UNIT 2 THE LANGUAGE OF TELEVISION

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 The Language of Television
2.2.1 Basic television shots
2.2.2 Camera angles
Subjectivity and objectivity in shots
Complementary shots
2.3.3 Pictures composition
A Rule of Thirds
Psychological closure
Headroom
Impression of depth
2.2.4 Camera movement
2.2.5 Transitions
2.2.6 Cues and commands/symbols
2.3 Let Us Sum Up
2.4 Check Your Progress: The key

INTRODUCTION

1 In'the previous unit we presented to you an overview of audiolvideo

prodiction process. It was evident that script development is one of the
major parts in the total production process. In order to execute the script in
terms of a visual programme for television one has to understand the
specific language of television, which all production professionals use.
Basically television programmes show us pictures taken from different
angles, positions, and of different parts of the objects. These pictures when
r edited and rearranged to form a structured programme create the required
I
mood and present the relevant content. In this unit I will provide you with a
thorough understanding of the basic language of the television, through
which you will be able to interact with programme production staff more
effectively and efficiently.

I 2.1 OBJECTIVES
I After going through this unit, you should be able to
identify various kinds of shots;
differentiate camera angles;
use camera angles to draw attention;
compose pictures uking the processes, viz. framing, head room and
I illusion of depth;
explain the role of camera movements;
describe various transition devices; and
relate cues and commands to their specific pufposes.
 Audio and Video Production, (Part A)

2.2 THE LANGUAGE OF TELEVISION

Today, media production, all over the world, has evolved to take on the
status of an independent disciplirie. Thus it now has a distinct language with
its own register and grammar. This is used and understood internationally.
Film and television are media, which communicate primarily through
visuals. This element of commonality has provided the base for its language
and grammar, and is the prime argument for the case as to why we should be
familiar with the language of media if we are to work with any of the
components of the media. The following subsections attempt to familiarise
you with certain basic aspects of the language of film and television.

2.2.1 Basic television shots

A shot is the smallest convenient visual unit in television or films. We use
shots of varying sizes in a programme. Shots are of several kinds and are

BCU.
CU
MCU
. MS
MLS

LS

L I
Fig. 4: Basic Shots

Note: It is important to member that a visual frame (if it involves an animated subject) should never be cut in
the joints. So when we say cut at the knees, what we mean is cut either above or below the knees.
BCU : Big Close Up LS : Long Shot MCU : Medium Close Up
CU : Close Up MS : Medium shot MLS : Medium Long Shot
 The Language of Television

classified in accordance with the view in front of the camera - what we term
'field of view'. In this context, when we have a subject, the shot is described
by the position of the subject shown. The shots, for the cameraperson, may
also be described by the number of objects or subjects shown and by the
angle of the camera. The five basic shots used in television are as follows in
terms of 'field of view'.
i) A long shot (LS): This is a shot that describes a particular location
where the p~imaryaction is taking place. In other words, it is a picture
fiame with its entire background in focus. A long shot may be
repeated fiom time to time to ensure that the viewer's orientation is
towards the location. There are other variations available, a such as a
Very Long Shot (VLS) or an Extreme Long Shot (ELS). These shots
are also referred to as Wide Shots.

Fig. 5: Long Shot Fig. 6: Very Long Shot

ii) Medium long shot (MLS): It is a shot

in which the principal subject is shown
from the knee upwards with the
background in the picture. For example
in figure 7 the girl in the garden is seen
from knee level.

Fig. 7: Medium long shot

iii) Medium Close Up (MCU): Here the

subject is shown waist upwards. In this
type of shot, the principal focus is the
subject, though the background is seen
in some detail. This is also referred to
as a mid shot (Fig. 8). This shot is
particularly useful in programmes with
a demonstration format. A typical
example would be a subject describihg-
or showing a model. Fig. 8: Medium Shot
iv) Medium Close Up (MCU): It is cut
at the level of the lower chest or the
breast pocket below or above the
armpit of the subject. Here the
subject is in primary focus and the
background loses its importance.
These shots are useful in interviews,
panel discussims and any other
presenter based programme formats (Fig O' Fig, ,:
Mdi,,m Close Up

v) Close Up (CU): As the term

indicates, this shot shows the
subject at close quarters. If the
subject is a person, it is cut at collar
level. The subject is primarily in
focus. These shots are useful in
drarnatised formats where facial
expressions are significant. They
Fig. 10: Close Up
can also be used to highlight details.

vi) Big Close Up (BCU): This shot is

useful for highlighting minute
details. Typically, this shot is used
to study intense facial expressions
to build up a sense of drama in
formats, which require such details
(Fig. 11). Fig. 11:Big Close Up

We have just described the basic television shots in terms of 'field of view'.
They are basic because of their simplicity on the one hand and the fact that
they form the basics of the language of the television on the other. However
fiom the point of view of the cameraperson, shots may also be discussed in
terms of what the entire h m e or the visual contents.
For example a one-shot is a picture of one person or object. A two-shot
fiames two people in a visual. A three-shot will have three people or objects
and so on. More than four people will be referred to as a group-shot. A
fiarne of a bigger group is called a crowd shot.

Fig. 12: Single Shot Fig. 13: Two Shot

 Flg. 14: T b m Shot Fig. IS: Croup Sbot

Fig. 16: Crowd Shot

2.2.2 Camera angles

The camera is an extension of the human eye. The viewer is able to see any
object of study or an expression of the human subject without shifting from
hislher position. The camera sees barely a 54 degree angle while the
maximum range of vision of the human eye is a 120 degree angle. That is
the reason why knowledge of camera movements is important in production.
We need to shift the camera constantly to take picture fiom different angles.
 Audio and Video Production (Pat? A)

Broadly, we can describe a shot in terms of camera angles in three major

ways. They are (i) the normal angle shot (ii) a low angle shot and (iii) a high
angle shot. The high angle shot, if taken from the air or a high vantagepoint,
will be called an aerial shot.

Fig. 17: Normal angle Shot Fig. 18: Low angle Shot Fig. 19: High angle Shot

Fig. 20: Aerial Shot

The normal camera angle is a shot at the eye level of the subject. In this
case, the subject happens to be looking directly into the eyes of the viewer.
In the case of a low angle shot, the camera lens goes a few feet below the
normal eye level. A typical example, here, would be the camera positioning
itself at the level of the child looking up at an adult. In the case of a high
angle shot the reverse happens. However, in an aerial shot the camera is
physically lifted and positioned at an overhead angle. You must have often
seen the use of such shots in the coverage of sport events (for example the
Olympics).
Subjectivity and objectivity in shots
In technical terms, if a camera is positioned at an axis of 90 degree to the
action, it is called an objective shot. This is used to project the visual from a
detached point of view. A typical example would be watching a tennis
match from the referee's position. The same shot, if it moves in an arc to a
view over the shoulder of one of the players, indicates the beginning of a
subjective shot. A subjective camera angle indicates the physical point of
 view of one of the players. Here the viewer is aligned with the predicament
of one of the players by being inade to virtually stand in hisher shoes.
Complementary shots
Here is a typical 'over the shoulder' shot.
These shots are compositionally so
designed as to interact in a reverse order
with the preceding subjective shot in a
given programme. For example, a set
over the head and shoulder of one player
will have to be juxtaposed with the
similar shot of another player. These
shots are particularly useful in drama,
Fig.21: Over the Shoulder Shot
interview, demonstration and kiiscussion f oI ~
In such formats, the action shots have complementary reactions - for
example, the shots of the audience watching a tennis match. Reaction shots
which happen at the same time segment as the main shot but away from its
location are called cut-away shots. This shot temporarily draws attention
away from the main event and is used
generally to break the monotony of action.
It is also usefbl in cases where the total time
of action needs to be condensed, yet
continuity of action is to be maintained. For
example, the following strip of visuals gives
you a dramatic sequence of events in terms
of an objective shot (Fig. 22), a subjective
shot (Fig. 23) which is the point of view of
the woman, and the reaction shot, that of the Fig. 22: Objective shot
child. (Fig. 24).

Fig. 24: Reaction Shot

Fig. 23: Subjective Shot ,

2.2.3 Picture composition

The television, is a medium, which encompasses both visual and audio
elements. The director is responsible for deciding on what should be
contained in a picture frame. It is the cameraperson who arranges the details
or elements to create the best possible effect. In other words, the director's
visualisation and the cameraperson's framing contribute equally to a picture
Audio and Video Production (Part A)

composition. The process of picture composition includesframing,

headroom, and illusion of depth. You must remember that the television is
concerned with moving pictures, so the three factors mentioned above are.
actually more relevant to still picture. However they form the base for any
good picture composition in television as well.

A rule of thirds
A principle frequently cited in writing
about picture composition is the rule of
thirds. Simply stated, this 'rule' suggests
that the screen be mentally divided
horizontally and vertically by the
cameraperson into three equal parts and
that the cameraperson try to locate the
major elements of interest in the subject
Fig. 25: 'A Rule of Thirds'
at the four points at which the lines
intersect. Do take a few moments to
observe Figure 25.
Here the placement of the object (the head of a horse with looking room)
creates depth. The dotted lines show you how a wrong placement could
spoil the frame.

Psychological closure
This is another framing consideration that suggests that the human mind is
capable of filling in missing parts of familiar objects that we see. The
principle of psychological closure is not limited to the placement of the
object. Bizarre impressions can be created inadvertently when the frame
cuts the subject at one of the natural joints of the body. The cameraperson is
well advised to avoid these 'amputee shots'. For example in Figure 26, the
dotted lines show a frame where we see the foot resting on the ball! When
the framing is corrected we see the other I
foot in position and thus an image
emerges of the ball being dribbled,
though we do not see the player. The
subject should either be placed well
within the frame or moved well out of the I
I
frame so that psychological closure can
come into play for the viewer.
Fig. 26: 'Psychological Closure'.
Headroom
Headroom refers to the area between the top of the subject's head and the
'ceiling' of the frame. Aside from the need to keep some space in framing a'
subject due to the possibility of cropping, there are aesthetic reasons why
crowding in the top of the frame can distract and detract from the shot. We
are used to seeing some space around people: a lack of headroom may create
an impression as if the subject is trying to lift the ceiling with hisher head. ,
The same kind of effect results from too much headroom. However there are
no rules of thumb as to how much room should be provided. It is left to the
 aesthetic judgement of the cameraperson. The term headroom is associated
with vertical framing considerations. Often called nose room, take space or
lead space, this involves leaving more space in front of the person's head
than behind. Dead centre framing lacks pictorial interest. For an illustration
of this point see the figures 27 to 30 on the next page.

Fig. 27: Headroom Fig. 28: Lead Space

Fig. 29: Dead Centre Framing Fig. 30: 'Lead Space' Framing

'he wrong framing is marked by dotted lines. In Fig. 29, both the dolled and p l a ~ rrulcs
~ indicate wrong framing.

Impression of depth
To minimise the two-dimensional aspects of the TV screen, the
cameraperson can sometimes make minor adjustments in camera angle and
1
camera position to lend the impression of depth and of three dimensionality.
With the approval of the director, the cameraperson might include an object
in the foreground as a point of reference against which the viewer can judge
the relative size and distance of objects in the middle and background. A
doorway or a window, the corner of a table, the shoulder of a person in the
foreground beyond which the viewers see the main scene - all these are
ways to lend an illusion of depth to the scene.

Fig. 31: 'Walking Room' Fig. 32: Screen Depth

 Audio and Video Production (Part A)

In Figures 3 1 and 32, the details in the foreground give valuable hints about
the locale and thus lend an illusion of
depth. In the same vein, we should point
out the importance of appropriate, tight
framing. The cameraperson should be
alert to avoid accidental, incoogruous
alignment of the subject with the
background items. For example, in
Figure 33, the background details and the
subject's head merge together to createla
fuzzy, unclear impression. Fig. 33: Fuzzy Composition

In Figure 34, the dotted lines show

inappropriate flaming, which results in
unclear, loose shots. The fact that there is
a motorboat emerges only with the
appropriate tight framing.

Fig. 34: ~ppropriateFraming:

Tight Shots
2.2.4 Camera movement
When the picture on the programme line is switched, the cameraperson
should be able to see not only hisher own viewfinder but also the studio
monitor. with regard to picture composition the cameraperson should make
some effort under the director's supervision to blend shots with those of the
other cameras so that the shots can be taken1 smoothly. Several types of
camera movements are used (i) to show action onscreen and (ii) to give the
maximum information possible.
i) Static or still shot: This shot is seen from a static camera angle
irrespective of the movement within the visual.
ii) Pan shot (orpanning shot): k h o t involving a simple camera
movement in which the camera head is moved (pivoted) lift or right on the
horizontal plane, while the base of the camera remains static. (also called
panorama shot).
Pan right: In a right panning shot the camera head is turned horizontally to
the right, i.e., in clockwise movement which is obtained by pushing the
panning handle to the left.
Pan leji: In a left panning shot the camera head is turned horizontally to the
left, i.e., in an anti-clockwise movement which is obtained by pushing the
panning handle to the right. For an illustration see Figure 35.
 The Language of Television

Fig. 35: Pan Shot

iii) Tilt (up and down): A simple camera movement in which the camera
head is made to move up or down vertically. In a tilt-up, the camera is
gradually moved to point up. In a tilt down, the camera is gradually moved
to point down.
iv) Crab (crab IejVcrab right): sideways movement of the whole camera
on its wheels or dolly. Crab left means moving the camera mount to the
camera's left. Crab right means moving the camera mount to the camera's
right.
v) Truck (Truck idtruck out): Trucking means moving the camera on its
mount towards or away from the subject. A movlementtowards the subject
is called truck in and m e away fiom the subject is called truck out. Similar
to this is 'dolly in' or 'dolly out' (Also called track in or track out).
vi) ~olf' (idout): Movement of the camera on its wheels or dolly,
forward on or backward from a scene or subject in more or less a straight
line. 'Dolly in' is moving the camera closer to the subject. Dolly out (for
dolly back) is moving the camera away fiom the subject.
vii) Crane (up/down): Up and down movement of the whole camera on a
camera crane. 'Crane-up' and 'Crane down7movements are seen as very
similar to 'pedestal-up7 and 'pedestal-down'.

2.2.5 Transitions
Having learnt about visuals and camera movements, there arises the need to
blend shots, or visuals with one another, in order to present a theme or a
sequence of actions smoothly. This brings us to the post production section
of the television production scenario. There are various transitional devices
which are defined in terms of the grammar of production to juxtapose or to
dovetail the shots smoothly.
These are

' the cut

Audio and Video Production (Purl A)

dissolve (mix)
superimposition (super)
fade
wipe
chroma key.
Let us take a quick look at what each of these devices entails.
The cut: All 'reality' programmes, news, interviews, panel discussions, quiz
shows which aim to show something actually happening, without
production technique embellishment, use the switching process known as a
cut. The definition of a cut is a switch from one camera's picture to another
camera's picture instantaneously. However, with the increase in general
awareness of the viewers today, a cut is used to show a change of locale or
mood, too.
Thefade, the dissolve and the super are 'special effects' switching and are
used in 'illusion' programmes of such as drama, dance, music etc. A fade-in
is a gradual transition from 110 picture (black) to a picture. A fade-out is a
gradual transition from a picture to no picture (black). The dissolve is a cut
achieved very slowly.
When using a still camera, if you forget to advance the roll of film to the
next number, a double exposure results and your picture is ruined! A super
in TV switching is an international double exposure. The pictures from two
separate cameras are presented in the air simultaneously. For example, if a
vocalist is performing in front of a black background, camera 1 might show
only the face of the vocalist in the lower part of its frame while camera 2
might show the entire torso in the upper right corner of its frame. Since
black does not 'photograph' in TV when both these shots are simultaneously
on the monitor, only the two differing views of the performer appear. Some
other special effects available are the 'wipe' - the electronic removal of one
camera's picture and its replacement by another's picture and the chrome
key - a special effects generator which selects electronically any colour of
the TV spectrum and replaces it with another picture from another camera.
 The Language of Television

2.2.6 Cues and cornrnandslsymbols and signals

Television's language also includes a large number of cues and commands, \
abbreviations, symbols and signals. Everybody should be familiar with the
producer's commands, floor manager's signals used in the studio or on field
location, and symbols and abbreviations used on scripts, camera cards, floor
plans and cue sheets. Similarly, the producer or director is required to
communicate with a large number of people quickly and precisely. So the
terminology helshe uses while calling the shots from the gallery must be
correctly understood by all members of the production team.
In this sub-section, we reprohce some important commands commonly
used by producersldirectors; symbols, abbreviations and markings used on
TVJvideo scripts, floor plans, camera cards etc. and some important signals
used by the floor manager and other members of the floor staff during the
middle of a programme recording.
Producer's Commands
Verbal commands Commands meant for
Stand by StudiolCameraNCR~Sound~Talent (for
rehearsallrecording/final take)
Silence on the floor Everybody
RollIStart CameraNCRIFilmlSound tape
Action Presenterltalent
Ready Camera (1 1213)
Cut Camera(ll213) or VT/Film .
DissolveIMix Camera(ll213) or VT/Film
Cue Music Start music (live or taped)
UPlDownJUnderMusic Camera(ll213) ..............
Pan (RightILeft) Camera(ll213) ..............
Tilt ( U ~ I D O ~ ~ ) Camera(ll213) ...............
Zoom (Idout) Camera(ll213) or Sound/Tape/Music
Fade (Idout) Camera(ll213)
Focus (InfOut or Defocus) Camera 1 or 2
Super (on 11213)
Lose Super Presenterltalentltap
Change Caption
CuelQ
Hold It
Pack Up /Wrap Up
Fade Sound & Vision
Thanks Everybody.

Abbreviations for TVNdeo Scripts

Some widely used abbreviations on video scripts are as follows:
Abbreviation Full form
PA Production Assistant
FM Floor Manager
AFM Asstt. Floor Manager
' CAM Camera
MICIMIKE Microphone
Audio and Video Production (Part A)

WNTR VideotapeIRecorder
TCITK Telecine
CIS Caption Scanner
Cap Caption
PIX Photo caption
PIC Pichirelgraphic
BPIRP BackIRear Projection
AA3 As Before
SI Slide
VD Video disc
OIC On Camera
Q Cue
SIB. Stand By
To CAM To Camera
S/I Superimpose
Lose Lose super
CK: Chroma Key
SIS Split Screen
O/S(OSS) Over Shoulder Shot
Cut Cut
Mix/Dis. Dissolve
Wipe Wipe
FU/FI Fade up/Fade in
FO Fade out
X-Fade Cross fade
FIB Fold back
FX Effect
SFX Special effect
Anno Pres: Presenter
SOF Sound on Film
SOT Sound on Tape
Mute SilenttWithout sound
MOS Man on the street
Prop: Property
Ext Exterior
Int Interior
Mon Monitor
Roller Roller Caption
TXI'TXN Transmission
FS&V Fade sound and vision

F h r ~ a n a g e'sr Signals
The floor manager also communicates through commonly understood
signals during the course of a recording. Important signals are presented in
Figure 36 below.
 The Lunguage of Telmision

Half A M m e

Use Boldiy Written

On Air I~lstrudiars
.--.___.-- To PresenterslArtists

-29
Audio and Video Production (Part A)

LET US SUM UP
The basic language of television is 'visuals'. How the visuals are presented
makes all the difference between a good or a bad programmes, between the
best and the average. In this unit you have learnt about various types of
shots, camera angles, picture composition, camera movement, transition and
the cues and commands used in television production. Whether you want to
write a script or negotiate with production staff, it is essential that you
understand these and use the proper language to communicate.

2 . 4 m YOURPROGRESS:
~ ~ ~ THE KEY
1) i) A shot is the smallest convenient visual unit in a video
programme. The five basic shots used afe: CU (close.shot). MCU
(medium close shot), MS (medium shot), MLS (medium long
shot), LS (long shot).
ii) Descriptions of the most commonly used shots are as follows:
LS Very long shot It shows the subject from
(orwide shot) very long distance, far
(or Extreme long away from the camera,
shot alocgwith a large
background.
Long shot It shows the depth of the
view and a lot of the
background around the
subject.
MLS Medium long shot It covers the subject from
the knee upwards, along
with a lot of background.
MS Medium shot It covers the subject's
(mid shot or body from the waist
waist shot) upwards.
MCU Medium close up It cuts the subject's body
(or burst shot) at the lower chest pocket,
below the armpit.
Close up It cuts the subject just
below the neck-tie knot
and features.
BCU Big close up It shows the extreme
close up of an object from
a close range.
A shot of a single person
in the frame.
A shot whic'h includes
 i%e,L.anguage of Television

two people in the frame.

3-Shot Three-shot A shot featuring three
people in the frame.
Group shot of Crowd shot It features a number of
people in the frame.
OSS Over the shoulder shot A shot featuring two
(or cross shot/)(-shot) people in such a way that
the camera looks at one
of them over the shoulder
of the other.
2) i) A transitional device provides an acceptable link between one shot
and the other. It helps us to put two shots together in such a way that
we see the two as related to each other.
ii) These are special effects, used in 'illusion' programmes. The 'fade'
is the transition from a blank screen to a picture or vice versa. The
'dissolve' is a cut in slow motion. Super is the imposition of one
image on another.