Genertion, Transmission and Distribution

Now, as we learn few things about basic electricity, 

it's time to move to generation transmission and distribution of electric power. 
Let's start with substations and transformers. 
Electrical energy is transmitted and distributed via overhead lines, 
and underground cables, operating at different voltage levels. 
It is necessary to mesh networks to ensure dependable supply for consumers, 
even if individual transmission paths fail. 
Points in such a network, 
where two or more lines meet, are called buses. 
Present at each of these buses are switching devices, 
which isolate affected lines, 
and/or equipment, for the purpose of 
eliminating faults or performing maintenance and repairs. 
The special arrangement of the facilities necessary for measurements, 
monitoring, protection, and ancillary tasks, 
is known as a switch gear. 
If the arrangement includes transformers for changing voltage levels, 
one speaks of a substation. 
Let's talk about a transformer. 
A transformer is a device that transforms AC voltage from high to low, 
that would be step down transformer, 
or from low to high, 
that will be step up transformer. 
A transformer is simply made of two sets of wire coils wrapped around a soft iron core. 
The coil on the side where the voltage comes in is called the primary coil. 
The coil on the side where the voltage goes out is called the secondary coil. 
Winding on each coil change the magnetic field within the iron core, 
which in turn, changes the voltage. 
The voltage is changed in proportion to the number of windings on each coil. 
If the primary coil has more windings than the secondary coil, 
the voltage is decreased. 
This is referred to as a step down transformer. 
If the secondary coil has more windings than the primary coil, 
the voltage is increased. 
This is referred to as a step up transformer. 
Transformers are very important in power systems. 
Voltage generated at power plants is an order of six to 20 kilovolts. 
To deliver vast amounts of generated power over long distances, 
it should be stepped up, and here, 
step up transformers do their job by converting generated voltage to 
high levels such as 115 to 750 kilovolts, 
or sometimes even more. 
This is very economical for several reasons. 
Let us recall the power wheel presented earlier. 
Since resistance of a line connecting generating plants 
with load centers is constant for a given line, 
the higher the voltage across the line, 
the lower the current through the line. 
You remember that I equals V over R, that's the Ohm's law. 
At the same time, if current is flowing through the line, 
it creates power losses that are dissipated as heat, 
and you recall that P equals I square R. Since power is not free and costs money, 
the lower the losses, 
the higher are the savings. 
Therefore, it is much more economical to transmit 
electric power at large distances, at higher voltages. 
Also, recall that resistance of a line 
is directly proportional to the length of the line. 
So that, the longer the line, 
the higher its resistance. 
Now, as we know a little bit about transformers, 
let's move to substations. 
As mentioned before, transformers, 
one or more, and switch gear, comprise a substation. 
Substations are used to branch from one or several incoming lines, 
into several outgoing lines that have their paths and connect 
with other substations at the same or different voltage levels. 
This figure illustrates substations at 
various voltage levels and branching of power lines. 
In this figure, high voltage transmission line enters a substation on the left. 
You can see three long insulators through circuit breakers and switches, 
which we will discuss later, 
connections are made to a step down power transformer in the middle. 
Finally, through another set of switches and circuit breakers, 
connections are made to three outgoing transmission lines, 
at lower voltage level on the right side of the figure.
 Generation

Let's start talking about generation of electric power. 

Generating electricity has been 
the primary function of electric utilities since their creation. 
Electricity can be generated through a wide variety of processes, 
although far and away the most common is by the rotation of 
a generator shaft or router through opposing magnetic fields. 
Shaft rotating induces the flow of electricity in the generator. 
Power can be either direct or alternating current, DC or AC. 
Power is delivered to consumers in the United States as alternating current. 
So, shaft rotation literally turns an alternator rather than a generator. 
A thermal generator creates electricity by using heat from the burning of fuels, 
or nuclear energy to create steam which turns 
a turbine which rotates the generator shaft through opposing magnetic fields. 
The waste heat can be released through a cooling tower or 
used in co-generation applications in factories. 
External energy source or prime mover is required to rotate 
the generator shaft and that can come from a wide variety of sources. 
One of the prime movers is a turbine generator. 
In 1831, scientist Michael Faraday, 
discovered that when a magnet is moved inside a coil of wire, 
an electric current flows in the wire. 
An electricity generator is a device that converts a form of energy into electricity. 
Generators operate because of the relationship between magnetism and electricity. 
Generators that convert kinetic or mechanical energy into 
electrical energy produced nearly all of the electricity that consumers use. 
A common method of producing electricity is from generators with an electromagnet. 
A magnet produced by electricity not a traditional magnet. 
The generator has a series of insulated coils of wire that form a stationary cylinder. 
The cylinder surrounds the rotary electromagnetic shaft. 
When the electromagnetic shaft rotates, 
it induces a small electric current in each section of the wire coil. 
Each section of the wire coil becomes a small separate electric conductor. 
The small currents of the individual sections combine to form one large current. 
This current is the electricity that moves through 
power lines from generators to consumers. 
An electric power plant uses a turbine or 
other similar machine to drive these types of generators. 
Other types of turbines are steam turbines, 
gas combustion turbines, water turbines and wind turbines. 
A turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid, 
liquid or gas to mechanical energy. 
In a turbine generator, 
a moving fluid pushes a series of blades, 
mount it on the shaft which rotates the shaft connected to a generator. 
The generator in turn converts the mechanical energy to 
electrical energy based on the relationship between magnetism and electricity. 
Steam turbines that use biomass, 
coal, geothermal energy, natural gas, 
nuclear energy and solar thermal energy 
produce about 70 percent of US electricity generation. 
These types of power plants are about 35 percent efficient. 
Which means that for every 100 units of primary heat energy that goes into a power plant, 
only 35 units are converted to usable electrical energy. 
Other types of devices that generate or produce 
electricity include electrochemical batteries, 
fuel cells, solar photovoltaic cells, and thermoelectric generators. 
Most of the electricity in the United States is produced using steam turbines. 
The steam turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid, 
liquid or gas, to mechanical energy. 
Most of US electricity is generated using fossil fuels. 
In 2016, natural gas was the largest energy source for 
the four trillion kilowatthours of electricity generated in the United States. 
Natural gas was the source of about 34 percent of US electricity generation in 2016. 
In addition to burning natural gas to heat water for steam, 
it is also burnt to produce hot combustion gases that pass 
through a gas turbine spinning the turbine's blade to generate electricity. 
Coal was the second largest energy source for 
US electricity generation in 2016, about 30 percent. 
Nearly all coal-fired power plants use steam turbines. 
If you coal-fired power plants convert coal to 
a gas for use in the gas turbine to generate electricity. 
Petroleum can be burned to produce 
hot combustion gases to turn a turbine or to make steam that turns a turbine. 
Residual fuel and petroleum coke, 
products from refining crude oil, 
are the main petroleum fuels used in steam turbines. 
Distillate or diesel is used in diesel engine generators. 
Petroleum was the source of less than one percent of US electricity generation in 2016. 
Nuclear power provides about one-fifth of US electricity. 
Nuclear power plants produce electricity with nuclear efficient to 
create steam that spins the turbine to generate electricity. 
Nuclear power was the source of about 20 percent of US electricity generation in 2016. 
Renewable energy sources provide 15 percent of US electricity. 
Hydropower, the source of about seven percent of the total US electricity generation. 
About 44 percent of electricity generation from renewable energy in 2016, 
is a process in which flowing water spins a turbine connected to a generator. 
Most hydropower production is at large facilities built by the federal government, 
such as the Grand Cooley Dam, also Lewiston powerplant. 
Many of the largest hydroelectric dams are in the western United States, 
but many hydropower facilities operate around the country.
 Transmission and Subtransmission

Power generated at power plants has to be delivered to the customers. 

So, let's talk about transmission and subtransmission. 
People tend to be more familiar with the distribution lines in 
their neighborhoods than with high voltage transmission lines. 
Typically, transmission lines are located in remote areas so they can run for 
long distances in a straight line as it is much cheaper to build that way. 
In contrast, distribution lines have to be close to the customer and consequently, 
they are more numerous. 
In general, distribution lines are radial or 
run away from the transmission lines to a dead end. 
Power typically flows from a generator along the transmission grid to 
a substation where it is transformed or stepped down to a lower voltage for distribution. 
The voltage reduction allows the utility to use 
smaller wires and shorter polls for distributing power to consumers. 
Power on the distribution line flows to customer, 
homes and businesses but it gets stepped 
down again as it comes off the distribution lines. 
The stability of the electricity grid requires 
the electricity supply to constantly meet electricity demand, 
which in turn requires coordination of 
numerous entities that operate different components of the grid. 
The US electricity grid consists of 
three large interconnected systems that operate to ensure its stability and reliability. 
To ensure coordination of electric system operations, 
the North American Electric Reliability Corporation developed and enforces 
mandatory grid reliability standards that 
the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission approved. 
Local electricity grids are interconnected to form 
larger networks for reliability and commercial purposes. 
At the highest level, 
the US power systems in the lower 48 states is made up of three main interconnections, 
which operates largely independently from each 
other with limited transverse of electricity between them. 
The Eastern Interconnection encompasses the area east of 
the Rocky Mountains and portion of the Texas Panhandle. 
The Western Interconnection encompasses the area from the Rockies to the west. 
The Electric Reliability Council of Texas or ERCOT covers most of Texas. 
The Eastern and Western Interconnections in 
the United States are also linked with the Canadian power grid. 
The network structure of the interconnections 
helps maintain the reliability of the grid by providing 
multiple roads for power to flow and allowing 
generators to supply electricity to many load centuries. 
This redundancy helps prevent transmission line or power plant 
failures from causing interruptions in service to retail customers. 
Transmission lines that carry electricity at 
long distances differ by function based on their voltage levels. 
Transmission lines and corresponding transformers, 
typically at high voltages of 750 kilovolts, 
500 kilovolts, 230 kilovolts, 
115 and 69 kilovolts, 
are known as transmission system. 
Subtransmission is that part of the utility system which supplies 
distribution substations from bulk power sources 
such as large transmission substations or generating stations. 
In turn, the distribution substations supply primary distribution systems. 
Subtransmission has many of the characteristics of both transmission and distribution in 
that it moves relatively large amounts of power 
from one point to another like transmission, 
and at the same time it provides area coverage like distribution. 
In some utility systems, 
transmission and subtransmission voltages are overlapping. 
For example, 230 kilovolts, 
115 or 69 kilovolt lines can be part of transmission and subtransmission systems. 
While subtransmission circuits are usually carried on overhead lines, 
in urban areas buried cable may be used. 
The lower voltage subtransmission lines use less right of way and simpler structures. 
It is much more feasible to put them underground where needed. 
Higher voltage lines require more space and are usually 
above ground since putting them underground is very expensive. 
There is no fixed cutoff between subtransmission and 
transmission or subtransmission and distribution. 
The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. 
Voltages of 23 kilovolts, 69 kilovolts, 
115 kilovolts and country 
38 kilovolts are often used for subtransmission in North America. 
As power systems evolved, 
voltages formerly used for transmission were used for subtransmission, 
and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. 
Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, 
and like distribution subtransmission covers an area instead of just point-to-point.
 Distribution

[MUSIC] 
After transmission, transmission, let's discuss electric power distribution. 
This is the final stage in the delivery of electric power. 
It carries electricity from the transmission system to individual 
consumers. 
Distribution substations connect to the transmission system. 
And lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 and 
35 kilovolts with the use of transformers. 
Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power 
to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. 
Distribution transformers, again, lower the voltage to the utilization voltage 
used by lighting, industrial equipment or households. 
Often, several customers are supplied from one transformer 
through secondary distribution lines. 
Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution 
lines through service drops. 
Customers demanding a much larger amount of power 
may be connected directly to the primary distribution level. 
Distribution lines have lower voltage ratings such as 69, 
34.5, and 13.8 kilovolts. 
For convenience, many in the industry refer to ratings of 115 kilovolts and 
above as transmission. 
Things are not that simple. 
Because lower voltages are often used for 
transmission in rural areas, where power transfer requirements are less. 
A functional definition is also used. 
Typically, transmission lines serve the bulk power system, and 
distribution lines serve retail customers.
This distinction is also compromised as large 
industrial customers often receive retail services over high voltage lines.
Let's talk about distribution networks. 
Distribution networks are usually one of two different types, radial or 
interconnected. 
Radial distribution networks are systems with a single power source for 
a group of distribution customers. 
In radial systems, distribution lines stem from a single power source and 
continue through the service area without a conduction to additional power supplies. 
This is the cheapest type of distribution network. 
But also the least reliable as there are no redundant or back up power sources. 
This type of system is more common in remote locations or 
in locations where a low population density.
Interconnected distribution networks 
are composed of multiple connections to power supply sources. 
Interconnected systems might be configured in the loop 
with power sources located in various locations along the loop. 
They may also be configured in a web with power sources interconnected 
within the complex framework. 
Interconnected systems are more expensive than radial systems, but they offer a much 
higher level of reliability due to the redundancy of power sources. 
The transition from transmission to distribution 
happens in the power sub-station. 
As we discussed before, sub-stations are fenced in areas that contains switches, 
transformers, and other specialized electrical equipment that convert electric 
power from the transmission system to distribution voltage level. 
Distribution substations are where distribution circuits ordinate, 
are monitored, and are adjusted.
Distribution substations have the following functions. 
Circuit breakers and switches enable the substation to be disconnected from 
the transmission grid or for distribution lines to be disconnected. 
Transformers step down transmission voltages, 34.5 kilovolts or 
more, down to primary distribution voltages. 
These are medium voltage circuits, usually 600 to 34,500 volts.
From the transformer, power goes to the busbar 
that can split the distribution power off in multiple directions. 
The bus distributes power to distribution lines, which fan out to customers. 
Urban distribution is mainly underground, sometimes in common utility ducts. 
Rural distribution is mostly above ground with utility poles and 
suburban distribution is a mix. 
Closer to the customer, a distribution transformer steps the primary 
distribution power down to a low voltage secondary circuit usually 120, 
240 volts in the US for residential customers. 
The power comes to the customer via a service drop and electricity meter. 
The final circuit in an urban system may be less than 50 feet, but 
may be over 300 feet for a rural customer. 
The electricity that comes to homes and businesses must be metered. 
Once the electricity reaches its final destination, it runs through a meter for 
billing purposes. 
These meters have traditionally been electromechanical devices 
that measure the electricity as it passes through. 
Historically, an employee of the distribution company, a so-called meter 
reader, would come to read how much power had been used during the billing cycle. 
Today, meters are frequently more high tech, and 
can communicate with the distribution company without a meter reader 
going to the trouble of checking each meter individually. 
These new technologies are commonly referred to as Smart Meters. 
Smart meters use advances in information technology to allow 
the various pieces of the power grid, generators, distributors, 
and consumers, to communicate more effectively, and in real time. 
Collectively, these technology-enabled communications between different parts of 
the grid are referred to as the smart grid. 
As electric utilities convert analog features to digital, 
the grid is becoming smarter and allowing for new types of communication. 
For example, the smart grid allows customers with smart meters 
to change their consumption patterns, 
if they choose, by reacting to real time prices in the wholesale power market. 
It also allows power companies to better detect grid abnormalities or outages. 
However, replacing the existing infrastructure with a smarter one is 
expensive and can make the grid more susceptible to cybersecurity threats.