be produced.

Hazardous polymerization : Under normal conditions of storage and use, hazardous polymerization will not occur.
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Carbon Monoxide

Section 11. Toxicological information

Information on toxicological effects
Acute toxicity
Product/ingredient name Result Species Dose Exposure
carbon monoxide LC50 Inhalation Gas. Rat 3760 ppm 1 hours
Irritation/Corrosion
Not available.

Sensitization
Not available.
Mutagenicity
Not available.
Carcinogenicity
Not available.
Reproductive toxicity
Not available.

Teratogenicity
Not available.
Specific target organ toxicity (single exposure)
Not available.
Specific target organ toxicity (repeated exposure)
Name Category Route of Target organs
exposure
carbon monoxide Category 1 - -

Aspiration hazard
Not available.

Information on the likely : Routes of entry anticipated: Inhalation.

routes of exposure
Potential acute health effects
Eye contact : Contact with rapidly expanding gas may cause burns or frostbite.
Inhalation : Toxic if inhaled.
Skin contact : Contact with rapidly expanding gas may cause burns or frostbite.
Ingestion : As this product is a gas, refer to the inhalation section.

Symptoms related to the physical, chemical and toxicological characteristics

Eye contact : No specific data.
Inhalation : Adverse symptoms may include the following:, reduced fetal weight, increase in fetal
deaths, skeletal malformations
Skin contact : Adverse symptoms may include the following:, reduced fetal weight, increase in fetal
deaths, skeletal malformations
Ingestion : Adverse symptoms may include the following:, reduced fetal weight, increase in fetal
deaths, skeletal malformations

Delayed and immediate effects and also chronic effects from short and long term exposure
Short term exposure
Potential immediate : Not available.
effects

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Carbon Monoxide

Section 11. Toxicological information

Potential delayed effects : Not available.
Long term exposure
Potential immediate : Not available.
effects
Potential delayed effects : Not available.
Potential chronic health effects
Not available.
General : Causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure.
Carcinogenicity : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Mutagenicity : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Teratogenicity : May damage the unborn child.
Developmental effects : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Fertility effects : May damage fertility.

Numerical measures of toxicity

Acute toxicity estimates
Route ATE value
Inhalation (gases) 1880 ppm

Section 12. Ecological information

Toxicity
Not available.

Persistence and degradability

Not available.

Bioaccumulative potential
Not available.

Mobility in soil
Soil/water partition : Not available.
coefficient (KOC)

Other adverse effects : No known significant effects or critical hazards.

Section 13. Disposal considerations

Disposal methods : The generation of waste should be avoided or minimized wherever possible. Disposal
of this product, solutions and any by-products should at all times comply with the
requirements of environmental protection and waste disposal legislation and any
regional local authority requirements. Dispose of surplus and non-recyclable products
via a licensed waste disposal contractor. Waste should not be disposed of untreated to
the sewer unless fully compliant with the requirements of all authorities with jurisdiction.
Empty Airgas-owned pressure vessels should be returned to Airgas. Waste packaging
should be recycled. Incineration or landfill should only be considered when recycling is
not feasible. This material and its container must be disposed of in a safe way. Empty
containers or liners may retain some product residues. Do not puncture or incinerate
container.

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Carbon Monoxide

Section 14. Transport information

DOT TDG Mexico IMDG IATA
UN number UN1016 UN1016 UN1016 UN1016 UN1016

UN proper CARBON CARBON CARBON CARBON CARBON

shipping name MONOXIDE, MONOXIDE, MONOXIDE, MONOXIDE, MONOXIDE,
COMPRESSED COMPRESSED COMPRESSED COMPRESSED COMPRESSED
Transport 2.3 (2.1) 2.3 (2.1) 2.3 (2.1) 2.3 (2.1) 2.3 (2.1)
hazard class(es)

Packing group - - - - -
Environmental No. No. No. No. No.
hazards
“Refer to CFR 49 (or authority having jurisdiction) to determine the information required for shipment of the
product.”

Additional information
DOT Classification : Toxic - Inhalation hazard Zone D
Limited quantity Yes.
Quantity limitation Passenger aircraft/rail: Forbidden. Cargo aircraft: 25 kg.
Special provisions 4
TDG Classification : Product classified as per the following sections of the Transportation of Dangerous
Goods Regulations: 2.13-2.17 (Class 2), 2.13-2.17 (Class 2).
Explosive Limit and Limited Quantity Index 0
ERAP Index 500
Passenger Carrying Vessel Index Forbidden
Passenger Carrying Road or Rail Index Forbidden
IATA : Quantity limitation Passenger and Cargo Aircraft: Forbidden. Cargo Aircraft Only:
Forbidden.

Special precautions for user : Transport within user’s premises: always transport in closed containers that are
upright and secure. Ensure that persons transporting the product know what to do in the
event of an accident or spillage.

Transport in bulk according : Not available.

to IMO instruments

Section 15. Regulatory information

U.S. Federal regulations : TSCA 8(a) CDR Exempt/Partial exemption: Not determined

Clean Air Act Section 112 : Not listed

(b) Hazardous Air
Pollutants (HAPs)
Clean Air Act Section 602 : Not listed
Class I Substances
Clean Air Act Section 602 : Not listed
Class II Substances
DEA List I Chemicals : Not listed
(Precursor Chemicals)
DEA List II Chemicals : Not listed
(Essential Chemicals)

Date of issue/Date of revision : 11/5/2020 Date of previous issue : 7/29/2020 Version : 1.02 9/12
Carbon Monoxide

Section 15. Regulatory information

SARA 302/304
Composition/information on ingredients
No products were found.
SARA 304 RQ : Not applicable.
SARA 311/312
Classification : Refer to Section 2: Hazards Identification of this SDS for classification of substance.

State regulations
Massachusetts : This material is listed.
New York : This material is not listed.
New Jersey : This material is listed.
Pennsylvania : This material is listed.
California Prop. 65
WARNING: This product can expose you to Carbon monoxide, which is known to the State of California to cause
birth defects or other reproductive harm. For more information go to www.P65Warnings.ca.gov.

Ingredient name No significant risk Maximum

level acceptable dosage
level
Carbon monoxide - -
International regulations
Chemical Weapon Convention List Schedules I, II & III Chemicals
Not listed.

Montreal Protocol
Not listed.
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
Not listed.

Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent (PIC)

Not listed.
UNECE Aarhus Protocol on POPs and Heavy Metals
Not listed.
Inventory list
Australia : This material is listed or exempted.
Canada : This material is listed or exempted.
China : This material is listed or exempted.
Europe : This material is listed or exempted.
Japan : Japan inventory (ENCS): This material is listed or exempted.
Japan inventory (ISHL): Not determined.
New Zealand : This material is listed or exempted.
Philippines : This material is listed or exempted.
Republic of Korea : This material is listed or exempted.
Taiwan : This material is listed or exempted.
Thailand : Not determined.
Turkey : Not determined.
United States : This material is active or exempted.
Viet Nam : This material is listed or exempted.

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Carbon Monoxide

Section 16. Other information

Hazardous Material Information System (U.S.A.)
Health * 2

Flammability 4
Physical hazards 3

Caution: HMIS® ratings are based on a 0-4 rating scale, with 0 representing minimal hazards or risks, and 4
representing significant hazards or risks. Although HMIS® ratings and the associated label are not required on
SDSs or products leaving a facility under 29 CFR 1910.1200, the preparer may choose to provide them. HMIS®
ratings are to be used with a fully implemented HMIS® program. HMIS® is a registered trademark and service
mark of the American Coatings Association, Inc.
The customer is responsible for determining the PPE code for this material. For more information on HMIS®
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) codes, consult the HMIS® Implementation Manual.
National Fire Protection Association (U.S.A.)

4 Flammability
Health 3 0 Instability/Reactivity
Special

Reprinted with permission from NFPA 704-2001, Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency
Response Copyright ©1997, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02269. This reprinted material is
not the complete and official position of the National Fire Protection Association, on the referenced subject
which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.
Copyright ©2001, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02269. This warning system is intended to
be interpreted and applied only by properly trained individuals to identify fire, health and reactivity hazards of
chemicals. The user is referred to certain limited number of chemicals with recommended classifications in
NFPA 49 and NFPA 325, which would be used as a guideline only. Whether the chemicals are classified by NFPA
or not, anyone using the 704 systems to classify chemicals does so at their own risk.
Procedure used to derive the classification
Classification Justification
FLAMMABLE GASES - Category 1 Expert judgment
GASES UNDER PRESSURE - Compressed gas According to package
ACUTE TOXICITY (inhalation) - Category 3 On basis of test data
TOXIC TO REPRODUCTION - Category 1 Expert judgment
SPECIFIC TARGET ORGAN TOXICITY (REPEATED EXPOSURE) - Category 1 Expert judgment
History
Date of printing : 11/5/2020
Date of issue/Date of : 11/5/2020
revision
Date of previous issue : 7/29/2020
Version : 1.02
Key to abbreviations : ATE = Acute Toxicity Estimate
BCF = Bioconcentration Factor
GHS = Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
IATA = International Air Transport Association
IBC = Intermediate Bulk Container
IMDG = International Maritime Dangerous Goods
LogPow = logarithm of the octanol/water partition coefficient
MARPOL = International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973
as modified by the Protocol of 1978. ("Marpol" = marine pollution)
UN = United Nations
References : Not available.
Notice to reader

Date of issue/Date of revision : 11/5/2020 Date of previous issue : 7/29/2020 Version : 1.02 11/12
Carbon Monoxide

Section 16. Other information

To the best of our knowledge, the information contained herein is accurate. However, neither the above-named
supplier, nor any of its subsidiaries, assumes any liability whatsoever for the accuracy or completeness of the
information contained herein.
Final determination of suitability of any material is the sole responsibility of the user. All materials may present
unknown hazards and should be used with caution. Although certain hazards are described herein, we cannot
guarantee that these are the only hazards that exist.

Date of issue/Date of revision : 11/5/2020 Date of previous issue : 7/29/2020 Version : 1.02 12/12
 Carbon dioxide
Safety Data Sheet P-4574
This SDS conforms to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.
Date of issue: 01/01/1980 Revision date: 10/17/2016 Supersedes: 07/19/2016

SECTION: 1. Product and company identification

1.1. Product identifier
Product form : Substance
Name : Carbon dioxide
CAS No : 124-38-9
Formula : CO2
Other means of identification : Medipure® Carbon Dioxide, Extendapak® EX-2, Refrigerant gas R744, carbonic anhydride,
carbonic acid gas
1.2. Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against
Use of the substance/mixture : Industrial use. Use as directed.
1.3. Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet
Praxair, Inc.
10 Riverview Drive
Danbury, CT 06810-6268 - USA
T 1-800-772-9247 (1-800-PRAXAIR) - F 1-716-879-2146
www.praxair.com
1.4. Emergency telephone number
Emergency number : Onsite Emergency: 1-800-645-4633

CHEMTREC, 24hr/day 7days/week

— Within USA: 1-800-424-9300, Outside USA: 001-703-527-3887
(collect calls accepted, Contract 17729)

SECTION 2: Hazard identification

2.1. Classification of the substance or mixture
GHS-US classification
Liquefied gas H280

2.2. Label elements

GHS-US labeling
Hazard pictograms (GHS-US) :

GHS04
Signal word (GHS-US) : WARNING
Hazard statements (GHS-US) : H280 - CONTAINS GAS UNDER PRESSURE; MAY EXPLODE IF HEATED
OSHA-H01 - MAY DISPLACE OXYGEN AND CAUSE RAPID SUFFOCATION
CGA-HG01 - MAY CAUSE FROSTBITE
CGA-HG03 - MAY INCREASE RESPIRATION AND HEART RATE
Precautionary statements (GHS-US) : P202 - Do not handle until all safety precautions have been read and understood
P261 - Avoid breathing gas
P262 - Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing
P271+P403 - Use and store only outdoors or in a well-ventilated place
CGA-PG05 - Use a back flow preventive device in the piping
CGA-PG10 - Use only with equipment rated for cylinder pressure
CGA-PG06 - Close valve after each use and when empty
CGA-PG02 - Protect from sunlight when ambient temperature exceeds 52°C (125°F)

EN (English US) SDS ID: P-4574 1/9

This document is only controlled while on the Praxair, Inc. website and a copy of this controlled version is available for download. Praxair cannot assure the integrity or
accuracy of any version of this document after it has been downloaded or removed from our website.
 Carbon dioxide
Safety Data Sheet P-4574
This SDS conforms to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.
Date of issue: 01/01/1980 Revision date: 10/17/2016 Supersedes: 07/19/2016

2.3. Other hazards

Other hazards not contributing to the : Asphyxiant in high concentrations
classification
Contact with liquid may cause cold burns/frostbite

WARNING: Concentration levels of carbon dioxide above about 1 percent are

dangerous. Praxair recommends continuous monitoring with alarms to indicate unsafe
conditions before and during potential personnel exposure. Use appropriate monitoring devices
to ensure a safe oxygen level (minimum of 19.5 percent) and a safe carbon dioxide level.
2.4. Unknown acute toxicity (GHS US)
No data available

SECTION 3: Composition/Information on ingredients

3.1. Substance
Name : Carbon dioxide
CAS No : 124-38-9
Name Product identifier %
Carbon dioxide (CAS No) 124-38-9 99.5 - 100

3.2. Mixture
Not applicable

SECTION 4: First aid measures

4.1. Description of first aid measures
First-aid measures after inhalation : Remove to fresh air and keep at rest in a position comfortable for breathing. . If not breathing,
give artificial respiration, with supplemental oxygen given by qualified personnel. If breathing is
difficult, qualified personnel should give oxygen. Call a physician.
First-aid measures after skin contact : MAY CAUSE FROSTBITE. For exposure to liquid, cold vapor, or solid carbon dioxide (dry ice),
immediately warm frostbite area with warm water not to exceed 41°C (105°F). Water
temperature should be tolerable to normal skin. Maintain skin warming for at least 15 minutes
or until normal coloring and sensation have returned to the affected area. In case of massive
exposure, remove clothing while showering with warm water. Seek medical evaluation and
treatment as soon as possible.
First-aid measures after eye contact : Immediately flush eyes thoroughly with water for at least 15 minutes. Hold the eyelids open and
away from the eyeballs to ensure that all surfaces are flushed thoroughly. Contact an
ophthalmologist immediately.
First-aid measures after ingestion : Ingestion is not considered a potential route of exposure.
4.2. Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed
No additional information available
4.3. Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed
None.

SECTION 5: Firefighting measures

5.1. Extinguishing media
Suitable extinguishing media : Use extinguishing media appropriate for surrounding fire.
5.2. Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture
Explosion hazard : Heat of fire can build pressure in container and cause it to rupture. Containers are equipped
with a pressure relief device. (Exceptions may exist where authorized by DOT.) No part of the
container should be subjected to a temperature higher than 125°F (52°C).
Reactivity : No reactivity hazard other than the effects described in sub-sections below.

EN (English US) SDS ID: P-4574 2/9

This document is only controlled while on the Praxair, Inc. website and a copy of this controlled version is available for download. Praxair cannot assure the integrity or
accuracy of any version of this document after it has been downloaded or removed from our website.
 Carbon dioxide
Safety Data Sheet P-4574
This SDS conforms to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.
Date of issue: 01/01/1980 Revision date: 10/17/2016 Supersedes: 07/19/2016

5.3. Advice for firefighters

Firefighting instructions : WARNING! Liquid and gas under pressure.

Evacuate all personnel from the danger area. Use self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
and protective clothing. Immediately cool containers with water from maximum distance. Stop
flow of gas if safe to do so, while continuing cooling water spray. Remove ignition sources if
safe to do so. Remove containers from area of fire if safe to do so. On-site fire brigades must
comply with OSHA 29 CFR 1910.156 and applicable standards under 29 CFR 1910 Subpart
L—Fire Protection.
Other information : Containers are equipped with a pressure relief device. (Exceptions may exist where authorized
by DOT [U.S.] or TC [Canada].).

SECTION 6: Accidental release measures

6.1. Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures
General measures : WARNING! Liquid and gas under pressure.. Rapid release of gaseous carbon dioxide
through a pressure relief device (PRD) or valve can result in the formation of dry ice,
which is very cold and can cause frostbite..

6.1.1. For non-emergency personnel

No additional information available
6.1.2. For emergency responders
No additional information available
6.2. Environmental precautions
Try to stop release.
6.3. Methods and material for containment and cleaning up
For containment : Prevent waste from contaminating the surrounding environment. Discard any product, residue,
disposable container, or liner in an environmentally acceptable manner, in full compliance with
federal, provincial, and local regulations. If necessary, call your local supplier for assistance.
6.4. Reference to other sections
See also sections 8 and 13.

SECTION 7: Handling and storage

7.1. Precautions for safe handling
Precautions for safe handling : Avoid breathing gas

Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing

This gas is heavier than air and in an enclosed space tends to accumulate near the floor,
displacing air and pushing it upward. This creates an oxygen-deficient atmosphere near the
floor. Ventilate space before entry. Verify sufficient oxygen concentration

WARNING: Concentration levels of carbon dioxide above about 1 percent are

dangerous. Praxair recommends continuous monitoring with alarms to indicate unsafe
conditions before and during potential personnel exposure. Use appropriate monitoring devices
to ensure a safe oxygen level (minimum of 19.5 percent) and a safe carbon dioxide level

Wear leather safety gloves and safety shoes when handling cylinders. Protect cylinders from
physical damage; do not drag, roll, slide or drop. While moving cylinder, always keep in place
removable valve cover. Never attempt to lift a cylinder by its cap; the cap is intended solely to
protect the valve. When moving cylinders, even for short distances, use a cart (trolley, hand
truck, etc.) designed to transport cylinders. Never insert an object (e.g, wrench, screwdriver, pry
bar) into cap openings; doing so may damage the valve and cause a leak. Use an adjustable
strap wrench to remove over-tight or rusted caps. Slowly open the valve. If the valve is hard to
open, discontinue use and contact your supplier. Close the container valve after each use;
keep closed even when empty. Never apply flame or localized heat directly to any part of the
container. High temperatures may damage the container and could cause the pressure relief
device to fail prematurely, venting the container contents. For other precautions in using this
product, see section 16.

EN (English US) SDS ID: P-4574 3/9

This document is only controlled while on the Praxair, Inc. website and a copy of this controlled version is available for download. Praxair cannot assure the integrity or
accuracy of any version of this document after it has been downloaded or removed from our website.
 Carbon dioxide
Safety Data Sheet P-4574
This SDS conforms to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.
Date of issue: 01/01/1980 Revision date: 10/17/2016 Supersedes: 07/19/2016

7.2. Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities

Storage conditions : Store in a cool, well-ventilated place. Store and use with adequate ventilation. Store only
where temperature will not exceed 125°F (52°C). Firmly secure containers upright to keep
them from falling or being knocked over. Install valve protection cap, if provided, firmly in place
by hand. Store full and empty containers separately. Use a first-in, first-out inventory system
to prevent storing full containers for long periods

This gas is heavier than air and in an enclosed space tends to accumulate near the floor,
displacing air and pushing it upward. This creates an oxygen-deficient atmosphere near the
floor. Ventilate space before entry. Verify sufficient oxygen concentration.
7.3. Specific end use(s)
None.

SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection

8.1. Control parameters
Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
ACGIH ACGIH TLV-TWA (ppm) 5000 ppm
ACGIH ACGIH TLV-STEL (ppm) 30000 ppm
USA OSHA OSHA PEL (TWA) (mg/m³) 9000 mg/m³
USA OSHA OSHA PEL (TWA) (ppm) 5000 ppm
USA IDLH US IDLH (ppm) 40000 ppm
ACGIH Not established
USA OSHA Not established

Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

ACGIH ACGIH TLV-TWA (ppm) 5000 ppm
ACGIH ACGIH TLV-STEL (ppm) 30000 ppm
USA OSHA OSHA PEL (TWA) (mg/m³) 9000 mg/m³
USA OSHA OSHA PEL (TWA) (ppm) 5000 ppm

8.2. Exposure controls

Appropriate engineering controls : Use a local exhaust system with sufficient flow velocity to maintain an adequate supply of air in
the worker's breathing zone. Mechanical (general): General exhaust ventilation may be
acceptable if it can maintain an adequate supply of air. WARNING: Concentration levels of
carbon dioxide above about 1 percent are dangerous. Praxair recommends continuous
monitoring with alarms to indicate unsafe conditions before and during potential personnel
exposure. Use appropriate monitoring devices to ensure a safe oxygen level (minimum of 19.5
percent) and a safe carbon dioxide level.
Materials for protective clothing : Wear work gloves and metatarsal shoes for cylinder handling. Protective equipment where
needed. Select in accordance with OSHA 29 CFR 1910.132, 1910.136, and 1910.138.
Eye protection : Wear safety glasses when handling cylinders; vapor-proof goggles and a face shield during
cylinder changeout or whenever contact with product is possible. Select eye protection in
accordance with OSHA 29 CFR 1910.133.
Skin and body protection : As needed for welding, wear hand, head, and body protection to help prevent injury from
radiation and sparks. (See ANSI Z49.1.) At a minimum, this includes welder’s gloves and
protective goggles, and may include arm protectors, aprons, hats, and shoulder protection as
well as substantial clothing.
Respiratory protection : When workplace conditions warrant respirator use, follow a respiratory protection program that
meets OSHA 29 CFR 1910.134, ANSI Z88.2, or MSHA 30 CFR 72.710 (where applicable).
Use an air-supplied or air-purifying cartridge if the action level is exceeded. Ensure that the
respirator has the appropriate protection factor for the exposure level. If cartridge type
respirators are used, the cartridge must be appropriate for the chemical exposure. For
emergencies or instances with unknown exposure levels, use a self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA).
Thermal hazard protection : Wear cold insulating gloves when transfilling or breaking transfer connections.

EN (English US) SDS ID: P-4574 4/9

This document is only controlled while on the Praxair, Inc. website and a copy of this controlled version is available for download. Praxair cannot assure the integrity or
accuracy of any version of this document after it has been downloaded or removed from our website.
 Carbon dioxide
Safety Data Sheet P-4574
This SDS conforms to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.
Date of issue: 01/01/1980 Revision date: 10/17/2016 Supersedes: 07/19/2016

SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties

9.1. Information on basic physical and chemical properties
Physical state : Gas
Appearance : Colorless gas.
Molecular mass : 44 g/mol
Color : Colorless.
Odor : Odorless.
Odor threshold : No data available
pH : 3.7 (carbonic acid)
Relative evaporation rate (butyl acetate=1) : No data available
Relative evaporation rate (ether=1) : Not applicable.
Melting point : No data available
Freezing point : No data available
Boiling point : -78.5 °C (-109.3°F)
Flash point : No data available
Critical temperature : 31 °C (87.7°F)
Auto-ignition temperature : No data available
Decomposition temperature : No data available
Flammability (solid, gas) : No data available
Vapor pressure : 57.3 bar (831 psig)
Critical pressure : 73.7 bar (1069 psig)
Relative vapor density at 20 °C : 762
Relative density : 1.22
Relative gas density : 1.52
Solubility : Water: 2000 mg/l Completely soluble.
Log Pow : 0.83
Log Kow : Not applicable.
Viscosity, kinematic : Not applicable.
Viscosity, dynamic : Not applicable.
Explosive properties : Not applicable.
Oxidizing properties : None.
Explosion limits : No data available
9.2. Other information
Gas group : Liquefied gas
Additional information : Gas/vapor heavier than air. May accumulate in confined spaces, particularly at or below ground
level

SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity

10.1. Reactivity
No reactivity hazard other than the effects described in sub-sections below.
10.2. Chemical stability
Stable under normal conditions.
10.3. Possibility of hazardous reactions
None.
10.4. Conditions to avoid
None under recommended storage and handling conditions (see section 7).
10.5. Incompatible materials
Alkali metals, Alkaline earth metals, Acetylide forming metals, Chromium, Titanium > 1022°F
(550°C), Uranium (U) > 1382°F (750°C), Magnesium > 1427°F (775°C).
EN (English US) SDS ID: P-4574 5/9

This document is only controlled while on the Praxair, Inc. website and a copy of this controlled version is available for download. Praxair cannot assure the integrity or
accuracy of any version of this document after it has been downloaded or removed from our website.
 Carbon dioxide
Safety Data Sheet P-4574
This SDS conforms to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.
Date of issue: 01/01/1980 Revision date: 10/17/2016 Supersedes: 07/19/2016

10.6. Hazardous decomposition products

Electrical discharges and high temperatures decompose carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and
oxygen. The welding process may generate hazardous fumes and gases.

SECTION 11: Toxicological information

11.1. Information on toxicological effects

Acute toxicity : Not classified

Skin corrosion/irritation : Not classified

pH: 3.7 (carbonic acid)
Serious eye damage/irritation : Not classified
pH: 3.7 (carbonic acid)
Respiratory or skin sensitization : Not classified
Germ cell mutagenicity : Not classified
Carcinogenicity : Not classified
Reproductive toxicity : Not classified
Specific target organ toxicity (single exposure) : Not classified
Specific target organ toxicity (repeated : Not classified
exposure)
Aspiration hazard : Not classified

SECTION 12: Ecological information

12.1. Toxicity
Ecology - general : No ecological damage caused by this product.

12.2. Persistence and degradability

Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
Persistence and degradability No ecological damage caused by this product.
Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
Persistence and degradability No ecological damage caused by this product.
12.3. Bioaccumulative potential
Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
BCF fish 1 (no bioaccumulation)
Log Pow 0.83
Log Kow Not applicable.
Bioaccumulative potential No ecological damage caused by this product.
Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
BCF fish 1 (no bioaccumulation)
Log Pow 0.83
Log Kow Not applicable.
Bioaccumulative potential No ecological damage caused by this product.
12.4. Mobility in soil
Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
Mobility in soil No data available.
Ecology - soil No ecological damage caused by this product.
Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
Mobility in soil No data available.
Ecology - soil No ecological damage caused by this product.

EN (English US) SDS ID: P-4574 6/9

This document is only controlled while on the Praxair, Inc. website and a copy of this controlled version is available for download. Praxair cannot assure the integrity or
accuracy of any version of this document after it has been downloaded or removed from our website.
 Carbon dioxide
Safety Data Sheet P-4574
This SDS conforms to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.
Date of issue: 01/01/1980 Revision date: 10/17/2016 Supersedes: 07/19/2016

12.5. Other adverse effects

Effect on ozone layer : None
Global warming potential [CO2=1] : 1

Effect on the global warming : When discharged in large quantities may contribute to the greenhouse effect

SECTION 13: Disposal considerations

13.1. Waste treatment methods
Waste treatment methods : May be vented to atmosphere in a well ventilated place. Discharge to atmosphere in large
quantities should be avoided. Do not discharge into any place where its accumulation could be
dangerous. Contact supplier if guidance is required.
Waste disposal recommendations : Do not attempt to dispose of residual or unused quantities. Return container to supplier.

SECTION 14: Transport information

In accordance with DOT
Transport document description : UN1013 Carbon dioxide, 2.2
UN-No.(DOT) : UN1013
Proper Shipping Name (DOT) : Carbon dioxide
Class (DOT) : 2.2 - Class 2.2 - Non-flammable compressed gas 49 CFR 173.115
Hazard labels (DOT) : 2.2 - Non-flammable gas

Additional information
Emergency Response Guide (ERG) Number : 120

Other information : No supplementary information available.

Special transport precautions : Avoid transport on vehicles where the load space is not separated from the driver's
compartment. Ensure vehicle driver is aware of the potential hazards of the load and knows
what to do in the event of an accident or an emergency. Before transporting product containers:
- Ensure there is adequate ventilation. - Ensure that containers are firmly secured. - Ensure
cylinder valve is closed and not leaking. - Ensure valve outlet cap nut or plug (where provided)
is correctly fitted. - Ensure valve protection device (where provided) is correctly fitted.

Transport by sea
UN-No. (IMDG) : 1013
Proper Shipping Name (IMDG) : CARBON DIOXIDE
Class (IMDG) : 2 - Gases
MFAG-No : 120

Air transport
UN-No. (IATA) : 1013
Proper Shipping Name (IATA) : Carbon dioxide
Class (IATA) : 2
Civil Aeronautics Law : Gases under pressure/Gases nonflammable nontoxic under pressure

SECTION 15: Regulatory information

15.1. US Federal regulations
Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
Listed on the United States TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act) inventory
SARA Section 311/312 Hazard Classes Immediate (acute) health hazard
Sudden release of pressure hazard

EN (English US) SDS ID: P-4574 7/9

This document is only controlled while on the Praxair, Inc. website and a copy of this controlled version is available for download. Praxair cannot assure the integrity or
accuracy of any version of this document after it has been downloaded or removed from our website.
 Carbon dioxide
Safety Data Sheet P-4574
This SDS conforms to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.
Date of issue: 01/01/1980 Revision date: 10/17/2016 Supersedes: 07/19/2016

15.2. International regulations

CANADA

Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Listed on the Canadian DSL (Domestic Substances List)
Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
Listed on the Canadian DSL (Domestic Substances List)

EU-Regulations

Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Listed on the EEC inventory EINECS (European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances)

15.2.2. National regulations

Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)
Listed on the AICS (Australian Inventory of Chemical Substances)
Listed on IECSC (Inventory of Existing Chemical Substances Produced or Imported in China)
Listed on the Japanese ENCS (Existing & New Chemical Substances) inventory
Listed on the Korean ECL (Existing Chemicals List)
Listed on NZIoC (New Zealand Inventory of Chemicals)
Listed on PICCS (Philippines Inventory of Chemicals and Chemical Substances)
Listed on the Canadian IDL (Ingredient Disclosure List)
Listed on INSQ (Mexican National Inventory of Chemical Substances)
Listed on CICR (Turkish Inventory and Control of Chemicals)

15.3. US State regulations

Carbon dioxide(124-38-9)
U.S. - California - Proposition 65 - Carcinogens List No
U.S. - California - Proposition 65 - Developmental No
Toxicity
U.S. - California - Proposition 65 - Reproductive No
Toxicity - Female
U.S. - California - Proposition 65 - Reproductive No
Toxicity - Male
State or local regulations U.S. - Massachusetts - Right To Know List
U.S. - New Jersey - Right to Know Hazardous Substance List
U.S. - Pennsylvania - RTK (Right to Know) List

Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

U.S. - California - U.S. - California - U.S. - California - U.S. - California - Non-significant risk level
Proposition 65 - Proposition 65 - Proposition 65 - Proposition 65 - (NSRL)
Carcinogens List Developmental Toxicity Reproductive Toxicity - Reproductive Toxicity - Male
Female
No No No No

Carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

U.S. - Massachusetts - Right To Know List
U.S. - New Jersey - Right to Know Hazardous Substance List
U.S. - Pennsylvania - RTK (Right to Know) List

EN (English US) SDS ID: P-4574 8/9

This document is only controlled while on the Praxair, Inc. website and a copy of this controlled version is available for download. Praxair cannot assure the integrity or
accuracy of any version of this document after it has been downloaded or removed from our website.
 Carbon dioxide
Safety Data Sheet P-4574
This SDS conforms to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.
Date of issue: 01/01/1980 Revision date: 10/17/2016 Supersedes: 07/19/2016

SECTION 16: Other information

Other information : When you mix two or more chemicals, you can create additional, unexpected hazards. Obtain
and evaluate the safety information for each component before you produce the mixture.
Consult an industrial hygienist or other trained person when you evaluate the end product.
Before using any plastics, confirm their compatibility with this product

Fumes and gases produced during welding and cutting processes can be dangerous to your
health and may cause serious lung disease. KEEP YOUR HEAD OUT OF FUMES. DO NOT
BREATHE FUMES AND GASES. Use enough ventilation, local exhaust, or both to keep fumes
and gases from your breathing zone and the general area. Short-term overexposure to fumes
may cause dizziness, nausea, and dryness or irritation of the nose, throat, and eyes; or may
cause other similar discomfort. Contaminants in the air may add to the hazard of fumes and
gases. One such contaminant, chlorinated hydrocarbon vapors from cleaning and degreasing
activities, poses a special risk. DO NOT USE ELECTRIC ARCS IN THE PRESENCE OF
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON VAPORS—HIGHLY TOXIC PHOSGENE MAY BE
PRODUCED. Metal coatings such as paint, plating, or galvanizing may generate harmful
fumes when heated. Residues from cleaning materials may also be harmful. AVOID ARC
OPERATIONS ON PARTS WITH PHOSPHATE RESIDUES (ANTI-RUST, CLEANING
PREPARATIONS)—HIGHLY TOXIC PHOSPHINE MAY BE PRODUCED

The opinions expressed herein are those of qualified experts within Praxair, Inc. We believe
that the information contained herein is current as of the date of this Safety Data Sheet. Since
the use of this information and the conditions of use are not within the control of Praxair, Inc, it
is the user's obligation to determine the conditions of safe use of the product

Praxair SDSs are furnished on sale or delivery by Praxair or the independent distributors and
suppliers who package and sell our products. To obtain current SDSs for these products,
contact your Praxair sales representative, local distributor, or supplier, or download from
www.praxair.com. If you have questions regarding Praxair SDSs, would like the document
number and date of the latest SDS, or would like the names of the Praxair suppliers in your
area, phone or write the Praxair Call Center (Phone: 1-800-PRAXAIR/1-800-772-9247;
Address: Praxair Call Center, Praxair, Inc, P.O. Box 44, Tonawanda, NY 14151-0044)

Praxair asks users of this product to study this SDS and become aware of the product hazards
and safety information. To promote safe use of this product, a user should (1) notify
employees, agents, and contractors of the information in this SDS and of any other known
product hazards and safety information, (2) furnish this information to each purchaser of the
product, and (3) ask each purchaser to notify its employees and customers of the product
hazards and safety information

PRAXAIR, the Flowing Airstream design, Medipure, and the Medipure design are trademarks
or registered trademarks of Praxair Technology, Inc. in the United States and/or other
countries.

NFPA health hazard : 2 - Intense or continued exposure could cause temporary

incapacitation or possible residual injury unless prompt
medical attention is given.
NFPA fire hazard : 0 - Materials that will not burn.
NFPA reactivity : 0 - Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions,
and are not reactive with water.
NFPA specific hazard : SA - This denotes gases which are simple asphyxiants.

HMIS III Rating

Health : 1 Slight Hazard - Irritation or minor reversible injury possible
Flammability : 0 Minimal Hazard
Physical : 3 Serious Hazard

SDS US (GHS HazCom 2012) - Praxair

This information is based on our current knowledge and is intended to describe the product for the purposes of health, safety and environmental requirements only. It should not therefore be construed as
guaranteeing any specific property of the product.

EN (English US) SDS ID: P-4574 9/9

This document is only controlled while on the Praxair, Inc. website and a copy of this controlled version is available for download. Praxair cannot assure the integrity or
accuracy of any version of this document after it has been downloaded or removed from our website.
 Safety Data Sheet
Acc. NOM-018-STPS-2015 y NMX-R-019-SCFI-2011.

DIETHANOLAMINE
Version number: GHS 1.0 Date of compilation: 2017-03-10

SECTION 1: Identification
1.1 Product identifier
Identification of the substance DIETHANOLAMINE
CAS number 111-42-2
Alternative name(s) DIETHANOLAMINE, DEA
Synonyms: 2,2'-iminodiethanol, 2,2'-iminodiethanol
2,2′-Iminobisethanol
2-(2-hydroxyethylamino)ethanol
Diethanolamine Diethanolamine (DEA) -
OR30 diethanolamine_DEA_2,2'-
iminodiethanol.
Alternative number(s) 050031
1.2 Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against
Relevant identified uses Industrial use
1.3 Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet
Industrias Derivadas del Etileno S.A. de C.V.
Km. 4.2 Blvd. Morelos, Col. Complejo Petroquímico Morelos,
96400 Coatzacoalcos, Veracruz
Mexico

Telephone: +52 921-211-9000 / +52 921-268-2036

Website: www.idesa.com.mx
e-mail (competent person) [email protected]
1.4 Emergency telephone number
Emergency information service SETIQ 01-800-00-21400 / CHEMTREC 800-424-930
/ CANUTEC 613-996-66660
Tel. (55) 5559 1588 Cd. de México.

SECTION 2: Hazard(s) identification

2.1 Classification of the substance or mixture
Classification acc. to GHS

Section Hazard class Category Hazard class and Hazard state-

category ment

3.1O acute toxicity (oral) 4 Acute Tox. 4 H302

3.2 skin corrosion/irritation 2 Skin Irrit. 2 H315

3.3 serious eye damage/eye irritation 1 Eye Dam. 1 H318

3.9 specific target organ toxicity - repeated exposure 2 STOT RE 2 H373

4.1A hazardous to the aquatic environment - acute hazard 3 Aquatic Acute 3 H402

4.1C hazardous to the aquatic environment - chronic hazard 3 Aquatic Chronic 3 H412

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For full text of abbreviations: see SECTION 16.

The most important adverse physicochemical, human health and environmental effects
Delayed or immediate effects can be expected after short or long-term exposure. Spillage and fire water can cause pollution of
watercourses.
Additional information
According to the results of its assessment, this substance is not a PBT or a vPvB.

2.2 Label elements

Labeling
- Signal word danger
- Pictograms
GHS05, GHS07,
GHS08

- Hazard statements
H302 Harmful if swallowed.
H315 Causes skin irritation.
H318 Causes serious eye damage.
H373 May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure (if swallowed).

- Precautionary statements
P260 Do not breathe dust/fume/gas/mist/vapors/spray.
P264 Wash thoroughly after handling.
P270 Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this product.
P280 Wear protective gloves/eye protection/face protection.
P305+P351+P338 IF IN EYES: Rinse cautiously with water for several minutes. Remove contact lenses, if present and
easy to do. Continue rinsing.
P321 Specific treatment (see on this label).
P330 Rinse mouth.
P501 Dispose of contents/container to industrial combustion plant.

2.3 Other hazards

Results of PBT and vPvB assessment
According to the results of its assessment, this substance is not a PBT or a vPvB.

SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients

3.1 Substances
Name of substance DIETHANOLAMINE
Identifiers
CAS No 111-42-2
Molecular formula C4H11NO2
Molar mass 105.1 g/mol

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SECTION 4: First-aid measures

4.1 Description of first- aid measures
General notes
Do not leave affected person unattended.Remove victim out of the danger area. Keep affected person warm, still and covered.
Take off immediately all contaminated clothing. In all cases of doubt, or when symptoms persist, seek medical advice. In case of
unconsciousness place person in the recovery position. Never give anything by mouth.
Following inhalation
If breathing is irregular or stopped, immediately seek medical assistance and start first aid actions. In case of respiratory tract
irritation, consult a physician. Provide fresh air.
Following skin contact
Wash with plenty of soap and water.
Following eye contact
Remove contact lenses, if present and easy to do. Continue rinsing. Irrigate copiously with clean, fresh water for at least 10
minutes, holding the eyelids apart.
Following ingestion
Rinse mouth with water (only if the person is conscious). Do NOT induce vomiting.

4.2 Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed
Symptoms and effects are not known to date.

4.3 Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed
none

SECTION 5: Fire-fighting measures

5.1 Extinguishing media
Suitable extinguishing media
Water spray, Alcohol resistant foam, BC-powder, Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Unsuitable extinguishing media
Water jet

5.2 Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture

Hazardous combustion products
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2)

5.3 Advice for firefighters

In case of fire and/or explosion do not breathe fumes. Co-ordinate firefighting measures to the fire surroundings. Do not allow
firefighting water to enter drains or water courses. Collect contaminated firefighting water separately. Fight fire with normal pre-
cautions from a reasonable distance.

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DIETHANOLAMINE
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SECTION 6: Accidental release measures

6.1 Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures
For non-emergency personnel
Remove persons to safety.
For emergency responders
Wear breathing apparatus if exposed to vapors/dust/aerosols/gases.

6.2 Environmental precautions

Keep away from drains, surface and ground water. Retain contaminated washing water and dispose of it.

6.3 Methods and material for containment and cleaning up

Advices on how to contain a spill
Covering of drains
Advices on how to clean up a spill
Wipe up with absorbent material (e.g. cloth, fleece). Collect spillage: Sawdust, Kieselgur (diatomite), Sand, Universal binder
Appropriate containment techniques
Use of adsorbent materials.
Other information relating to spills and releases
Place in appropriate containers for disposal. Ventilate affected area.

6.4 Reference to other sections

Hazardous combustion products: see section 5. Personal precautions: see section 8. Incompatible materials: see section 10.
Disposal considerations: see section 13.

SECTION 7: Handling and storage

7.1 Precautions for safe handling
Recommendations
- Measures to prevent fire as well as aerosol and dust generation
Use local and general ventilation. Use only in well-ventilated areas.
Advice on general occupational hygiene
Wash hands after use. Do not eat, drink and smoke in work areas. Remove contaminated clothing and protective equipment be-
fore entering eating areas. Never keep food or drink in the vicinity of chemicals. Never place chemicals in containers that are
normally used for food or drink. Keep away from food, drink and animal feedingstuffs.

7.2 Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities

7.3 Specific end use(s)
See section 16 for a general overview.

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SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection

8.1 Control parameters

Occupational exposure limit values (Workplace Exposure Limits)

Coun Name of agent CAS No Identifi- TWA TWA STEL STEL Source
try er [ppm] [mg/m³] [ppm] [mg/m³]

MX diethanolamine 111-42-2 VLE 2 NOM-010-

STPS
Notation
STEL short-term exposure limit: a limit value above which exposure should not occur and which is related to a 15-minute period unless
otherwise specified
TWA time-weighted average (long-term exposure limit): measured or calculated in relation to a reference period of 8 hours time-weighted
average

Human health values

Relevant DNELs and other threshold levels

Endpoint Threshold Protection goal, Used in Exposure time

level route of exposure

DNEL 1 mg/m³ human, inhalatory worker (industry) chronic - local effects

DNEL 0.13 mg/kg human, dermal worker (industry) chronic - systemic effects

Environment values

Relevant PNECs and other threshold levels

Endpoint Threshold Organism Environmental compart- Exposure time

level ment

PNEC 0.0022 mg/l aquatic organisms freshwater short-term (single instance)

mg/
PNEC 0.00022 l aquatic organisms marine water short-term (single instance)

PNEC 100 mg/l aquatic organisms sewage treatment plant (STP) short-term (single instance)
mg/
PNEC 0.012 kg aquatic organisms freshwater sediment short-term (single instance)

PNEC 0.0012 mg/kg aquatic organisms marine sediment short-term (single instance)
mg/
PNEC 1.04 kg aquatic organisms water short-term (single instance)

PNEC 0.0011 mg/kg terrestrial organisms soil short-term (single instance)

PNEC 0.022 mg/ aquatic organisms water intermittent release
l

8.2 Exposure controls

Appropriate engineering controls
General ventilation.

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DIETHANOLAMINE
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Individual protection measures (personal protective equipment)

Eye/face protection
Wear eye/face protection.
Skin protection
- Hand protection
Wear suitable gloves. Chemical protection gloves are suitable, which are tested according to EN 374. Check leak-
tightness/impermeability prior to use. In the case of wanting to use the gloves again, clean them before taking off and air them
well. For special purposes, it is recommended to check the resistance to chemicals of the protective gloves mentioned above to-
gether with the supplier of these gloves.
- Other protection measures
Take recovery periods for skin regeneration. Preventive skin protection (barrier creams/ointments) is recommended. Wash
hands thoroughly after handling.
Respiratory protection
In case of inadequate ventilation wear respiratory protection.
Environmental exposure controls
Use appropriate container to avoid environmental contamination. Keep away from drains, surface and ground water.

SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties

9.1 Information on basic physical and chemical properties
Appearance

Physical state liquid

Color colourless

Odor ammonia-like odour

Other safety parameters

pH (value) 11 (53 g/l, 20 °C)

Melting point/freezing point 28 °C

Initial boiling point and boiling range 270°C a t 7 6 0 m m H g

Flash point 138 °C

Evaporation rate not determined

Flammability (solid, gas) not relevant (fluid)

Explosive limits

- Lower explosion limit (LEL) 1.6 vol%

- Upper explosion limit (UEL) 9.8 vol%

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DIETHANOLAMINE
Version number: GHS 1.0 Date of compilation: 2017-03-10

Vapor pressure 0.01 m m H g at 25 °C

Relative Density 1.097 g/cm3 at 20 °C

Vapor density (air=1) 3.65

Solubility(ies)

- Water solubility Complete

coefficient

- n-octanol/water (log KOW) -1.43 (25 °C)

Auto-ignition temperature 375 °C

Decomposition temperature 269.1 °C

Viscosity

- Dynamic viscosity 390 mPa s at 30 °C

Explosive properties none

Oxidizing properties none

9.2 Other information

Temperature class (USA, acc. to NEC 500) T2 (maximum permissible surface temperature on the equipment:
300°C)

SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity

10.1 Reactivity
Concerning incompatibility: see below "Conditions to avoid" and "Incompatible materials".

10.2 Chemical stability

See below "Conditions to avoid".

10.3 Possibility of hazardous reactions

No known hazardous reactions.

10.4 Conditions to avoid

There are no specific conditions known which have to be avoided.

10.5 Incompatible materials

With oxidizing agents, strong acids, acid anhydrides, acyl halides and alkyl halides may react violently. With nitrosating agents
they form N-nitrosodiethanolamine, a carcinogen, in acid medium

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10.6 Hazardous decomposition products

Reasonably anticipated hazardous decomposition products produced as a result of use, storage, spill and heating are not
known. Hazardous combustion products: see section 5.

SECTION 11: Toxicological information

11.1 Information on toxicological effects
Classification acc. to GHS
Acute toxicity
Harmful if swallowed.

- Acute toxicity estimate (ATE)

mg
Oral 680 /kg
Skin corrosion/irritation
Causes skin irritation.
Serious eye damage/eye irritation
Causes serious eye damage.
Respiratory or skin sensitization
Shall not be classified as a respiratory or skin sensitizer.
Germ cell mutagenicity
Shall not be classified as germ cell mutagenic.
Carcinogenicity
Shall not be classified as carcinogenic.
Reproductive toxicity
Shall not be classified as a reproductive toxicant.
Specific target organ toxicity - single exposure
Shall not be classified as a specific target organ toxicant (single exposure).
Specific target organ toxicity - repeated exposure
May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure (if swallowed).

Hazard category Target organ Exposure route

2 several organs if swallowed

Aspiration hazard
Shall not be classified as presenting an aspiration hazard.

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SECTION 12: Ecological information

12.1 Toxicity
Harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects.

Aquatic toxicity (acute)

Endpoint Value Species Exposure time

mg/
LC50 >100 l fish 96 h
LC50 >2.15 mg/ crustacean 48 h
l

EC50 72.9 mg/l crustacean 48 h

12.2 Persistence and degradability

Data are not available.

12.3 Bioaccumulative potential

Data are not available.

n-octanol/water (log KOW) -1.43 (25 °C)

12.4 Mobility in soil

Data are not available.

12.5 Results of PBT and vPvB assessment

Data are not available.

12.6 Other adverse effects

Data are not available.

SECTION 13: Disposal considerations

13.1 Waste treatment methods
Sewage disposal-relevant information
Do not empty into drains. Avoid release to the environment. Refer to special instructions/safety data sheets.
Waste treatment of containers/packages
Completely emptied packages can be recycled. Handle contaminated packages in the same way as the substance itself.

Remarks
Please consider the relevant national or regional provisions. Waste shall be separated into the categories that can be handled
separately by the local or national waste management facilities.

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SECTION 14: Transport information

14.1 UN number not subject to transport regulations
14.2 UN proper shipping name not relevant
14.3 Transport hazard class(es)
Class -
14.4 Packing group not relevant
14.5 Environmental hazards
14.6 Special precautions for user
There is no additional information.

14.7 Transport in bulk according to Annex II of MARPOL and the IBC Code
The cargo is not intended to be carried in bulk.

Information for each of the UN Model Regulations

Transport information - National regulations - Additional information (UN RTDG)
Limited quantities (LQ) (UN RTDG)

International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG)

Not subject to IMDG.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO-IATA/DGR)
Not subject to ICAO-IATA.

SECTION 15: Regulatory information

15.1 Safety, health and environmental regulations specific for the product in question
There is no additional information.
National regulations (United States)
Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) substance is listed
SARA TITLE III (Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act)
- List of Extremely Hazardous Substances (40 CFR 355) (EPCRA Section 302 and 304)
not listed
- Specific Toxic Chemical Listings (40 CFR 372) (EPCRA Section 313)

Toxics Release Inventory: Specific Toxic Chemical Listings

Name acc. to inventory CAS No Remarks Effective date

Diethanolamine 111-42-2 1986-12-31

CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act)

- Section 102(A) Hazardous Substances (40 CFR 302.4)

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Name of substance CAS No Remarks Statutory Final RQ pounds

code (Kg)

Diethanolamine 111-42-2 3 100 (45,4)

Legend
3 "3" indicates that the source is section 112 of the Clean Air Act

Clean Air Act

not listed
New Jersey Worker and Community Right to Know Act N.J.S.A. 34:5A-1 et. seq.

Right to Know Hazardous Substance List

Name acc. to inventory CAS No Remarks Classifications

Diethanolamine 111-42-2 CO
Legend
CO Corrosive

California Environmental Protection Agency (Cal/EPA): Proposition 65 Chemicals known to the

State to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity

Proposition 65 List of chemicals

Name acc. to inventory CAS No Remarks Type of the tox-

icity

Diethanolamine 111-42-2 cancer

15.2 Chemical Safety Assessment

No Chemical Safety Assessment has been carried out for this substance.

SECTION 16: Other information, including date of preparation or last revision

Abbreviations and acronyms

Abbr. Descriptions of used abbreviations

CAS Chemical Abstracts Service (service that maintains the most comprehensive list of chemical substances)
DGR Dangerous Goods Regulations (see IATA/DGR)

DNEL Derived No-Effect Level

GHS "Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals" developed by the United Nations

IATA International Air Transport Association

IATA/DGR Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR) for the air transport (IATA)

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

IMDG International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code

MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (abbr. of "Marine Pollutant")
NOM-010-STPS NORMA Oficial Mexicana NOM-010-STPS: Agentes químicos contaminantes del ambiente laboral-Reconocimi-
ento, evaluación y control

PBT Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic

PNEC Predicted No-Effect Concentration

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Abbr. Descriptions of used abbreviations

ppm Parts per million

STEL Short-term exposure limit

TWA Time-weighted average

VLE Permissible exposure limit

vPvB Very Persistent and very Bioaccumulative

Key literature references and sources for data

Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-018-STPS-2015, Sistema armonizado para la identificación y comunicación de peligros y riesgos
por sustancias químicas peligrosas en los centros de trabajo y NMX-R-019-SCFI-2011 Sistema Armonizado de Clasificación y
Comunicación de Peligros de los Productos Químicos.
.
UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Good. International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG).
Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR) for the air transport (IATA).

List of relevant phrases (code and full text as stated in chapter 2 and 3)

Code Text

H302 Harmful if swallowed.

H315 Causes skin irritation.

H318 Causes serious eye damage.

H373 May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure (if swallowed).

H402 Harmful to aquatic life.

H412 Harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects.

Disclaimer
THIS INFORMATION IS BASED ON CALCULATED DATA. THE COMPANY HAS NO LIABILITY FOR DAMAGES SUFFERED
BY BUYER OR OTHER PERSONS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THESE MATERIALS IF SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS ARE NOT
FULFILLED. THE COMPANY HAS NO LIABILITY FOR THE MISUSE OF THIS MATERIAL, EVEN IF THE SAFETY
INSTRUCTIONS HAVE BEEN FOLLOWED. THE BUYER IS SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE USE OF THIS MATERIAL.
THIS SAFETY DATA SHEET IS DRAWN UP IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE GUIDELINES SET OUT IN THE OFFICIAL
MEXICAN STANDARDS ONLY. CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE COMPOSITION HAS BEEN DISCONTINUED.

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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

Section 1 – Identification of the Material and Supplier

Product Name
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
Other names
Anhydrous ammonia, ammonia, and ammonia gas. Company product code 1670.
Recommended use
Manufacture of fertilisers, sodium cyanide and explosives. Nickel refinement. Refrigerant.
Company name
CSBP Limited
Address State Postcode
Kwinana Beach Road, KWINANA Western Australia 6167
Telephone number Emergency telephone number
(08) 9411 8777 (Australia), +61 8 9411 8777 (Overseas) 1800 093 333 (Australia only), +61 8 9411 8444

Section 2 – Hazard Identification

Hazard Classification, including a statement of overall hazardous nature
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE
Anhydrous ammonia is classified as hazardous according to Australian WHS Regulations.
DANGEROUS GOODS
Anhydrous ammonia is classified for physicochemical hazards and specified as dangerous in the Australian
Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail (ADG Code), 7th Edition.
GHS Classification(s)
Flammable Gases: Category 2
Gases Under Pressure: Liquefied gas
Skin Corrosion/Irritation: Category 1B
Acute Toxicity: Inhalation: Category 3
Aquatic Hazard (Acute): Category 1
Aquatic Hazard (Chronic): Category 3

Label Elements
Signal word DANGER
Pictogram(s)

Hazard Statement(s)
H221 Flammable gas.
H280 Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
H314 Causes severe skin burns and eye damage.
H331 Toxic if inhaled.
H400 Very toxic to aquatic life.
H412 Harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects.

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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

Prevention statement(s)
P210 Keep away from heat/sparks/open flames/hot surfaces. No smoking.
P260 Do not breathe dust/fume/gas/mist/vapours/spray.
P264 Wash thoroughly after handling.
P271 Use only outdoors or in well-ventilated area.
P273 Avoid release to the environment.
P280 Wear protective gloves/protective clothing/eye protection/face protection.

Response statement(s)
P301 + P330 + P331 IF SWALLOWED: Rinse mouth. Do NOT induce vomiting.
P303 + P361 + P353 IF ON SKIN (or hair): Remove/Take off immediately all contaminated clothing.
Rinse skin with water/shower.
P304 + P340 IF INHALED: Remove to fresh air and keep at rest in a position comfortable for
breathing.
P305 + P351 + P338 IF IN EYES: Rinse cautiously with water for several minutes. Remove contact
lenses, if present and easy to do. Continue rinsing.
P310 Immediately call a POISON CENTER or doctor/physician.
P321 Specific treatment is advised – see first aid instructions.
P363 Wash contaminated clothing before reuse.
P377 Leaking gas fire: Do not extinguish, unless leak can be stopped safely.
P381 Eliminate all ignition sources is safe to do so.
P391 Collect spillage.

Storage statement(s)
P403 + P233 Store in a well-ventilated place. Keep container tightly closed.
P405 Store locked up.
P410 + P403 Protect from sunlight. Store in a well-ventilated place.

Disposal statement(s)
P501 Dispose of contents/container in accordance with relevant regulations.
Other hazards
In high concentrations may cause asphyxiation. Contact with liquid may cause cold burns/frostbite.

Section 3 – Composition/Information on Ingredients

Chemical identity of ingredients Proportion of ingredients CAS Number for ingredients
Ammonia > 99·5 % (wt/wt) 7664-41-7
Water Remainder 7732-18-5

Section 4 – First Aid Measures

First Aid
ANHYDROUS AMMONIA IS POISONOUS BY INHALATION AND INGESTION, AND
CORROSIVE TO THE BODY ON CONTACT. FIRST AID ATTENTION MUST BE GIVEN AS
URGENTLY AS POSSIBLE AS OUTLINED BELOW.
ALL SUSPECTED ANHYDROUS AMMONIA BURNS SHOULD RECEIVE MEDICAL
ATTENTION.
TRAINING ON HANDLING AMMONIA INCIDENTS USING THIS MSDS SHOULD BE
PROVIDED BEFORE ANY AMMONIA HANDLING OR USE COMMENCES.
First Aid Facilities

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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

First aid procedures, equipment, medication and training for the treatment of burns with anhydrous ammonia
should be in place BEFORE the use commences. First aid personnel should be aware of the nearest hospitals
which are familiar with the treatment of anhydrous ammonia burns.
Equipment and medication in place should be:
 Safety shower and eyewash stations immediately accessible in the workplace;
 Eye-wash bottle;
 Personal protective equipment for use by first aid personnel;
 Fresh, clean cool drinking water;
 5 % aqueous boric acid solution;
 Oxygen;
 “Space” or thermal blankets for treating patients for shock.

FIRST AID PROCEDURES FOR DEALING WITH THIS PRODUCT AND EXPOSURE TO IT
1. Personal Protection By First Aid Personnel
First aid personnel providing first aid treatment to a patient exposed to anhydrous ammonia should observe
the following precautions for their own personal protection:
 Avoid contact with contaminated skin, clothing and equipment by wearing protective gloves to prevent
contact of anhydrous ammonia with skin;
 Wear chemical goggles as a minimum level of eye protection to prevent splashes of ammonia-
containing liquids entering eyes;
 Avoid inhalation of anhydrous ammonia fumes or mist during rescue in contaminated areas by wearing
suitable respiratory protection.
 Respiratory protection suggested is: an air supplied breathing apparatus, or positive pressure self-
contained breathing apparatus.
2. Swallowed
Do not give anything by mouth if victim is losing consciousness, or is unconscious, or convulsing. If victim is
conscious, rinse mouth thoroughly with clean fresh water immediately and spit out rinse water. Give water or
milk to drink.
DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING.
Obtain medical attention immediately.
3. Eyes
Persons with potential eye exposure should NOT wear contact lenses.
Immediately flush the contaminated eye(s) with gently flowing copious amounts of clean fresh water for at
least 15 minutes, holding the eyelid(s) open. Take care not to rinse contaminated water into a non-affected
eye.
Continue irrigation with normal water until the severe pain of the burn is relieved.
Obtain medical attention immediately.
NOTE: Do not use anything other than clean fresh water, or sterile saline on the eye.
4. Skin
First aid personnel must avoid contact with this chemical. Wear protective gloves when assisting patient.
DO NOT USE HOT WATER.
Immediately flush contaminated skin area thoroughly with gently running copious amounts of clean fresh
water (if cryogenic “burns” are experienced use lukewarm water) for at least 15 minutes. While washing with
water remove contaminated clothing, jewellery, footwear and leather goods, e.g., watchbands and belts.
Lauder these thoroughly before re-use.
Apply 5 % aqueous boric acid solution to affected areas to neutralise ammoniacal alkalinity.
Obtain medical attention immediately.
5. Inhalation
Rescuer should wear appropriate personal protection to avoid skin contamination and breathing ammonia
fumes or mist.

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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

Move patient from area to a well ventilated position, resuscitate if necessary. DO NOT CARRY OUT
EXPIRED AIR RESUSCITATION IF RESCUER MAY BECOME CONTAMINATED. Keep warm and at
rest.
If breathing is difficult give oxygen. If the patient suffers cardiac arrest, commence cardio-pulmonary
resuscitation immediately, ensuring that the rescuer does not become contaminated.
Seek medical attention immediately.

ADVICE TO DOCTOR.
Ammonia is an alkali, which on contact with flesh causes a liquefaction necrosis on proteins, and is
potentially much more dangerous than acid burns. Alkali agents liquefy tissue by denaturation of
proteins and saponification of fats. In contrast to acids, whose tissue penetration is limited by the
formation of a coagulum, alkalis can continue to penetrate very deeply into tissue.
1. Treatment for ammonia burns to eyes:
 Retract eyelids to ensure thorough irrigation of conjunctival cul-de-sacs;
 Irrigate eyes with several litres of saline for at least 20 minutes;
 Perform pH tests, if available, before and after each set of eye irrigations, and continue this monitoring
until the pH returns to the normal range (pH 7 to 8);
 DO NOT use neutralising agents or any other additives;
 Evaluate completely general appearance of the globe, conjunctiva, anterior chamber and cornea, with
attention to redness, pallor, or opacification, and presence of foreign bodies;
 Stain with fluorescein to look for areas of increased uptake signifying corneal abrasion. A slit lamp
examination may be useful - it allows for a more detailed examination of the cornea and anterior
chamber, including presence of hyphema or hypopyon;
 Verify pupillary and extraocular muscle function;
 Document the visual acuity of patients with ocular exposure or complaints. Documentation should
include right eye and left eye individually, then vision with both eyes;
 Before administering, or prescribing cycloplegic drops, steroid drops, or vasoconstrictive agents,
consider consulting an ophthalmologist.
2. Treatment for ammonia fumes, or mist inhalation
 Pulmonary oedema may arise. Symptoms may be delayed for several hours. Affected persons should
not be left unattended during this period;
 If the larynx is involved, local oedema may produce respiratory distress, stridor and a hoarse voice.
3. Treatment for ammonia burns to skin
 Skin lesions require copious saline irrigation;
 Treat alkali burns as thermal burns with non-adherent gauze and wrapping;
 Deep second-degree burns may benefit from topical silver sulfadiazine.
4. Treatment for ammonia ingestion
 Severe burns from alkali ingestion may lead to the life-threatening complications of oesophageal
perforation and mediastinitis. These are associated with chest pain, dyspnoea, fever, subcutaneous
emphysema of the chest or neck, and a pleural rub. Symptoms and signs associated with significant
alkali-induced tissue injury include pain in the mouth and throat, drooling, pain on swallowing,
vomiting, abdominal pain and haemat emesis. Extensive tissue injury may be associated with fever,
tachycardia, hypotension and tachypnoea;
 Initial management is primarily supportive. Particular attention should be directed towards securing the
airway, fluid resuscitation and provision of analgesia;
 DO rinse any visible material from the mouth with water or saline;
 DO NOT induce vomiting as re-exposure of the mucosa to the alkali is harmful;
 DO NOT attempt to neutralise the ingested alkali since exothermic reaction may extend the corrosive
injury;

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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

 Consider passing a naso-gastric tube;

 A chest X-ray, upright abdominal film, is recommended – this may show widening of the
mediastinum, pleural effusions, pneumomediastinum and/or pneumothorax. Perforation of the stomach
or small intestine is associated with clinical features of chemical peritonitis, fever, abdominal
tenderness, guarding and rebound, and ileus. Septic shock and multi-organ failure complicate
perforation;
 DO NOT give oral fluids as these may interfere with endoscopic evaluation;
 DO NOT give oral activated charcoal as it will interfere with endoscopic evaluation;
ADVICE TO DOCTOR (cont..)
4. Treatment for ammonia ingestion (cont..)
 Inspection of the oropharynx may reveal areas of mucosal burn, which appear as white patches with
erythematous borders. The absence of visible burns to the lips, mouth or throat does not necessarily
imply an absence of significant burns to the oesophagus;
 Tracheoesophageal fistulae may result from perforation of the anterior oesophageal wall. The fistula
may extend to involve the aorta and, in this case, is fatal;
 Symptomatic patients may need the following investigations:
 Arterial blood gas analysis;
 Coagulation profile;
 Complete blood count;
 Contrast oesophagography or thoracic CT (to detect oesophageal perforation);
 ECG;
 Electrolytes;
 Glucose;
 Liver and renal function;
 Chest X-ray, upright abdominal film;
 Type and cross-match;
 Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy should be performed as soon as practicable and within 24 hours of
ingestion. This investigation is essential to assess the severity of mucosal damage and plan treatment.
Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy should also be considered for asymptomatic patients who have
intentionally ingested a strong alkali and children, where the history may be unreliable;
 Early esophagogastroscopy, by direct visualisation of the lesion with fibre optic endoscopes is the
most effective investigation for the classification of alkali burns and in planning management
follow-up.
 Ongoing supportive care includes maintenance of adequate analgesia, fluid electrolyte and pH balance,
nutritional support, and monitoring for the development of complications.
Subsequent management and prognosis is largely dictated by findings at upper gastrointestinal tract
endoscopy. These may be graded as follows:
 Grade I: Simple inflammation;
 Grade II: Few ulcerations and focal necrosis limited to part of the oesophagus;
 Grade III: Multiple ulcerations, extensive necrosis involving the entire oesophagus and massive
haemorrhage.
Grade I and II lesions heal completely with supportive care alone and can be adequately managed on a
generic medical ward.
Patients with Grade I lesions will usually tolerate oral fluids, but those with Grade II lesions may
require a period of total parenteral nutrition or feeding jejunostomy.
Patients with Grade II endoscopic findings require intensive care management, total parenteral
nutrition ora feeding jejunostomy until healing is documented, and are likely to develop oesophageal
strictures.
Urgent laparotomy (without associated thoracotomy) with surgical resection of necrotic tissue and
surgical repair is indicated in the presence of symptoms or sign of gastrointestinal perforation or where

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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

full thickness necrosis is found at endoscopy.

There is no clinical evidence that corticosteroids prevent the development of strictures following alkali
ingestion.
Prophylactic broad-spectrum antibiotics are not indicated unless there is evidence of gastrointestinal
tract perforation or full thickness necrosis.

ADVICE TO DOCTOR (cont..)

Long Term Complications
Those patients with Grade II burns are at risk of developing an oesophageal stricture. For this reason, these
patients require follow-up evaluations that include endoscopic examinations and/or contrast radiography until
complete healing or stricture formation is documented. Eighty percent of strictures produce symptoms within
two months. Oesophageal stricture formation requires long term-dilation or surgical repair. Survivors of alkali
ingestion are at an increased risk of developing carcinoma of the oesophagus. The average interval between
the original injury and diagnosis of carcinoma is greater than 40 years.
Further information about the treatment for exposure to this product can be obtained from
the Poisons Information Centre on (08) 13 1126 (Australia only)

Section 5 – Fire Fighting Measures

Product flammability
Ammonia gas is flammable, but requires significant heat to initiate combustion.
Suitable extinguishing media
For small flames, use dry chemical, carbon dioxide or water spray. For large fires, use water fog or spray.
Note that ammonia is readily absorbed by water and the resultant ammonia solution is alkaline. Prevent
contamination of drains or waterways, absorb runoff with sand or similar.
Hazard from combustion products
Ammonia produces nitrogen and water vapour on normal combustion in air but at high temperature some
ammonia could decompose to form hydrogen gas.
Special protective precautions and equipment for fire fighters
Wear full protective clothing, including respiratory protection.
Anhydrous ammonia vapour is lighter than air, and pockets of ammonia are likely to be trapped in ceilings or
under roof. Use water fog to dampen an ammonia cloud and reduce vapours.
Chemical absorbent and substantial amounts of water will be required for large spill.
Portable shower and eyewash facility may also be needed.
Prevent run-off into drains and waterways.
Hazchem Code
2 RE

Section 6 – Accidental Release Measures

Emergency procedures
The hazardous nature of anhydrous ammonia, require emergency and spill procedures to be effective to avoid
both human and environmental exposure. Hazardous conditions may result if material is managed improperly.
Make plans in advance to handle possible emergencies, including obtaining stocks of absorbent materials.
Always wear recommended personal protective equipment and respiratory protection. Good ventilation is
necessary.
One volume of liquid anhydrous ammonia released from a container at15 ºC will dissipate into approximately
850 volumes of gaseous ammonia. However, liquid anhydrous ammonia may take considerable time to
evaporate due to its latent heat of evaporation. Anhydrous ammonia vapours are lighter than air, and pockets
of ammonia are likely to be trapped in ceilings or under roof.
Anhydrous ammonia dissolves very readily in water, giving off large quantities of heat. Avoid direct water

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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

contact with ammonia leaks.

Methods and Materials for containment and clean up

For ALL spills, evacuate unprotected personnel upwind and out of danger.
Shut off anhydrous ammonia supply, if safe to do so. If anhydrous ammonia container is leaking, and if
possible, try to position it so that gaseous ammonia rather than liquid ammonia leaks out. Shut off all possible
sources of ignition. Stay upwind of vapours. Restrict access to spill site.
Small Leaks
Gas: Increase ventilation and allow gas to vent to a safe area
Liquid: If possible contain the surface area of a spill by bunding with earth or vermiculite. Allow vaporisation
to a safe area. Prevent run-off into drains and waterways.
Large Leaks
Gas: Use water fog to dampen an ammonia cloud and reduce vapours. Do not spray water directly on the leak
or ammonia container.
Liquid: If possible contain the surface area of a spill by bunding with earth or vermiculite. Use protein foam
blanket, at least 150 mm thick, to cover liquid anhydrous ammonia and thus prevent evaporation into large gas
cloud. Use water fog to dampen an ammonia cloud and reduce vapours.
Prevent run-off into drains and waterways.
Dispose of all contained spill residues in accordance with the requirements of the Department of Environment.
For the management of anhydrous ammonia emergencies during transport by road or rail, SAA/SNZ HB76:
Dangerous Goods-Initial Response Guide, Guide 07 should be consulted. This Guide should be carried at all
times when anhydrous ammonia is being transported.
Clean up personnel will need personal protection equipment and respiratory protection. Portable safety shower
and eyewash facilities may also be needed for clean up personnel.
Protein foam blanket may be required for large spills. Chemical absorbent and substantial amounts of water
will also be required for large spills.

Section 7 – Handling and Storage

Precautions for safe handling
Regulated dangerous goods as Toxic Gas Class 2; with a subsidiary risk listing in Class 8, as Corrosive.
Proper protective clothing must be worn that encapsulates the body including the face. A safety shower and
eyewash should be available. Do not breathe vapour or mist. Avoid contact with skin, eyes and clothing.
Do not touch with bare skin any surface that has been iced by the storage of anhydrous ammonia. If skin
sticks to the surface of iced anhydrous ammonia storage and carrying equipment, thaw out with lukewarm
water before removing – failure to do so will result in serious injury and frostbite.
Do not add water to anhydrous ammonia. In dilution process anhydrous ammonia should be added to plenty
of water, preferably under the surface of the water, in order to minimise the generation of ammonia vapour
and splashes.
Do not smoke anywhere near the storage and handling of anhydrous ammonia or associated pipework and
equipment.
Do not touch damaged containers or spilled material unless wearing appropriate personal protective
equipment.
Change and wash clothing, and personal protective equipment if contaminated, or before storing and/or re-
using. Wash hands and face thoroughly after handling and before work breaks, eating, drinking, smoking and
suing toilet facilities.
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
Store in accordance with Australian Standard AS 2022 Anhydrous ammonia storage and handling (SAA
Anhydrous Ammonia Code).
Always store cylinders upright, in a cool, dry well ventilated area, protected from weather, sunlight and direct
heat. Bulk storage anhydrous ammonia containers should be painted white to reflect direct sunlight. Intense
localised heat may cause ammonia containers to explode. Periodically check anhydrous ammonia storage
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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

containers for leaks, using a sulfur dioxide test bottle.

The location and surrounding areas of equipment used for storing anhydrous ammonia should be assessed and
classified according to the relevant Australian Standards for hazardous areas. The equipment should be rated
for use in that classification.
Store away from halogens, mineral acids and oxidizing agents (such as hypochlorites, chlorinating and
brominating agents).
Anhydrous ammonia is highly corrosive to aluminium, copper, tin, zinc and their alloys. Without at least 0.5
% moisture, anhydrous ammonia will cause stress cracking in carbon steel. Not corrosive to 304L or 316 SS.

Section 8 – Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

National exposure standards
ES-TWA ES-STEL ES-Peak
25 ppm 17 mg/m3 35 ppm 24 mg/m3 No data available No data available

Biological limit values

No data available
Engineering controls
Use in open, or well ventilated areas.
Use local and /or general exhaust ventilation to keep inhalation exposures below the exposure standard and as
low as possible.
Personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) should be used where other control measures are not practicable or
adequate to control exposure. It should be chosen to prevent routine exposure and to protect workers in the
case of accidental splashes, spillage or release.
Eye/face protection: Wear chemical goggles and face shield to prevent eye and facial contact.
Skin protection: Wear PVC gauntlet gloves to prevent skin contact. Wear PVC jacket and trousers to prevent
contact. A complete encapsulating suit is recommended for heavy exposures.
Respiratory protection: When opening anhydrous ammonia container valves and connecting and
disconnecting ammonia lines wear self contained breathing apparatus (or ensure it is readily available for
immediate use) with type ABEK1 cartridge, or air supplied full face mask complying with AS/NZ 1715 and
AS/NZ 1716.
Thermal hazard: Wear thermal chemical resistant gloves if handling iced lines.

Section 9 – Physical and Chemical Properties

Appearance (colour, physical form, shape)
Colourless gas or liquid.
Odour
Sharp, irritating and penetrating odour.
pH
pH of a 10% solution: >12.
Vapour pressure
756 kPa at 20 ºC.
Vapour density
Relative vapour density (air = 1): 0·77
Boiling point/range Freezing/melting point
Boiling point: -33·3 ºC at 1 atmosphere Melting point: -77·7 ºC
Solubility

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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

Solubility in water: 89·9 g/100 g water at 20 ºC; very soluble in diethyl ether and acetone; partially soluble in
methanol.
Specific gravity or density
Specific gravity liquid: 0·682 (water = 1);
Specific gravity gas: 0·770 (air = 1).
Flash point and method of detecting flash point
No data available.
Upper and lower flammable (explosive) limits in air
Flammability limits: 16 – 25 % (vol/vol).
Ignition temperature
Auto ignition temperature: 651 ºC.
Viscosity
Dynamic viscosity liquid: 0·255 mPa.s at 0 ºC and 1 atmosphere;
Dynamic viscosity gas: 0·00982 mPa.s at 0 ºC and 1 atmosphere.

Section 10 – Stability and Reactivity

Chemical stability
In accordance with the SAA Anhydrous Ammonia Code, anhydrous ammonia, with at least 0·5 % moisture,
stored in dedicated carbon steel containers in a electrical zone 1 class 1 area, remains stable.
Conditions to avoid
Anhydrous ammonia is extremely soluble in water giving off large quantities of heat. It can react explosively
with oxidizing agents (which include swimming pool chemicals such as chlorine and sodium/calcium
hypochlorite). It is corrosive to copper, tin, zinc and their alloys such as bronze and brass.
Incompatible materials
Anhydrous ammonia is highly corrosive to aluminium, copper, tin, zinc and their alloys. Can from explosive
compounds with mercury and silver oxide. Not corrosive to 304L or 316 stainless steel. Will attack some
forms of plastics, rubber and coatings.
Hazardous decomposition products
Ammonia produces nitrogen and water vapour on normal combustion in air but at high temperature some
ammonia could decompose to form hydrogen gas.
Hazardous reactions
Anhydrous ammonia can react explosively with oxidizing agents (which include swimming pool chemicals
such as chlorine and sodium/calcium hypochlorite).

Section 11 – Toxicological Information

HEALTH EFFECTS
When handled in accordance with the guidelines in this safety data sheet, anhydrous ammonia should
not present any health effects. If this product is mishandled, symptoms that may arise are:
Acute:
Anhydrous ammonia, liquid and vapour, is highly irritant and corrosive to exposed tissues and to
mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory tract. May be fatal if inhaled in large quantities.
Cryogenic, or frostbite “burns” may be experienced when incorrectly handling ammonia liquid. Toxic
doses of ammonia acutely affect cerebral energy metabolism, localized at the base of the brain.
Inhalation:

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Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

Inhalation of ammonia liquid and vapour will result in burns and irritation to the nose and upper respiratory
tract, resulting in lesions of the nasal septum, pulmonary oedema and pneumonitis. Symptoms may include
coughing, sore throat and shortness of breath. Severe scarring of tissue and death may result. Damage may
appear days after exposure. 5,000-6,000 ppm for 30-120 min administered to guinea pigs has been reported to
cause blindness. LD50 (Inhalation, rat) = 7,338 – 11,590 ppm at 1 hour.
Ammonia
Resulting Conditions on Humans
Level in ppm
5 – 25 Minor irritation of the eye and respiratory tract, odour threshold by most persons.
25 National exposure standard (ES-TWA).
100 No adverse effect for average worker. Deliberate exposure for long periods not
permitted.
400 Immediate nose and throat irritation. No serious effects after 30 minutes to 1 hour.
700 Immediate eye irritation. No serious effect after 30 minutes to 1 hour.
1,700 Convulsive coughing. Severe eye, nose and throat irritation. Could be fatal after 30
minutes.
2,000 – 5,000 Convulsive coughing. Severe eye, nose and throat irritation. Could be fatal after 15
minutes.
5,000 Lowest concentration known to be lethal to humans exposed for 5 minutes via inhalation.
5,000 – 10,000 Respiratory spasm. Rapid Asphyxia.
Skin:
Ammonia liquid will cause severe burns and necrosis. Ammonia vapour will cause irritation, including
redness and itching, and at high concentrations burns and blistering. Cryogenic “burn” may result as a result
of contacting ammonia liquid.
Eye:
Ammonia liquid will cause severe eye burns and permanent eye damage. Ammonia vapour will cause severe
irritations and burns, at high concentrations leading to redness and pain following contact.
Swallowed:
Ammonia liquid will cause severe irritation and burns to the mouth, oesophagus and stomach, accompanied
by severe burning sensation. Severe scarring of tissue and death may result. Ammonia vapour will cause
severe irritation and burns. Symptoms include bleeding, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea and fall in blood
pressure. Damage may appear days after exposure. LD50 (Oral, rat) = 350 mg/kg.
Chronic:
Prolonged, or repeated exposure to ammonia vapour may result in pulmonary function effects, and will
cause drying of the skin with cracking, irritation and blistering that may lead to dermatitis and
necrosis.
Ammonia toxicity is a major factor in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy associated with
chronic liver disease. Populations at special risk of exposure to ammonia include individuals with
reduced liver function, corneal disease, glaucoma, or chronic respiratory diseases.

Section 12 – Ecological Information

Ecotoxicity
Very toxic to aquatic organisms. In low concentrations in water and soil, ammonia acts as a fertiliser to
promote plant growth. Free ammonia concentrations of 2·5 mg per litre at pH 7·4 to 8·5 are considered
harmful to marine life. In water ammonia (NH3) is considered to be the primary toxic form while the more
prevalent ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) form is much less harmful. Increases in pH above 7·5 will lead to
an increased level of non-ionised ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is readily oxidized to nitrite which is also toxic
to marine life.
Vegetation contacted with anhydrous ammonia or exposed to significant vapour concentrations may suffer
leaf scorching
Persistence and degradability

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Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

In soil, ammonia may either volatilize to the atmosphere, adsorb to particulate matter, or undergo microbial
transformation to nitrate or nitrite anions.
In water, ammonia volatilizes to the atmosphere, is transformed to other nitrogenous compounds, or may be
bound to materials in the water.
Mobility
Ammonia is strongly adsorbed on soil, and on sediment particles and colloids in water. This adsorption results
in high concentrations of sorbed ammonia in oxidized sediments. Under anoxic conditions, the adsorptive
capacity of sediments is less, resulting in the release of ammonia to either the water column or an oxidized
sediment layer above.
Environmental fate (exposure)
48 hr LC50 (daphnia magna): 24 mg/L;
48 hr LC50, S (daphnia magna) :189 mg/L;
24 hr LC50 (rainbow trout): fertilised egg:> 3·58 mg/L;
alevins (0-50 days old): 3·58 mg/L;
fry (85 days old): 0·068 mg/L;
adults: 0·097 mg/L.
Bioaccumulative potential
Under aerobic conditions ammonia will oxidize to nitrate and has low potential for bioaccumulation.

Section 13 – Disposal Considerations

Disposal methods and containers
Due to its inherent properties, hazardous conditions may result if material is managed improperly. Dispose of
in accordance with Department of Environmental requirements. Shut all valves in empty containers. As
required under the ADG Code treat empty containers as filled containers.
Special precautions for landfill or incineration
No data available.

Section 14 – Transport Information

UN Number
1005
UN Proper shipping name
Ammonia, Anhydrous
Class and subsidiary risk
Class 2.3 Toxic Gas; Subsidiary Risk Class 8 Corrosive.
Packing group
None allocated
Special precautions for user
Not to be loaded with explosives (Class 1), flammable liquids (Class 3), spontaneously combustible
substances (Class 4.2), dangerous when wet substances (Class 4.3), oxidizing agents (Class 5.1), organic
peroxides (Class 5.2), radioactive substances (class 7) and food and food packaging in any quantity.
Hazchem code
2RE

Section 15 – Regulatory Information

Australian regulatory information

CSBP-IF0846 Version No. 11.0.0 Page 11 of 13

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 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

SUSDP POISON Schedule 6. Licensing is required for this chemical in some States and Territories.
Listed on the Australian Inventory of Chemical Substances (AICS).
Additional national and/or international regulatory information
NA
Classifications

Inventory listing(s)
AUSTRALIA: AICS (Australia Inventory of Chemical Substances)
All components are listed on the AICS; or are exempt.

Section 16 – Other Information

Key / legend to abbreviations and acronyms used in the SDS
AICS Australian Inventory of Chemical Substances
NOHSC National Occupational Health and Safety Commission
SUSDP Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons
ES-TWA Exposure Standard – Time weighted average
ES-STEL Exposure Standard – Short term exposure level
ES-Peak Exposure Standard – Peak level
FORS Federal Office of Road and Safety
LC50: Lethal concentration 50, median lethal concentration
LD50 Lethal dose 50. The single dose of a substance that causes the death of 50% of an animal
population from exposure to the substance by any route other than inhalation
%(wt/wt) Percent amount on a weight per weight basis
%(wt/vol) Percent amount on a weight per volume basis
PPM Parts per million
Zone 1 Class 1 An area, in which an explosive gas atmosphere can be expected to occur periodically or
occasionally during normal operation.
(More than 10 hours per year but less than 1000 hours per year)

Literature references
Occupational Safety and Health Regulations 1996, State Law Publisher, Western Australia
Code of Practice for the Preparation of Safety Data Sheets for Hazardous Chemicals, Safe Work Australia,
December 2011
Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail, 7th Edition, National Transport
Commission, 2015.
Chemical Rubber Handbook, D.R. Lide, CRC Press, 65 th Edition, Boca Ratón, 1987.
Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, R.H. Perry & D. Green, 6 th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984.
International Critical Tables of Numerical Data, Physics, Chemistry and Technology, National Research
Council, 1st Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1928.
Condensed Chemical Dictionary, G.G Hawley, 8th Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1950.
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Chemicals, N.I.Sax & R.J. Lewis (Sr), 7 th Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York, 1984.
Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, F.A. Patty, 3rd Revised Edition, G.D. & F.E. Clayton (Editors),
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
Matheson Gas Data Book, W.Braker & A.L. Mossman, 6 th Edition, Matheson Gas Products, Secaucus, 1980.
Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, International Labour Office, 4th Edition, J.M. Stellman
(Editor), Geneva, 1998

CSBP-IF0846 Version No. 11.0.0 Page 12 of 13

Document last modified: 10 August 2017.
WesCEF disclaims any liability or responsibility for the use of this document other than as authorised by WesCEF.
 SAFETY DATA SHEET
Ammonia (Anhydrous)
ABN: 81 008 668 371

Kirk-Othmer Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology, 4th Edition, Wiley InterScience, New York, 1997.
Ullmann's Encyclopaedia of Industrial Chemistry, F. Ulmann, 6 th Edition, Wiley Interscience, New York,
2001.
Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons, National Health and Medical Research Council,
Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1992.
Poisons Act 1964, State Law Publisher, Western Australia, Reprinted 22 January 1999.
Adopted National Exposure Standards for Atmospheric Contaminants in the Occupational Environmant,
[NHSC:1003(1991)].
Hazardous Materials Handbook for Emergency Responders, Onguard Training for Life, J. Varela (Editor),
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1996.
Chemwatch www.chemwatch.net
Guidance for the Compilation of Safety Data Sheets for Fertilizer Materials, European Fertilizer
Manufacturers Association, online at www.efma.org/Publications/Guidance/Index.asp
Sources for data
No data available

Important Notes
1. To the best of our knowledge this document complies with the Preparation of Safety Data Sheets for
Hazardous Chemicals Code of Practice February 2016.
2. This data sheet summarises our best knowledge of the health and safety hazard information of the
product and how to safely handle and use the product in the workplace. Each user should read this
safety data sheet and consider the information in the context of how the product will be handled and
used in the workplace, including in conjunction with other products.
3. If clarification or further information is needed to ensure that an appropriate risk assessment can be
made, the user should contact the Safety Department, CSBP Limited on (08) 9411 8777 (Australia),
+61 8 9411 8777 (Overseas).
4. Our responsibility for products sold, is subject to our terms and conditions, a copy of which is sent to
our customers, and is also available on request.
5. CSBP reserves the right to make change to this safety data sheets without notice.

CSBP-IF0846 Version No. 11.0.0 Page 13 of 13

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Conforms to US OSHA Hazard Communication 29CFR1910.1200

SAFETY DATA SHEET

Nickel Catalyst Refill, Part Number 5080-8761

Section 1. Identification
1.1 Product identifier
Product name : Nickel Catalyst Refill, Part Number 5080-8761
Part no. : 5080-8761
Validation date : 8/21/2018
1.2 Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against
Material uses : Reagents and Standards for Analytical Chemistry Laboratory Use
1 x 1 g vial

1.3 Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet

Supplier/Manufacturer : Agilent Technologies, Inc.
5301 Stevens Creek Blvd
Santa Clara, CA 95051, USA
800-227-9770

1.4 Emergency telephone number

In case of emergency : CHEMTREC®: 1-800-424-9300

Section 2. Hazards identification

2.1 Classification of the substance or mixture
OSHA/HCS status : This material is considered hazardous by the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard
(29 CFR 1910.1200).
Classification of the substance or mixture
H317 SKIN SENSITIZATION - Category 1
H350 CARCINOGENICITY - Category 1A
H372 SPECIFIC TARGET ORGAN TOXICITY (REPEATED EXPOSURE) (lungs) - Category
1
H413 AQUATIC HAZARD (LONG-TERM) - Category 4
Ingredients of unknown : Percentage of the mixture consisting of ingredient(s) of unknown dermal toxicity: > 60%
toxicity Percentage of the mixture consisting of ingredient(s) of unknown inhalation toxicity: >
60%
Percentage of the mixture consisting of ingredient(s) of unknown oral toxicity: > 60%
Percentage of the mixture consisting of ingredient(s) of unknown hazards to the aquatic
environment: 75%

2.2 GHS label elements

Hazard pictograms :

Signal word : Danger

Hazard statements : H317 - May cause an allergic skin reaction.
H350 - May cause cancer.
H372 - Causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure. (lungs)
H413 - May cause long lasting harmful effects to aquatic life.
Precautionary statements

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Nickel Catalyst Refill, Part Number 5080-8761

Section 2. Hazards identification

Prevention : P201 - Obtain special instructions before use.
P202 - Do not handle until all safety precautions have been read and understood.
P280 - Wear protective gloves. Wear eye or face protection. Wear protective clothing.
P273 - Avoid release to the environment.
P260 - Do not breathe dust.
P270 - Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this product.
P264 - Wash hands thoroughly after handling.
P272 (OSHA) - Contaminated work clothing must not be allowed out of the workplace.
Response : P314 - Get medical attention if you feel unwell.
P308 + P313 - IF exposed or concerned: Get medical attention.
P302 + P352 + P363 - IF ON SKIN: Wash with plenty of soap and water. Wash
contaminated clothing before reuse.
P333 + P313 - If skin irritation or rash occurs: Get medical attention.
Storage : P405 - Store locked up.
Disposal : P501 - Dispose of contents and container in accordance with all local, regional, national
and international regulations.
2.3 Other hazards
Hazards not otherwise : None known.
classified

Section 3. Composition/information on ingredients

Substance/mixture : Mixture

Ingredient name % CAS number

Kieselguhr, calcined ≥75 - ≤90 91053-39-3
nickel monoxide ≥25 - ≤50 1313-99-1
Any concentration shown as a range is to protect confidentiality or is due to batch variation.
There are no additional ingredients present which, within the current knowledge of the supplier and in the
concentrations applicable, are classified as hazardous to health or the environment and hence require reporting
in this section.
Occupational exposure limits, if available, are listed in Section 8.

Section 4. First aid measures

4.1 Description of necessary first aid measures
Eye contact : Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water, occasionally lifting the upper and lower
eyelids. Check for and remove any contact lenses. Continue to rinse for at least 10
minutes. Get medical attention.
Inhalation : Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a position comfortable for breathing. If
not breathing, if breathing is irregular or if respiratory arrest occurs, provide artificial
respiration or oxygen by trained personnel. It may be dangerous to the person providing
aid to give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Get medical attention. If unconscious, place
in recovery position and get medical attention immediately. Maintain an open airway.
Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.
Skin contact : Wash with plenty of soap and water. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash
contaminated clothing thoroughly with water before removing it, or wear gloves.
Continue to rinse for at least 10 minutes. Get medical attention. In the event of any
complaints or symptoms, avoid further exposure. Wash clothing before reuse. Clean
shoes thoroughly before reuse.

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Section 4. First aid measures

Ingestion : Wash out mouth with water. Remove dentures if any. Remove victim to fresh air and
keep at rest in a position comfortable for breathing. If material has been swallowed and
the exposed person is conscious, give small quantities of water to drink. Stop if the
exposed person feels sick as vomiting may be dangerous. Do not induce vomiting
unless directed to do so by medical personnel. If vomiting occurs, the head should be
kept low so that vomit does not enter the lungs. Get medical attention. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If unconscious, place in recovery position
and get medical attention immediately. Maintain an open airway. Loosen tight clothing
such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.

4.2 Most important symptoms/effects, acute and delayed

Potential acute health effects
Eye contact : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Inhalation : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Skin contact : May cause an allergic skin reaction.
Ingestion : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Over-exposure signs/symptoms
Eye contact : No specific data.
Inhalation : No specific data.
Skin contact : Adverse symptoms may include the following:
irritation
redness
Ingestion : No specific data.

4.3 Indication of immediate medical attention and special treatment needed, if necessary
Notes to physician : Treat symptomatically. Contact poison treatment specialist immediately if large
quantities have been ingested or inhaled.
Specific treatments : No specific treatment.
Protection of first-aiders : No action shall be taken involving any personal risk or without suitable training. If it is
suspected that fumes are still present, the rescuer should wear an appropriate mask or
self-contained breathing apparatus. It may be dangerous to the person providing aid to
give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Wash contaminated clothing thoroughly with water
before removing it, or wear gloves.

See toxicological information (Section 11)

Section 5. Fire-fighting measures

5.1 Extinguishing media
Suitable extinguishing : Use an extinguishing agent suitable for the surrounding fire.
media
Unsuitable extinguishing : None known.
media

5.2 Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture

Specific hazards arising : This material may cause long lasting harmful effects to aquatic life. Fire water
from the chemical contaminated with this material must be contained and prevented from being discharged
to any waterway, sewer or drain.
Hazardous thermal : Decomposition products may include the following materials:
decomposition products metal oxide/oxides

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Section 5. Fire-fighting measures

5.3 Advice for firefighters
Special protective actions : Promptly isolate the scene by removing all persons from the vicinity of the incident if
for fire-fighters there is a fire. No action shall be taken involving any personal risk or without suitable
training.
Special protective : Fire-fighters should wear appropriate protective equipment and self-contained breathing
equipment for fire-fighters apparatus (SCBA) with a full face-piece operated in positive pressure mode.

Section 6. Accidental release measures

6.1 Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures
For non-emergency : No action shall be taken involving any personal risk or without suitable training.
personnel Evacuate surrounding areas. Keep unnecessary and unprotected personnel from
entering. Do not touch or walk through spilled material. Provide adequate ventilation.
Wear appropriate respirator when ventilation is inadequate. Put on appropriate
personal protective equipment.
For emergency responders : If specialized clothing is required to deal with the spillage, take note of any information in
Section 8 on suitable and unsuitable materials. See also the information in "For non-
emergency personnel".

6.2 Environmental : Avoid dispersal of spilled material and runoff and contact with soil, waterways, drains
precautions and sewers. Inform the relevant authorities if the product has caused environmental
pollution (sewers, waterways, soil or air). Water polluting material. May be harmful to
the environment if released in large quantities.

6.3 Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up

Methods for cleaning up : Move containers from spill area. Avoid dust generation. Do not dry sweep. Vacuum
dust with equipment fitted with a HEPA filter and place in a closed, labeled waste
container. Place spilled material in a designated, labeled waste container. Dispose of
via a licensed waste disposal contractor.

Section 7. Handling and storage

7.1 Precautions for safe handling
Protective measures : Put on appropriate personal protective equipment (see Section 8). Persons with a
history of skin sensitization problems should not be employed in any process in which
this product is used. Avoid exposure - obtain special instructions before use. Do not
handle until all safety precautions have been read and understood. Do not get in eyes
or on skin or clothing. Do not ingest. Avoid release to the environment. If during
normal use the material presents a respiratory hazard, use only with adequate
ventilation or wear appropriate respirator. Keep in the original container or an approved
alternative made from a compatible material, kept tightly closed when not in use. Empty
containers retain product residue and can be hazardous. Do not reuse container.
Advice on general : Eating, drinking and smoking should be prohibited in areas where this material is
occupational hygiene handled, stored and processed. Workers should wash hands and face before eating,
drinking and smoking. Remove contaminated clothing and protective equipment before
entering eating areas. See also Section 8 for additional information on hygiene
measures.

7.2 Conditions for safe : Store in accordance with local regulations. Store in original container protected from
storage, including any direct sunlight in a dry, cool and well-ventilated area, away from incompatible materials
incompatibilities (see Section 10) and food and drink. Store locked up. Keep container tightly closed
and sealed until ready for use. Containers that have been opened must be carefully
resealed and kept upright to prevent leakage. Do not store in unlabeled containers.
Use appropriate containment to avoid environmental contamination. See Section 10 for
incompatible materials before handling or use.

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Section 7. Handling and storage

7.3 Specific end use(s)

Recommendations : Industrial applications, Professional applications.
Industrial sector specific : Not applicable.
solutions

Section 8. Exposure controls/personal protection

8.1 Control parameters
Occupational exposure limits
Ingredient name Exposure limits
Kieselguhr, calcined ACGIH TLV (United States).
TWA: 0.025 mg/m³, (Silica. Crystalline) 8
hours. Form: Respirable fraction
nickel monoxide OSHA PEL 1989 (United States, 3/1989).
TWA: 1 mg/m³, (as Ni) 8 hours.
NIOSH REL (United States, 10/2016).
TWA: 0.015 mg/m³, (as Ni) 10 hours.
ACGIH TLV (United States, 3/2017).
TWA: 0.2 mg/m³, (as Ni) 8 hours. Form:
Inhalable fraction
OSHA PEL (United States, 6/2016).
TWA: 1 mg/m³, (as Ni) 8 hours.

8.2 Exposure controls

Appropriate engineering : If user operations generate dust, fumes, gas, vapor or mist, use process enclosures,
controls local exhaust ventilation or other engineering controls to keep worker exposure to
airborne contaminants below any recommended or statutory limits.
Environmental exposure : Emissions from ventilation or work process equipment should be checked to ensure
controls they comply with the requirements of environmental protection legislation. In some
cases, fume scrubbers, filters or engineering modifications to the process equipment
will be necessary to reduce emissions to acceptable levels.

Individual protection measures

Hygiene measures : Wash hands, forearms and face thoroughly after handling chemical products, before
eating, smoking and using the lavatory and at the end of the working period.
Appropriate techniques should be used to remove potentially contaminated clothing.
Contaminated work clothing should not be allowed out of the workplace. Wash
contaminated clothing before reusing. Ensure that eyewash stations and safety
showers are close to the workstation location.
Eye/face protection : Safety eyewear complying with an approved standard should be used when a risk
assessment indicates this is necessary to avoid exposure to liquid splashes, mists,
gases or dusts. If contact is possible, the following protection should be worn, unless
the assessment indicates a higher degree of protection: safety glasses with side-
shields.
Skin protection
Hand protection : Chemical-resistant, impervious gloves complying with an approved standard should be
worn at all times when handling chemical products if a risk assessment indicates this is
necessary. Considering the parameters specified by the glove manufacturer, check
during use that the gloves are still retaining their protective properties. It should be
noted that the time to breakthrough for any glove material may be different for different
glove manufacturers. In the case of mixtures, consisting of several substances, the
protection time of the gloves cannot be accurately estimated.

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Section 8. Exposure controls/personal protection

Body protection : Personal protective equipment for the body should be selected based on the task being
performed and the risks involved and should be approved by a specialist before
handling this product.
Other skin protection : Appropriate footwear and any additional skin protection measures should be selected
based on the task being performed and the risks involved and should be approved by a
specialist before handling this product.
Respiratory protection : Based on the hazard and potential for exposure, select a respirator that meets the
appropriate standard or certification. Respirators must be used according to a
respiratory protection program to ensure proper fitting, training, and other important
aspects of use.

Section 9. Physical and chemical properties

9.1 Information on basic physical and chemical properties
Appearance
Physical state : Solid. [Powder.]
Color : Gray.
Odor : Odorless.
Odor threshold : Not available.
pH : Not available.
Melting point : >1950°C (>3542°F)
Boiling point : Not available.
Flash point : Not available.
Evaporation rate : Not available.
Flammability (solid, gas) : Not available.
Lower and upper explosive : Not available.
(flammable) limits
Vapor pressure : Not available.
Vapor density : Not available.
Relative density : Not available.
Solubility : Insoluble in the following materials: cold water and hot water.
Partition coefficient: n- : Not available.
octanol/water
Auto-ignition temperature : Not available.
Decomposition temperature : Not available.
Viscosity : Not available.

Section 10. Stability and reactivity

10.1 Reactivity : No specific test data related to reactivity available for this product or its ingredients.

10.2 Chemical stability : The product is stable.

10.3 Possibility of : Under normal conditions of storage and use, hazardous reactions will not occur.
hazardous reactions

10.4 Conditions to avoid : No specific data.

10.5 Incompatible materials : May react or be incompatible with oxidizing materials.

Reactive or incompatible with the following materials: acids.

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Section 10. Stability and reactivity

10.6 Hazardous : Under normal conditions of storage and use, hazardous decomposition products should
decomposition products not be produced.

Section 11. Toxicological information

11.1 Information on toxicological effects
Acute toxicity
Product/ingredient name Result Species Dose Exposure
nickel monoxide LC50 Inhalation Dusts and mists Rat - Male, >5.08 mg/l 4 hours
Female
LD50 Oral Rat - Female 9990 mg/kg -
Conclusion/Summary : Contains crystalline silica, which may cause lung disease and/or cancer.
Irritation/Corrosion
Not available.
Sensitization
Not available.

Mutagenicity
Conclusion/Summary : Not available.
Carcinogenicity
Conclusion/Summary : Not available.
Classification
Product/ingredient name OSHA IARC NTP
Kieselguhr, calcined - 1 Known to be a human carcinogen.
nickel monoxide - 1 Known to be a human carcinogen.
Reproductive toxicity
Conclusion/Summary : Not available.
Teratogenicity
Conclusion/Summary : Not available.
Specific target organ toxicity (single exposure)
Not available.

Specific target organ toxicity (repeated exposure)

Name Category Route of Target organs
exposure
Kieselguhr, calcined Category 1 Inhalation lungs
nickel monoxide Category 1 Not determined lungs
Aspiration hazard
Not available.

Information on the likely : Routes of entry anticipated: Oral, Dermal, Inhalation.

routes of exposure
Potential acute health effects
Eye contact : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Inhalation : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Skin contact : May cause an allergic skin reaction.

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Nickel Catalyst Refill, Part Number 5080-8761

Section 11. Toxicological information

Ingestion : No known significant effects or critical hazards.

Symptoms related to the physical, chemical and toxicological characteristics

Eye contact : No specific data.
Inhalation : No specific data.
Skin contact : Adverse symptoms may include the following:
irritation
redness
Ingestion : No specific data.

Delayed and immediate effects and also chronic effects from short and long term exposure
Short term exposure
Potential immediate : Not available.
effects
Potential delayed effects : Not available.
Long term exposure
Potential immediate : Not available.
effects
Potential delayed effects : Not available.
Potential chronic health effects
General : Causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure. Once sensitized, a
severe allergic reaction may occur when subsequently exposed to very low levels.
Carcinogenicity : May cause cancer. Risk of cancer depends on duration and level of exposure.
Mutagenicity : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Teratogenicity : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Developmental effects : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Fertility effects : No known significant effects or critical hazards.

Numerical measures of toxicity

Acute toxicity estimates
Not available.

Section 12. Ecological information

12.1 Toxicity
Not available.

12.2 Persistence and degradability

Not available.

12.3 Bioaccumulative potential

Product/ingredient name LogPow BCF Potential
nickel monoxide - 5613 high

12.4 Mobility in soil

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Section 12. Ecological information

Soil/water partition : Not available.
coefficient (KOC)

12.5 Other adverse effects : No known significant effects or critical hazards.

Section 13. Disposal considerations

13.1 Waste treatment methods
Disposal methods : The generation of waste should be avoided or minimized wherever possible. Disposal
of this product, solutions and any by-products should at all times comply with the
requirements of environmental protection and waste disposal legislation and any
regional local authority requirements. Dispose of surplus and non-recyclable products
via a licensed waste disposal contractor. Waste should not be disposed of untreated to
the sewer unless fully compliant with the requirements of all authorities with jurisdiction.
Waste packaging should be recycled. Incineration or landfill should only be considered
when recycling is not feasible. This material and its container must be disposed of in a
safe way. Care should be taken when handling emptied containers that have not been
cleaned or rinsed out. Empty containers or liners may retain some product residues.
Avoid dispersal of spilled material and runoff and contact with soil, waterways, drains
and sewers.
Disposal should be in accordance with applicable regional, national and local laws and regulations. Local
regulations may be more stringent than regional or national requirements.

The information presented below only applies to the material as supplied. The identification based on
characteristic(s) or listing may not apply if the material has been used or otherwise contaminated. It is the
responsibility of the waste generator to determine the toxicity and physical properties of the material generated to
determine the proper waste identification and disposal methods in compliance with applicable regulations.

Refer to Section 7: HANDLING AND STORAGE and Section 8: EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION
for additional handling information and protection of employees.

Section 14. Transport information

DOT / TDG / Mexico / IMDG / : Not regulated.
IATA

Special precautions for user : Transport within user’s premises: always transport in closed containers that are
upright and secure. Ensure that persons transporting the product know what to do in the
event of an accident or spillage.

Transport in bulk according : Not available.

to Annex II of MARPOL and
the IBC Code

Section 15. Regulatory information

15.1 Safety, health and environmental regulations/legislation specific for the substance or mixture
U.S. Federal regulations : TSCA 8(a) CDR Exempt/Partial exemption: Not determined
Clean Water Act (CWA) 307: nickel monoxide

Clean Air Act Section 112 : Listed

(b) Hazardous Air
Pollutants (HAPs)
Clean Air Act Section 602 : Not listed
Class I Substances

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Nickel Catalyst Refill, Part Number 5080-8761

Section 15. Regulatory information

Clean Air Act Section 602 : Not listed
Class II Substances
DEA List I Chemicals : Not listed
(Precursor Chemicals)
DEA List II Chemicals : Not listed
(Essential Chemicals)
SARA 302/304
Composition/information on ingredients
No products were found.
SARA 304 RQ : Not applicable.
SARA 311/312
Classification : SKIN SENSITIZATION - Category 1
CARCINOGENICITY - Category 1A
SPECIFIC TARGET ORGAN TOXICITY (REPEATED EXPOSURE) (lungs) - Category 1
Composition/information on ingredients
Name % Classification
Kieselguhr, calcined ≥75 - ≤90 CARCINOGENICITY - Category 1A
SPECIFIC TARGET ORGAN TOXICITY (REPEATED EXPOSURE) - Category 1
SPECIFIC TARGET ORGAN TOXICITY (REPEATED EXPOSURE) (lungs)
(inhalation) - Category 1
nickel monoxide ≥25 - ≤50 SKIN SENSITIZATION - Category 1
CARCINOGENICITY (inhalation) - Category 1A
SPECIFIC TARGET ORGAN TOXICITY (REPEATED EXPOSURE) (lungs) -
Category 1

SARA 313
Product name CAS number %
Form R - Reporting nickel monoxide 1313-99-1 ≥25 - ≤50
requirements
Supplier notification nickel monoxide 1313-99-1 ≥25 - ≤50

SARA 313 notifications must not be detached from the SDS and any copying and redistribution of the SDS shall include
copying and redistribution of the notice attached to copies of the SDS subsequently redistributed.
State regulations
Massachusetts : The following components are listed: SILICA, CRYSTALLINE, QUARTZ,
CRISTOBALITE DUST; NICKEL OXIDE
New York : None of the components are listed.
New Jersey : The following components are listed: SILICA, CRISTOBALITE; CRISTOBALITE (SiO2);
NICKEL OXIDE; NICKEL MONOXIDE
Pennsylvania : The following components are listed: QUARTZ (SIO2), CRISTOBALITE (SIO2);
NICKEL OXIDE
California Prop. 65
WARNING: This product can expose you to chemicals including Kieselguhr, calcined, Nickel oxide, which are known
to the State of California to cause cancer. For more information go to www.P65Warnings.ca.gov.

Ingredient name No significant risk Maximum

level acceptable dosage
level
Kieselguhr, calcined - -
Nickel oxide - -

International regulations

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Nickel Catalyst Refill, Part Number 5080-8761

Section 15. Regulatory information

Chemical Weapon Convention List Schedules I, II & III Chemicals
Not listed.

Montreal Protocol (Annexes A, B, C, E)

Not listed.
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
Not listed.
Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent (PIC)
Not listed.
UNECE Aarhus Protocol on POPs and Heavy Metals
Not listed.
Inventory list
Australia : All components are listed or exempted.
Canada : All components are listed or exempted.
China : All components are listed or exempted.
Europe : All components are listed or exempted.
Japan : Japan inventory (ENCS): All components are listed or exempted.
Japan inventory (ISHL): All components are listed or exempted.
Malaysia : Not determined.
New Zealand : All components are listed or exempted.
Philippines : All components are listed or exempted.
Republic of Korea : All components are listed or exempted.
Taiwan : All components are listed or exempted.
Thailand : Not determined.
Turkey : All components are listed or exempted.
United States : All components are listed or exempted.
Viet Nam : Not determined.

Section 16. Other information

History
Date of issue : 08/21/2018
Date of previous issue : 12/01/2016
Version : 6
Procedure used to derive the classification
Classification Justification
SKIN SENSITIZATION - Category 1 Calculation method
CARCINOGENICITY - Category 1A Calculation method
SPECIFIC TARGET ORGAN TOXICITY (REPEATED EXPOSURE) (lungs) - Category Calculation method
1
AQUATIC HAZARD (LONG-TERM) - Category 4 Calculation method
Indicates information that has changed from previously issued version.

Notice to reader

Date of issue : 08/21/2018 11/12

Nickel Catalyst Refill, Part Number 5080-8761

Section 16. Other information

Disclaimer: The information contained in this document is based on Agilent’s state of knowledge at the time of
preparation. No warranty as to its accurateness, completeness or suitability for a particular purpose is expressed
or implied.

Date of issue : 08/21/2018 12/12