UNIT-1: NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

1. INTERNET STANDARDS

An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to

by those who work with the Internet. It is a formalized regulation that must be followed. There is
a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard status. A specification begins
as an Internet draft. An Internet draft is a working document (a work in progress) with no
official status and a six-month lifetime. Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a
draft may be published as a Request for Comment (RFC). Each RFC is edited, assigned a
number, and made available to all interested parties. RFCs go through maturity levels and are
categorized according to their requirement level.

Maturity Levels
An RFC, during its lifetime, falls into one of six maturity levels: proposed standard, draft
standard, Internet standard, historic, experimental, and informational (see Figure 1.2).

Proposed Standard
A proposed standard is a specification that is stable, well understood, and of sufficient interest to
the Internet community. At this level, the specification is usually tested and implemented by
several different groups.

Draft Standard
A proposed standard is elevated to draft standard status after at least two successful independent
and interoperable implementations. Barring difficulties, a draft standard, with modifications if
specific problems are encountered, normally becomes an Internet standard.

Internet Standard
A draft standard reaches Internet standard status after demonstrations of successful
implementation.
Historic
The historic RFCs are significant from a historical perspective. They either have been superseded
by later specifications or have never passed the necessary maturity levels to become an Internet
standard.

Experimental
An RFC classified as experimental describes work related to an experimental situation that does
not affect the operation of the Internet. Such an RFC should not be implemented in any
functional Internet service.

Informational
An RFC classified as informational contains general, historical, or tutorial information related to
the Internet. It is usually written by someone in a non-Internet organization, such as a vendor.

Requirement Levels
RFCs are classified into five requirement levels: required, recommended, elective, limited use,
and not recommended (see Figure 1.3).

Required
An RFC is labeled required if it must be implemented by all Internet systems to achieve
minimum conformance.

Recommended
An RFC labeled recommended is not required for minimum conformance; it is recommended
because of its usefulness.

Elective
An RFC labeled elective is not required and not recommended. However, a system can use it for
its own benefit.

Limited Use
An RFC labeled limited use should be used only in limited situations. Most of the experimental
RFCs fall under this category.

Not Recommended
An RFC labeled not recommended is inappropriate for general use. Normally a historic
(deprecated) RFC may fall under this category.
 2. TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in
the TCP/IP protocol suite do not match exactly with those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as four software layers built upon the hardware. Today, however,
TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model with the layers named similarly to the ones in the OSI
model. Figure 2.7 shows both configurations.

Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP Protocol Suite

When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and presentation, are missing
from the TCP/IP protocol suite. These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP protocol suite
after the publication of the OSI model. The application layer in the suite is usually considered to
be the combination of three layers in the OSI model, as shown in Figure 2.8.

Two reasons were mentioned for this decision. First, TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer
protocol. Some of the functionalities of the session layer are available in some of the transport
layer protocols. Second, the application layer is not only one piece of software. Many
applications can be developed at this layer. If some of the functionalities mentioned in the
session and presentation are needed for a particular application, it can be included in the
development of that piece of software. TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, each of which provides a specific functionality, but the modules are not necessarily
interdependent. Whereas the OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of its layers,
the layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols that can be
mixed and matched, depending on the needs of the system. The term hierarchical means that
each upper level protocol is supported by one or more lower level protocols.

Physical layer
TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the physical layer. It supports all of the standard
and proprietary protocols. At this level, the communication is between two hops or nodes, either
a computer or router. The unit of communication is a single bit. When the connection is
established between the two nodes, a stream of bits is flowing between them. The physical layer,
however, treats each bit individually. The responsibility of the physical layer, in addition to
delivery of bits, matches with what mentioned for the physical layer of the OSI model, but it
mostly depends on the underlying technologies that provide links.

Data Link Layer

TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data link layer either. It supports all of the
standard and proprietary protocols. At this level, the communication is also between two hops or
nodes. The unit of communication however, is a packet called a frame. A frame is a packet that
encapsulates the data received from the network layer with an added header and sometimes a
trailer. The head, among other communication information, includes the source and destination
of frame. The destination address is needed to define the right recipient of the frame because
many nodes may have been connected to the link. The source address is needed for possible
response or acknowledgment as may be required by some protocols
 .
Network Layer
At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the Internet
Protocol (IP). The Internet Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP
protocols. IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported
separately. Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be
duplicated. IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for re-ordering datagrams
once they arrive at their destination. Note that there is a main difference between the
communication at the network layer and the communication at data link or physical layers.
Communication at the network layer is end to end while the communication at the other two
layers is node to node.

Transport Layer
There is a main difference between the transport layer and the network layer. Although all nodes
in a network need to have the network layer, only the two end computers need to have the
transport layer. The network layer is responsible for sending individual datagrams from
computer A to computer B; the transport layer is responsible for delivering the whole message,
which is called a segment, a user datagram, or a packet, from A to B. A segment may consist of a
few or tens of datagrams. The segments need to be broken into datagrams and each datagram has
to be delivered to the network layer for transmission. Since the Internet defines a different route
for each datagram, the datagrams may arrive out of order and may be lost. The transport layer at
computer B needs to wait until all of these datagrams to arrive, assemble them and make a
segment out of them.

Application Layer
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model. The application layer allows a user to access the services of
our private internet or the global Internet. Many protocols are defined at this layer to provide
services such as electronic mail, file transfer, accessing the World Wide Web, and so on. Note
that the communication at the application layer, like the one at the transport layer, is end to end.
A message generated at computer A is sent to computer B without being changed during the
transmission.
Networking

A network is a number of computers linked together to allow the sharing of resources.

A server usually provides services like file storage and email.
Advantages of Networks
 Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
 Site (software) licences are likely to be cheaper than buying several standalone licenses.
 Files can easily be shared between users.
 Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.
 Security is good - users cannot see other users' files.
 Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.

Disadvantages of Networks
 Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
 Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager
usually needs to be employed.
 If the file server breaks down, the files on the file server become inaccessible.
 Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.
 There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures
are needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers within a
limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office building.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies in use for local area networks. A
number of experimental and early commercial LAN technologies were developed in the
1970s. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973 and 1974. In a wireless LAN,
users have unrestricted movement within the coverage area. Wireless networks have become
popular in residences and small businesses, because of their ease of installation. Most
wireless LANs use Wi-Fi as it is built into smartphones, tablet computers and laptops. Guests
are often offered Internet access via a hotspot service.
Advantages of LAN
1. The basic LAN implementation does not cost too much.
2. It is easy to control and manage the entire LAN as it is available in one
small region.
 3. The systems or devices connected on LAN communicate at very high
speed depending upon LAN type and Ethernet cables supported. The
common speeds supported are 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps and 1000 Mbps.
4. With the help of file servers connected on the LAN, sharing of files and
folders among peers will become very easy and efficient.
5. It is easy to share common resources such as printers and internet line
among multiple LAN users.
Disadvantages of LANs:
1. Where a lot of terminals are served by only one or two printers, long print
queues may develop, causing people to have to wait for printed output.
2. Network security can be a problem. If a virus gets into one computer, it is
likely to spread quickly across the network because it will get into the
central backing store.
3. If the dedicated file server fails, work stored on shared hard disk drives will
not be accessible and it will not be possible to use network printers either.
Wide area network
A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends over a large
geographical area for the primary purpose of computer networking. The textbook definition
of a WAN is, a computer network spanning regions, countries, or even the world. WANs are
used to connect LANs and other types of networks together so that users and computers in
one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are
built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service
providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. Many
technologies are available for wide area network links. Examples include circuit-
switched telephone lines, radio wave transmission, and optical fiber. New developments in
technologies have successively increased transmission rates.

What separates a WAN like the internet from a LAN? Due to its typically massive size,
WAN's are almost always slower than a LAN. The further the distance, the slower the
network. One of the big disadvantages to having a WAN is the cost it can incur. Having a
private WAN can be expensive. The reason that WANs cost a lot tends to be because of the
technology required to connect two remote places.

Advantages of a wide area network (WAN)

Covers large geographical area:
WAN covers a large geographical area of 1000 km or more. If your office is in different cities
or countries then you can connect your office branches through wan. ISP (Internet service
provider) can give you leased lines by which you can connect different branch offices
together.

Centralized data:
Your company doesn’t need to buy email, files, and backup servers, they can all reside on
head office. All office branches can share the data through the head office server. You can
get back up, support, and other useful data from the head office and all data are
synchronized with all other office branches.

Get updated files and data:

Software companies work over the live server to exchange updated files. So all the coders
and office staff get updated version of files within seconds.
Sharing of software and resources:
Like LAN we can share software applications and other resources like a hard drive, RAM
with other users on the internet. In web hosting, we share computer resources among many
websites.

Global business:
Now everyone with computer skills can do business on the internet and expand his business
globally. There are many types of business like a shopping cart, sale, and purchase of stocks
etc.

High bandwidth:

If you get leased lines for your company then it gives high bandwidth than normal broadband
connection. You can get a high data transfer rate that can increase your company
productivity.

Distribute workload and decrease travel charges:

Another benefit of wide area network is that you can distribute your work to other locations.
For example, you have an office in the U.S then you can hire people from any other country
and communicate with them easily over WAN. It also reduces your travel charges as you can
monitor the activities of your team online.

Disadvantages of a wide area network

Security problems:
WAN has more security problem as compare to LAN. WAN has many technologies
combined with each other which can create a security gap.

Needs firewall and antivirus software:

As data transferred on the internet can be accessed and changed by hackers so firewall needs
to be enabled in the computer. Some people can also inject a virus into the computer so
antivirus software needs to be installed. Other security software also needs to be installed on
different points in WAN.

The setup cost is high:

Setting up WAN for the first time in office costs higher money. It may involve
purchasing routers, switches, and extra security software.

Server down and disconnection issue:

In some areas, Internet Service Provider faces problems due to electricity supply or bad lines
structure. Customers often face connectivity issues or slow Internet speed issues. The solution
to this is to purchase a dedicated line from ISP.
Examples of wide area network (WAN)
Some examples of WAN are below:
 Internet
 Most big banks
 Airline companies
 Stock brokerages
 Railway reservations counter
 Satellite systems
 Connecting Devices
LANs or WANs do not normally operate in isolation. They are connected to one another
or to the Internet. To connect LANs and WANs together we use connecting devices. Connecting
devices can operate in different layers of the Internet model. We discuss three kinds of
connecting devices: repeaters (or hubs), bridges (or two-layer switches), and routers (or three-
layer switches). Repeaters and hubs operate in the first layer of the Internet model. Bridges and
two-layer switches operate in the first two layers. Routers and three-layer switches operate in the
first three layers. Figure 3.40 shows the layers in which each device operates.

Repeaters
A repeater is a device that operates only in the physical layer. Signals that carry
information within a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation endangers the
integrity of the data. A repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes too weak or corrupted,
regenerates and retimes the original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the refreshed signal. In
the past, when Ethernet LANs were using bus topology, a repeater was used to connect two
segments of a LAN to overcome the length restriction of the Coaxial cable.

Today, however, Ethernet LANs use star topology. In a star topology, a repeater is a
multiport device, often called a hub that can be used to serve as the connecting point and at the
same time function as a repeater. Figure 3.41 shows that when a packet from station A to B
arrives at the hub, the signal representing the frame is regenerated to remove any possible
corrupting noise, but the hub forwards the packet from all outgoing port to all stations in the
LAN. In other words, the frame is broadcast. All stations in the LAN receive the frame, but only
station B keeps it. The rest of the stations discard it. Figure 3.41 shows the role of a repeater or a
hub in a switched LAN.

The figure definitely shows that a hub does not have a filtering capability; it does not
have the intelligence to find from which port the frame should be sent out.
A hub or a repeater is a physical-layer device. They do not have any data-link address
and they do not check the data-link address of the received frame. They just regenerate the
corrupted bits and send them out from every port.
Bridges
A bridge operates in both the physical and the data link layers. As a physical-layer device, it
regenerates the signal it receives. As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the MAC
addresses (source and destination) contained in the frame.

Filtering
One may ask what is the difference in functionality between a bridge and a repeater. A bridge
has filtering capability. It can check the destination address of a frame and can decide from
which outgoing port the frame should be sending out.

Let us give an example. In Figure 3.42, we have a LAN with four stations that are
connected to a bridge. If a frame destined for station 71:2B:13:45:61:42 arrives at port 1, the
bridge consults its table to find the departing port. According to its table, frames for
71:2B:13:45:61:42 should be sent out only through port 2; therefore, there is no need for
forwarding the frame through other ports.

Transparent Bridges
A transparent bridge is a bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the bridge’s
existence. If a bridge is added or deleted from the system, reconfiguration of the stations is
unnecessary. According to the IEEE 802.1d specification, a system equipped with transparent
bridges must meet three criteria:
1. Frames must be forwarded from one station to another.
2. The forwarding table is automatically made by learning frame movements in the network.
3. Loops in the system must be prevented.

Forwarding A transparent bridge must correctly forward the frames, as discussed in the
previous section.

Learning The earliest bridges had forwarding tables that were static. The system administrator
would manually enter each table entry during bridge setup. Although the process was simple, it
was not practical. If a station was added or deleted, the table had to be modified manually. The
same was true if a station’s MAC address changed, which is not a rare event. For example,
putting in a new network card means a new MAC address. A better solution to the static table is
a dynamic table that maps addresses to ports automatically. To make a table dynamic, we need a
bridge that gradually learns from the frame movements. To do this, the bridge inspects both the
destination and the source addresses. The destination address is used for the forwarding decision
(table lookup); the source address is used for adding entries to the table and for updating
purposes. Let us elaborate on this process using Figure 3.43.
1. When station A sends a frame to station D, the bridge does not have an entry for either
D or A. The frame goes out from all three ports; the frame floods the network. However, by
looking at the source address, the bridge learns that station A must be connected to port 1. This
means that frames destined for A, in the future, must be sent out through port 1. The bridge adds
this entry to its table. The table has its first entry now.
2. When station D sends a frame to station B, the bridge has no entry for B, so it floods
the network again. However, it adds one more entry to the table.
3. The learning process continues until the table has information about every port.
Two-Layer Switch
When we use the term switch, we must be careful because a switch can mean two
different things. We must clarify the term by adding the level at which the device operates. We
can have a two-layer switch or a three-layer switch. A two-layer switch performs at the physical
and data link layer; it is a sophisticated bridge with faster forwarding capability.

Routers
A router is a three-layer device; it operates in the physical, data link, and network layers.
As a physical layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives. As a data link layer device, the
router checks the physical addresses (source and destination) contained in the packet. As a
network layer device, a router checks the network layer addresses (addresses in the IP layer).
Note that bridges change collision domains, but routers limit broadcast domains.
A router can connect LANs together; a router can connect WANs together; and a router
can connect LANs and WANs together. In other words, a router is an internetworking device; it
connects independent networks together to form an internetwork. According to this definition,
two networks (LANs or WANs) connected by a router become an internetwork or an internet.
There are three major differences between a router and a repeater or a bridge.
1. A router has a physical and logical (IP) address for each of its interfaces.
2. A router acts only on those packets in which the physical destination address matches the
address of the interface at which the packet arrives.
3. A router changes the physical address of the packet (both source and destination) when it
forwards the packet.
Let us give an example. In Figure 3.44, assume an organization has two separate
buildings with a Gigabit Ethernet LANs installed in each building. The organization uses bridges
in each LAN. The two LANs can be connected together to form a larger LAN using Ten-Gigabit
Ethernet technology that speeds up the connection to the Ethernet and the connection to the
organization server. A router then can connect the whole system to the Internet.
 Internet Backbones, NAPs and ISPs
Our discussion of layering in the previous section has perhaps given the impression that the
Internet is a carefully organized and highly intertwined structure. This is certainly true in the
sense that all of the network entities (end systems, routers and bridges) use a common set of
protocols, enabling the entities to communicate with each other. If one wanted to change,
remove, or add a protocol, one would have to follow a long and arduous procedure to get
approval from the IETF, which will (among other things) make sure that the changes are
consistent with the highly intertwined structure. However, from a topological perspective, to
many people the Internet seems to be growing in a chaotic manner, with new sections, branches
and wings popping up in random places on a daily basis. Indeed, unlike the protocols, the
Internet's topology can grow and evolve without approval from a central authority. Let us now
try to a grip on the seemingly nebulous Internet topology.
As we mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, the topology of the Internet is loosely
hierarchical. Roughly speaking, from bottom-to-top the hierarchy consists of end systems (PCs,
workstations, etc.) connected to local Internet Service Providers (ISPs). The local ISPs are in
turn connected to regional ISPs, which are in turn connected to national and international ISPs.
The national and international ISPs are connected together at the highest tier in the hierarchy.
New tiers and branches can be added just as a new piece of Lego can be attached to an existing
Lego construction.
In this section we describe the topology of the Internet  in the United States as of 1999.
Let's begin at the top of the hierarchy and work our way down. Residing at the very top of the
hierarchy are the national ISPs, which are called National Backbone Provider (NBPs). The
NBPs form independent backbone networks that span North America (and typically abroad as
well). Just as there are multiple long-distance telephone companies in the USA, there are
multiple NBPs that compete with each other for traffic and customers. The existing NBPs
include  internetMCI, SprintLink, PSINet, UUNet Technologies, and AGIS. The NBPs typically
have high-bandwidth transmission links, with bandwidths ranging from 1.5 Mbps to 622 Mbps
and higher. Each NBP also has numerous hubs which interconnect its links and at
which regional ISPs can tap into the NBP.
The NBPs themselves must be interconnected to each other. To see this, suppose one
regional ISP, say MidWestnet,  is connected to the MCI NBP and another regional ISP, say
EastCoastnet, is connected to Sprint's NBP. How can traffic be sent from MidWestnet to
EastCoastnet? The solution is to introduce switching centers, called Network Access Points
(NAPs), which interconnect the NBPs, thereby allowing each regional ISP to pass traffic to any
other regional ISP. To keep us all confused, some of the NAPs are not referred to as NAPs but
instead as MAEs (Metropolitan Area Exchanges). In the United States, many of the NAPs are
run by RBOCs (Regional Bell Operating Companies)
Because the NAPs relay and switch tremendous volumes of Internet traffic, they are
typically in themselves complex high-speed switching networks concentrated in a small
geographical area (for example, a single building). Often the NAPs use high-speed ATM
switching technology in the heart of the NAP, with IP riding on top of ATM. (We provide a brief
introduction to ATM at the end of this chapter, and discuss IP-over-ATM in Chapter 5)  Figure
1.8-1 illustrates PacBell's San Francisco NAP, The details of Figure 1.8-1 are unimportant for us
now; it is worthwhile to note, however, that the NBP hubs can themselves be complex data
networks.

 
The astute reader may have noticed that ATM technology, which uses virtual circuits, can
be found at certain places within the Internet. But earlier we said that the "Internet is a datagram
network and does not use virtual circuits". We admit now that this statement stretches the truth a
little bit. We made this statement because it helps the reader to see the forest through the trees by
not having the main issues obscured. The truth is that there are virtual circuits in the Internet, but
they are in localized pockets of the Internet and they are buried deep down in the protocol stack,
typically at layer 2. If you find this confusing, just pretend for now that the Internet does not
employ any technology that uses virtual circuits. This is not too far from the truth.
Running an NBP is not cheap. In June 1996, the cost of leasing 45 Mbps fiber optics
from coast-to-coast, as well as the additional hardware required, was approximately $150,000
per month. And the fees that an NBP pays the NAPs to connect to the NAPs can exceed
$300,000 annually. NBPs and NAPs also have significant capital costs in equipment for high-
speed networking. An NBP earns money by charging a monthly fee to the regional ISPs that
connect to it. The fee that an NBP charges to a regional ISP typically depends on the bandwidth
of the connection between the regional ISP and the NBP; clearly a 1.5 Mbps connection would
be charged less than a 45 Mbps connection. Once the fixed-bandwidth connection is in place, the
regional ISP can pump and receive as much data as it pleases, up to the bandwidth of the
connection, at no additional cost. If an NBP has significant revenues from the regional ISPs that
connect to it, it may be able to cover the high capital and monthly costs of setting up and
maintaining an NBP.
A regional ISP is also a complex network, consisting of routers and transmission links
with rates ranging from 64 Kbps upward. A regional ISP typically taps into an NBP (at an NBP
hub), but it can also tap directly into an NAP, in which case the regional NBP pays a monthly fee
to a NAP instead of to a NBP. A regional ISP can also tap into the Internet backbone at two or
more distinct points (for example, at an NBP hub or at a NAP). How does a regional ISP cover
its costs? To answer this question, let's jump to the bottom of the hierarchy.
End systems gain access to the Internet by connecting to a local ISP. Universities and
corporations can act as local ISPs, but backbone service providers can also serve as a local ISP. 
Many local ISPs are small "mom and pop" companies, however. A popular WWW site known
simple as "The List" contains link to nearly 8000 local, regional, and backbone ISPs. The local
ISPs tap into one of the regional ISPs in its region. Analogous to the fee structure between the
regional ISP and the NBP, the local ISP pays a monthly fee to its regional ISP which depends on
the bandwidth of the connection. Finally, the local ISP charges its customers (typically) a flat,
monthly fee for Internet access: the higher the transmission rate of the connection, the higher the
monthly fee.
We conclude this section by mentioning that anyone of us can become a local ISP as soon
as we have an Internet connection. All we need to do is purchase the necessary equipment (for
example, router and modem pool) that is needed to allow other users to connect to our so-called
"point of presence." Thus, new tiers and branches can be added to the Internet topology just as a
new piece of Lego can be attached to an existing Lego construction.