GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF Variables in Instructional Planning (Brown,

TEACHING 1988)
•teacher - attitudes, beliefs, teacher’s content
Topics: background
1. Instructional Planning •students - age, background knowledge,
2. Definition of Terms motivational level, interest
3. Techniques of teaching, discussion, art of •content - the type of content that influences the
questioning, classroom management planning process, textbook being used
• learning content - subject matter guidelines
Competencies: •material/ resources- activities and equipment/ tools
1. Explain the general principles and methods of for teaching are considered first in planning
teaching •time- considerable planning for time
2. Distinguish expository and exploratory methods
of teaching Lesson Plan
3. Name the different strategies using the indirect • Sets forth the proposed program or instructional
discovery approach activities for each day
4. Use principles of teaching learning associated • A daily plan
with instructional operations and curricular • A step-by-step approach to learning
management
• Instructional Planning Components of Lesson Plan
• Stating Objectives 1. Objectives
• Selection of learning activities to achieve 2. Subject matter
objectives 3. Learning activities
5. Select and apply teaching techniques appropriate - review/ drills
for particular teaching learning situations. - motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic)
- presentation of the lesson
INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING: DEFINITION, - generalization
PRINCIPLE AND COMPONENTS - application
Instructional Planning 4. Evaluation
The ability to visualize into the future—creating, 5. Assignment (for enrichment, extension or
arranging, organizing and designing events in the remedial
mind that may occur in the classroom accurate time
management and related instances teacher’s ability Instructional Objectives
to make decisions about the how and what of • Specific and relates to singular subjects and grade
teaching. levels which includes
a. Behavior – Do what?
Importance/ Function of Instructional Planning b. Condition – Under what conditions?
• Provides an overview of instruction c. Criteria – How well?
- presents a total picture of the lesson for the
day or for the year Aims
- allows some degree of flexibility • General objectives of the Philippine Educational
• Facilitates good management and instruction System; broad and value-laden statements about the
- provides a classroom script to follow as intent of education
lessons are conducted • Answer the needs and demands of society
- shows a clear direction of lessons especially children and youths
• Makes learning purposeful • Formulated by experts
- teacher’s clear understanding of students’
behavior will help increase students’ Goals
opportunities for learning and reduce • Statements that cut across subjects and grade
anxiety and uncertainty levels
- enables the teachers to engage in reflective • Represent the entire school program by
thinking before making/writing a unit/lesson professional associations
plan or even during teaching time • More definite than aims but still non-behavioral
• Provides for sequencing and pacing and therefore non-observable and non-measurable
• Economize time
• Makes learners’ success more measurable which Objective
assists in reteaching • Description of what is to eventually take place at
• Provides for a variety of instructional objectives the classroom level that are stated in:
• Creates opportunity for higher level questioning • Behavioral terms
• Assists in ordering supplies • State specific skills
• Guides substitute teachers • Tasks
• Content attitudes
Domains and Levels of Objectives • Psychomotor Domain - objectives in this domain
Each domain reflects a particular set of beliefs and are especially appropriate of the objectives
assumptions about how students learn and behave. generally associated with motor and muscular-skill
development
• Cognitive Domain – objectives that have their  Perception - Uses the sense organs to obtain
purpose to develop students’ intellectual skills. cues that guide motor activity; ranges from
1. Bloom’s Taxonomy sensory stimulation (awareness) through cue
 Knowledge - emphasis on remembering selection to translation.
information  Set – Readiness to take a particular action,
 Comprehension – emphasis on includes mental, physical, and emotional set.
understanding and organizing previously Perception is an important prerequisite.
learned information  Guided response- Concerned with early
 Application - emphasis on using information stages of learning a complex skill. Includes
in pertinent situations imitation, trial and error.
 Analysis – emphasis on thinking critically  Mechanism- Concerned with habitual
about information by studying its parts responses that can be performed with some
 Synthesis - emphasis on original thinking confidence and proficiency ( less complex).
about information by putting its parts into  Complex Overt response-Skillfully performs
new whole. acts that require complex movement
 Evaluation - emphasis on making judgments patterns, like the highly coordinated motor
about information based on identified activities. Proficiency indicated by quick,
standards smooth, and accurate performance, requiring
2. Anderson’s Taxonomy (Revised Bloom’s minimum effort.
Taxonomy)  Adaptation – Concerned with skills so well
 Remembering learned that they are modified to fit special
 Understanding requirements or to meet a problem situation.
 Applying  Origination- Creates new movement patterns
 Analyzing to fit a particular situation or problems
 Evaluating
 Creating
GENERAL PRINCIPLES & METHODS OF
3. Marzano and Kendall’s Taxonomy- consists of TEACHING
three learning system (Cognitive, Metacognitive,
and Self-System) Concepts
 Retrieval • Approach- viewpoint toward teaching
 Comprehension • Strategy- general design of how the lesson
 Analysis will be delivered
 Knowledge Utilization • Method- procedure employed to
 Metacognition accomplish the lesson objective/s
 Self-System • Technique- style or art of carrying out the
steps of a method
• Affective Domain - deals with attitudes, values,
interest and appreciation which ranges from simple Principles Underlying Instruction
awareness or perception of something to 1. Principle of Context – learning depends
internalizing a phenomenon so that it becomes a largely on the setting materials in which the
part of one’s lifestyle process goes on. This principle comes in
 Receiving – emphasis on becoming aware of different scales of application:
some communication or phenomenon from • textbook only
the environment • textbook with a supplementary
 Responding – emphasis on reacting to a material
communication or phenomenon through • non-academic and current materials
participation (newspaper, clippings, articles,
 Valuing – emphasis on attaching worth to magazine)
something form the environment evaluating • multi-sensory aids
beliefs in the form of acceptance, • field experiences; personal, social
preference, and commitment and community understanding
 Organization – organizing the values in 2. Principle of Focus – instruction must be
relation to each other organized about a focus or direction. Scales
 Characterization – acts in accordance with of application of Focus established by:
the accepted value and becomes part of • page assignment in textbook
personality • announced topic together with page
or chapter references
 • broad concept or a problem to be A Comparison between Direct and Indirect
solved, or a skill to be acquired to Approaches
carry on understanding
3. Principle of Socialization – instruction
depends upon the social setting in which it is
done. Scales of application:
Social patterns characterized by:
•submission
•contribution
•cooperation
4. Principle of Individualization – instruction
must progress in terms of the learner’s own
purposes, aptitudes, abilities and
experimental procedures. Scales of
application of Individualization through:
• differential performance in uniform
tasks
• homogenous grouping
• control plan
• individual instruction
• large units with optional related
activity
• individual undertakings, stemming
from and contributing to the joint
undertaking of the group of learners
5. Principle of Sequence – instruction depends
on effective ordering of a series of learning
tasks. Sequence is a movement:
▪ from meaningless to emergence of
meaning
• from immediate to remote
• from concrete to symbolic
• from crude to discriminating Direct Instruction Methodology
Scalesof application of Sequence through: 1. Deductive Teaching/Anticipatory
• logical succession of blocks of Deduction/Explanatory Deduction
content (lesson/courses)
• knitting learning/lesson/course Concept/s
together by introductions, previews, • presents a rule/concept/generalization/
pretests, reviews principle
• organized in terms of readiness • illustrate these rule/concept, etc. with
• organized in terms of lines of examples
emerging meanings
6. Principle of Evaluation – learning is Anticipatory – forecasts details found in the
heightened by a valid and discriminating different students
appraisal of all its aspects. Scales of Explanatory – connects facts with principles
application: as interpreted by the teacher
• evaluation or direct results only
• evaluation related to objectives and Steps
process a. Statement of the Problem
• evaluation on total learning process • motivation
and results • discussion/relating problem to real life
situation
b. Generalization
General Approaches to Teaching • solve the problem from given one or two
Two approaches in teaching: Direct Instruction generalization, rules
Approach and Indirect Instruction Approach c. Inferring
• look for the principle that will fit the
solution of the problem
d. Verification
• establish validity using
references/materials
2. Showing Method b. Implementation
• Introduction - defining the purpose of the
Concept/s lesson, sharing of objectives and overview
• use for teaching concepts and skills to help students see the organization of the
• a teacher-centered strategy that uses lesson
teacher explanation and modeling combined • Presentation - defining/explaining major
with student practice and feedback to teach ideas
concepts and skills • Comprehension monitoring - determining
• widely applicable in different content areas whether or not student understand concepts
• establishes interaction between teacher and and ideas
students • Integration - exploring interconnections
• helps students to learn procedural between important ideas
knowledge • Review and closure - summarizing the
• promotes learning of declarative lecture
knowledge
• focuses students’ attention on specific 4. Demonstration Strategy
content/skill
• ensures mastery of skills Concept/s
• a show and tell method
Steps • teacher presents and talks about a process,
a. Introduction a concept and shows the principles
• review of prior learning • learner observes and notes down events
b. Presentation during teachers’ performance
• explaining the new concept
• modeling the skill Steps
c. Guided practice with necessary feedback a. Preparation
• provides necessary practice to practice new • motivation
skills • identify objectives/problem/procedure
• categorize examples of new concept b. Explanation of Concepts/Principles/
d. Independent Practice Process/Theory, etc.
• more practice of the skill on concept c. Demonstration of concept process by the
learned for retention and transfer teacher, students observe and take down
notes
3. Lecture/Discussion/Expository Method d. Discussion of students’ observations and
answering problems
Concept e. Verification - justification conclusion
• designed to keep students learn organized
bodies of knowledge Indirect Instruction Methodologies
• a teacher-directed model designed to keep 1. Inductive Teaching
learners understand relationship in organized
bodies of knowledge Concept/s
• attempts to help students understand not • It is a discovery learning strategy
only the concepts but how they are related • Involves many observable cases or
• based on David Ausubel’s concept of instances that can be compared by the
meaningful verbal learning learners
• helps learner link new with prior learning • Students formed own conclusions/
and relate the different parts of new learning generalization when they are ready to do so
to each other • Used when the generalizations are
• designed to overcome the most important important enough to justify the time spent to
weakness of the lecture method by strongly the lesson
emphasizing learners involvement in the • Lesson progresses from observations to
learning process generalizations
• applicable in different subject areas
• ensures clear understanding of information Steps
• allows student’s participation a. Preparation
• apperception
Steps • motivation
a. Planning • presentation of the aims of the lesson
• Identifying goals b. Presentation
• Diagnosing student background • teacher/learner cite specific cases of
• Structuring instances which will be the source/ bases of
• Preparing advance organizers drawing generalization
c. Comparison and Abstraction 3. Laboratory Method
• noting commonalities/differences among
the cases, examples cited Concept/s
d. Generalization • Hands-on experiences about materials or
• Draw generalization for the instances/ facts obtained from research, investigation
examples given from generalization which or experiences
can be a rule, a formula, principle, concept, • Actual context of learners with the
etc. materials/variables
e. Applications • Used to develop skill in basic science
• Use the newly learned generalizations in process
new real life situations • A discovery experience
• Develop centered thinking skills
2. Inquiry Approach • Involves all students in the manipulative
skills
Concept/s • Role of teacher is mostly supervision of
• Engages learners in critical thinking, activity
analysis and problem solving • Proper handling of tools, equipment,
• A systematic and disciplined method of laboratory material (keeping/using/retrieval)
solving and assessing results • Opportunity to improvise tools/equipment
• Involves testing solution to see if they
work and a step-step procedure to solve a Steps
problem systematically a. Preparatory
• Engages students in investigative work • Motivation
• Involves scientific ways of solving • Orientation to the work/activity
problems that include these steps: • Presentation of materials
1. Defining problems • Precautionary measures
2. Formulation of hypotheses b. Supervised Work Period/Laboratory
3. Gathering data • Students work on the problem (may be the
4. Analyzing & interpreting data same of different problem)
5. Making conclusion • Teacher supervises the students’ work
c. Culminating Activities
Forms of Inquiry • Reporting of group work result/findings
1. Guided Inquiry – teacher provides data, • Discussion of the process/findings
problems, and questions to students • Formulation of generalization, rule, concepts,
2. Open inquiry – Students give etc.
solutions/gather data and draw conclusions • Application of the discussed
3. Individualized Inquiry - Students work concepts/generalization to new situation
independently
4. Problem Solving Method
Steps
a. Presentation and clarification of a problem/ Concept/s
issue of inquiry • An activity that will remove a difficulty or
• presentation of objectives flexibility through reasoning process
• statement of the problem, issue or query • May be used; for solving a whole
• clarification of the problem unit/subject as a problem or utilizing
b. Formulation of Hypotheses problem solving method in a unit of work
• giving tentative solutions to the problem/ • Involves scientific ways of searching
query information
• clarify hypotheses • Energizes students to participate activity to
• noting down of hypotheses find the best solution to a problem
c. Gathering Data • Develop higher order thinking skills
• select references/sources of data/ (HOTS)
information • Enhances analytical, logical and create
• appraise and organize the needed abilities
information to answer the problem solving • Involves these steps:
d. Testing Hypothesis ✓ Defining problems
e. Formulation of Conclusions ✓ Stating/explaining
• Note needs for more study and evaluate ✓ Critical evaluation of
procedures hypothesis/solution
f. Application ✓ Verification of accepted
• Solving problems using rule/principle etc. hypotheses
in new situations
 Steps • Involves planning and carrying out of the
a. Identification and recognition of the planned activities
problem • Students completes certain task in a natural
b. Discussion of key elements of the problem manner
c. Statement of hypotheses • Involves the use of physical materials to
• Students give/suggests temporary solutions complete the unit of experience
to the problems • Develops sense of cooperation,
d. Collection/Gathering Data responsibility to complete a task
• Noting down relevant • Energizes students to evaluate own and
information/evidences other’s works (projects) objectively based
• Interpretation of related evidences on developed criteria.
• Organizing collected/gathered information
e. Critical evaluation of suggested solutions or Steps
hypotheses a. Purposing
f. Verification of accepted hypotheses • Statement of objectives of the projects
• Testing of given solutions/hypotheses • Explain the nature of the project
g. Application of the solutions to solve the • Teacher and students decide on the
problem– given problem or another problem activities cooperatively
b. Executing
5. Discovery Teaching • Student carry out the activities as planned
under the guidance of the teacher
Concept/s c. Evaluation
• Teacher facilitates discovery • Viewing of finished project
• Learners participate actively in the • Evaluation by teacher and students based
learning process on some decided criteria for the project
• Learning depends on own insights, evaluation
reflections and experiences (discovery
learning) Other Indirect Models/Strategies of Teaching
1. Problem-Based Instruction (PBI)
The two discovery teaching strategies are:  The essence of PBI consists of
✓ Inductive discovery presenting students with
✓ Deductive discovery authentic/meaningful situation that can
serve as springboards for investigations
Steps and inquiry.
Inductive Discovery  This model is highly effective approach
a. Observe and discuss specific examples for teaching higher-level thinking
b. Identify and describe common elements of processes involving:
features  Deriving questions on
c. Discuss other examples and note common problem both socially
elements important and personally
d. State main idea based on the common meaningful to students.
elements against the new examples  Interdisciplinary focus on a
/elements particular subject but
• Check them solutions requires students to
deliver into many subjects.
Deductive Discovery  Authentic investigation
a. Present an idea that can be verified against necessitates students to
evidences pursue investigation that seek
b. Learners gather/collect/finds supporting real solution to real problems.
evidences or examples  Production of articrafts and
c. Reasoning/Justifying why a certain exhibits requires students to
evidence found is supported to the main construct products in the
idea. form of articrafts and exhibits
d. Students continue searching/finding other that represents their solutions.
evidences to support the given idea.
2. Constructivist Models
6. Project Method  Popularized by Piaget and Vygotsky
 A perspective of teaching and learning in
Concept/s which a learner constructs meaning from
• A significant practical unit of activity of a experience and interaction with others
problematic nature  Teacher provides meaningful/relevant
experiences for students from which
 students construct their own meaning b. Student Teams Achievement Strategy
(facilitation) (STAS)
 Suggests that learners develop their own • A type of group work activity in which
understanding of topics they study students interact together to master a specific
instead of having it delivered to them by academic material
others. • How/When Used:
 Places learner in the center of the - Information is presented;
learning process where they play an - Students are divided into learning
active role in the process of constructing teams to master lessons using
their own understanding. worksheets;
- Discussion, tutoring, quizzing one
3. Metacognitive Strategy another;
 Students are trained to become aware of - Scores from tests are recorded; and
and control their own learning through - There is improvement from the
the metacognitive process. previous achievement score of the
 Used when students: team, additional points are given.
- plan what strategies to use to meet goal
- decide what resources are needed Some Essential Teaching Techniques
- monitor own progress 1. Discussion
- evaluate progress  An attempt to get away from the
traditional classroom procedure of
4. Reflective Teaching question and answer and recitation style;
 Process that enables individual to it is also a tool for implementing the
continually learn from own experiences democratic process in teaching and
by considering alternative interpretations learning transaction.
of experiences, actions, discussions,  To get the desired understanding through
beliefs, using introspection and analysis analysis and evaluation of facts by
 Used when students: encouraging group thinking as
- Acquire concrete experiences learners/participants attempt to find
- Analyzes experiences solutions to a problem
- From abstractions
- Apply generalizations to actual Types of Discussion Procedures
situation a. Panel- Forum
- A direct, conversational, interactional
5. Cooperative Learning Strategies discussion among a small group of experts
 Features: or well-informed lay persons.
- Heterogeneously grouped - Like any intelligent conversation, except
- Interdependence among members that participant speak loud enough for the
- Individual accountability audience to hear
- Explicit teaching of collaborative skills - Success depends on the preparations done
before the meeting, the wise selection of
Variants: participants, and the discussant leader
a. JIGSAW
• How/when used: Guidelines to Ensure a Successful Panel-Forum
- A group are formed
- Material is divided into sections The leader or chairperson
- One member takes care of a section ▪ Emphasizes tactfully the purpose and
of the material philosophy of the discussion;
- Each member meets with those from ▪ Keeps the conversation moving from point
other groups who are assigned to a to point;
similar section ▪ Makes sure that each panel member has a
- Members discuss/work on the chance to express his/her views,
material ▪ to ask questions intended to clarify points
- Return to their previous group to for the audience.
inform others in their group ▪ Maintains an impartial position by
- Testing students after the ―puzzle‖ refraining from participating as a member of
is completed the panel.
▪ Must be group-oriented rather than self-
centered; and
▪ Summarizes discussion briefly and invites
comments or questions from the audience
 person. A proper attitude includes keeping one’s
The participants in the panel perspective, temper and sense of humor.
• Talk in a formal manner; and • Refutation, or the answering of opponents’
• Contribute to the method of public arguments, should be woven throughout the main
conversation meeting by giving brief speeches in a debate. There are a number of ways of
remarks to each other but should be heard by answering an argument that is to be refuted;
the audience including:
- Pointing out that it is not relevant or
b. Symposium-Forum important to the question
- More formal than the panel discussion - Showing that it is not supported by the
- Persons with special competence deliver facts or that insufficient evidence has been
uninterrupted speeches on different aspects given
of a problem, and these are followed by a - Indicating fallacies in reasoning
forum period - Arriving at a contrary argument by sound
- Essentially a public-speaking program; not reasoning
conversational - Supplying more and better evidence to
support one’s side of the argument
Guidelines to Ensure a Successful Symposium - Turning the argument so that it actually
Forum helps one’s side
•Make each point consistent with those made by
Organizing a symposium includes: colleagues who are also upholding a similar view.
• Deciding the purpose of the meeting • In answering point of the other side, it is well to
• Choosing and framing the topics to arouse interest have a large supply of evidence that can be drawn
• Choosing speakers (the number of speakers from to support one’s position.
depends on the number of significant sources of • A knowledge of the audience on the question will
information or points of view that should be be helpful in determining whether the audience is
considered) favorably or unfavorably disposed to what is being
• Choosing a chairman said.
• Briefing the chairman and the speakers on the • A card-index file of all points and evidence that
objective of the symposium and in the procedures to may be used should be kept; with some system
be followed worked out, so that the members of the team can
• Speakers should not forget that discussions mean quickly draw on the material they want to include at
― thought in process, that its purpose is to help any given stage in the debate.
listeners analyze the problem and not to make
conclusions for them d. Round Table Conference
• In the discussion process, the chairman or the - A small discussion group seated face to face
moderator should help bring together the thoughts around a table, without a larger audience; a
of the speakers as the program unfolds. The small conference by another name and has
chairperson also makes a proper transition to the the nature of an informal semi social
forum period. gathering
• The chairperson or moderator sees to it that the - Members will not be hearing speeches but
important questions about the issues presented are do their own talking
not neglected before the adjournment of the forum.
Guidelines to Insure a Successful Round Table
c. Debate Conference
- A discussion that occurs when people with
different beliefs study the same problem and • All members should have a precise understanding
arrive at different conclusions; of what is to be delivered
- A more formal type in which each • A leader whom the group likes and respects is
participant makes a prepared speech for or chosen to lead and prepare for the meeting
against a proposition; • Procedure in conducting the session of a round
- Debaters are usually allotted equal time to table conference is summarized below:
speak to present an analysis of a problem - Introducing remarks, stating the question
and a fair presentation of the arguments for to be discussed in as interesting a manner as
or against it. possible
- Statements of the facts or a brief story of a
Guidelines to Ensure a Successful Debate real or fictitious case
- Presentation of agenda
• Attitude in debate is properly adjusted in relation - Group discussion of each of the issues in
to the subject, the opponents, and the listening the agenda
audience. Arguments are directed toward the - Summary of the discussion
 - Consideration of what action to take as a Types of Questions
result of the discussion
1. According to thinking process involved:
Special Techniques to insure active participation Low-level questions- focused on facts, don’t test
in the forum period: level of understanding or problem solving skills
Examples: Who declared martial law? What
a. Role playing important events happened in WW II?
▪ Spontaneous acting out of problems or
situations High-level questions – go beyond memory and
▪ Portray a situation more candidly factual information, more advance, stimulating and
b. Case Study more challenging, involve abstraction and point of
▪ Another group centered procedure which view.
presents specific situations or problems to Examples: How did the recent war between the
stimulate discussion government forces and MILF affect the people in
▪ This technique implies extensive analysis Mindanao? What alternative could we practice to
and interpretation of a case selected to become attentive?
demonstrate a learning outcome
c. Buzz Session 2. According to type of answer required:
▪ Is used when dealing with familiar topics a. Convergent questions- tend to have on correct
that need group opinion, evaluating, and best answer.
planning or interaction - Are used to drill learners on vocabulary,
▪ Involves groups not exceeding six persons spelling and oral skills but not appropriate
▪ A leader and a secretary are chosen to lead for eliciting thoughtful responses
the discussion and to record what have been - Usually start with what, who, when, or
discussed where
▪ Each group is given the time to present the - Are referred to as low-level questions
questions or outcomes of their discussion - Are useful when applying inductive
d. Workshop approach and requires short and specific
▪ Involves the use of group process in information from the learners
attacking and solving problems b. Divergent questions- open-ended and usually
▪ Persons with problems of common concern have many appropriate answers.
come together to attack and solve their - Reasoning is supported by evidence and
problems cooperatively examples
▪ Makes use of a variety of means and - Associated with high level thinking
devices in the solution of problems such as processes and encourage creative thinking
group meeting, individual conference, field and discovery learning
trips, excursions and the use of resource
persons and consultants 3. According to the cognitive taxonomy
▪ Values gained from the workshop are both 1st Level: Knowledge - memorize, recall, label,
intellectual and social specify, define, list, cite, etc
e. Seminar 2nd Level: Comprehension - describe, discuss,
▪ Deliberately looks for the solution to the explain, summarize translate, etc
problems form the evidence based on 3rd Level: Application - solve, employ, demonstrate,
reading, experiences and minds of the operate experiment, etc.
participants 4th Level: Analysis - interpret, differentiate,
▪ Attempts to develop a policy or solution compare invent, develop, generalize
that is better than what is in existence 5th Level: Synthesis - Invent, develop, generalize
6th Level: Evaluation- Criticize, judge, interpret
ART OF QUESTIONING
What is Questioning? 4. According to the questions used by teachers
Key technique in teaching during open discussion
a. Eliciting Questions - these are employed to
Purposes of Questions encourage an initial response; encourage
 Arouse interest and curiosity more students to participate in the
 Review content already learned discussion; rekindle a discussion that is
 Stimulate learners to ask questions lagging or dying out
 Promote though and the understanding of b. Probing Question - seek to: expand or
ideas extend ideas; justify ideas; clarify ideas
 Change the mood/tempo, direction of the c. Closure-seeking Questions-used to help
discussion students form conclusions, solutions or plans
 Encourage reflection and self-evaluation for investigating problems.
 Allow expressions of feelings
 d. Referential questions - are questions that may use this question as a basic
seek to draw response from students which a guide in selecting informal
teacher has no expected answer assessment techniques, ―Will the
e. Display Questions- are questions in which a procedure provide the information/
teacher expects a correct answer from the need to make an adequate judgment
student about a child’s performance?
• formal evaluation – includes
Guidelines in Asking Questions teacher–prepared tests and
• Wait Time- the interval between asking a question commercially-available standardized
and the student response. tests, such as rating scales, learning
• Prompting- uses hints and techniques to assist checklists, essay tests, true-false test,
students to come up whit a response successfully multiple-choice tests, completion
• Redirection-involves asking of a single question tests, matching
for which there are several answers; used in a high- tests, etc.
level questioning.
• Probing- a qualitative technique used for the • may also be used to:
promotion of effective thought and critical thinking; • assess progress of
provides the students a chance to support or defend individual learners
a stand or point of view • evaluate own performance
•Commenting and prompting- used to increase of teacher
achievement and motivation • refine instructional plans
and/or provide instruction to
Tips on Asking Question clear up understandings of
• Ask questions that are: certain topics taught
- stimulating/thought-proving • provide basis for
- within student’s level of abilities instructional planning when
- relevant to students daily life situation the same content tested is
- sequential - a stepping stone to the next taught again
- clear and easily understood • has a need for good record
• Vary the length and difficulty of questions, phrase keeping to monitor the
questions clearly • progress/development of
• Have sufficient time for deliberation learners overtime
• Follow up incorrect answer
• Call on volunteers or non-volunteers When to use some test types?
• Call on disruptive students • use informal evaluation tools when looking for
• Move around the room for rapport/socialization specific behaviors that learners are expected to
• Encourage active participation demonstrate
• use rating scales and checklist when judgment
Determining Appropriate Evaluation about several levels of performance quality is
Instruments needed
The concept of evaluation aims basically to • use essay tests especially for upper grade levels
determine student mastery of what has been taught. when determining students to put together isolated
It is a two-part process: process of information in a meaningful way
• measuring pupils’ individual performance • use true-false test when covering a broad range of
• judging about the adequacy of the – may use one content
of two major approaches in determining how well a • use matching test if pupils’ grasp of association is
pupil has performed: to be tested
• norm-reference assessment, where a • use completion test to sample only a cross-section
pupils’ performance is compared to the of content and to eliminate guessing among pupils
average performance of his/her classmates;
• criterion – reference assessment, where the What evaluation type to use during the
rating is based on comparison of a instructional act?
students’performance with a pre-determined a. Prior to Instruction: Pre assessment
standard instruments used for evaluation • done to determine the learner’s entry behavior
may be: (what knowledge/skills/attitudes they already know
• informal evaluation – depends on or still need to know) before objectives are set or
teacher’s observations of a variety of before instruction begins for maximum learning
pupil performances as they do purposes
learning tasks, complete projects, or • involves use of such instruments as readiness test,
interact with others; requires teachers aptitude test, pretest on course objectives, or
to make judicious inferences about observational techniques
what learners can and cannot do;
b. During Instruction: Formative Evaluation Some situations that illustrate the use of
• provides on-going feedback to the teachers and Behavior Modification Approach
students regarding their success or failure during a. Ben prepares a neatly written paper, which
instruction; he submits to the teacher. The teacher
• helpful in deciding whether changes in subsequent praises Ben’s work and comments that
learning experiences are needed neatly written papers are more easily read
• helpful in determining specific learning errors that than those which are sloppy. In subsequent
need correction papers, Ben takes great care to write neatly.
• usually makes use of paper and pencil tests and POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, the
observational methods introduction of reward after a behavior,
causes the behavior to increase in frequency
c. After Instruction: Summative Evaluation
• is provided to determine >how well students have b. Susan whose neat work has always been
learned/attained instructional objectives >how well praised by the teacher, prepares a neatly
instruction was done written paper, which she submits to the
teacher. The teacher accepts and
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT subsequently returns the paper without
What is Classroom Management? comment. Susie becomes less neat in
Refers to the operation and control of classroom subsequent papers.
activities; involves the ability to maintain order and EXTINCTION is the withholding of an
sustain pupil attention anticipated reward in an instance where that
behavior was previously rewarded.
What are the Purposes of Classroom Extinction results in the decreased frequency
Management? of the rewarded behavior.
▪ To minimize the occurrences of discipline
problems c. The students in Ms. Tan’s English class
▪ To increase the proportion of classroom time have come to expect that she will give them
devoted to constructive and productive activity. the opportunity to play a word game if their
work is satisfactory. This is the activity they
3 C’s of Classroom Control will enjoy. Miss Tan notes that all their
Content- facilitate the delivery of instruction papers were neatly done except Jim’s paper.
Conduct- promotion of orderly and safe learning She tells Jim that he will not be allowed to
environment participate in the class game and must
Context- emphasis is on communication rather than instead, sit apart from the group.
physical elements associated with classroom setting Subsequently, Jim writes less sloppily.
TIME OUT is the removal of a reward from
Types of Control the student or the removal of the student
Preventive Control - aimed at minimizing the onset from the reward; it reduces the frequency of
of anticipated discipline problems through planning reinforcement and causes the behavior to
Supportive Control- aimed at directing student’ become less frequent
behavior before it becomes a full blown problem
Corrective Control-seeks discipline student’ d. Jim prepares a rather sloppily written paper,
behavior before it becomes a full standard of good which he submits to the teacher. The teacher
conduct rebukes Jim for failing to be neat, informs
him that sloppily written papers are difficult
Nature and Dynamics of Approaches to to read, and tells him to rewrite and resubmit
Classroom the paper. Jim writes less sloppily.
Management Behavior-Modification Approach PUNISHMENT introduces an undesirable
or aversive stimulus after a behavior and the
• Based on principles of behavioral psychology: All punished behavior tends to be discontinued.
behavior is learned (Sulzer and Mayer)
• Built on two assumptions: e. Jim is one student in the class who
- Learning is controlled largely, if not consistently presents the teacher with sloppy
entirely, by events in the environment. papers. Despite the teacher’s constant
- There are four processes that account for nagging of Jim, his work becomes no neater.
learning at all age levels and under all For no apparent reason, Jim submits a rather
conditions (positive reinforcement, negative neat paper. Miss Tan accepts it without
reinforcement, extinction or time out and comment-and without the usual nagging.
punishment) Subsequently, Jim’s work becomes neater.
A behavior is shaped by consequence (what NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT is the
consequence follows a behavior). removal of an undesirable or aversive
stimulus after a behavior, and it causes the
 frequency of the behavior to be increased.
The removal of the punishment serves to Principle of Communication (Ginott, Teacher
strengthen the behavior. and Child)
 The teacher talks to the situation and not to
Guidelines for Using Punishments the personality and character of the child
• Don’t threaten the impossible. Make sure the  The teacher shows the ability to describe
punishment can be carried out. what she/he saw, describe how he/she feels
• Don’t punish when you are at loss of what else to and describe what needs to be done.
do in an emotional state. The quiet cool approach is
more effective that the angry, emotional approach. Glasser’ View: The importance of Teacher
• Don’t assign extra homework as well as the Involvement (Schools without Failure)
subject  Student misbehavior is the result of the
• Be sure the punishment follows the offense as student’s failure to develop success identity
soon as possible. Don’t impose the punishment two  Suggests that a teacher should:
days after the student misbehaves - Become personally involved with the student;
• Be sure the punishment follows the offense as accept the student but not the student
soon as possible. Don’t overact mild behavior or misbehavior
underplay or ignore serious misbehavior. - Elicit description of the student’s present
• Be consistent with punishment. If you punish one behavior
student for something, don’t ignore it when another - Assist student in making a value judgment
student does the same thing. However, students and about the problem behavior
circumstances differ, and there should be room for - Help student plan a better course of action
modification - Guide student in making a commitment to the
• Don’t use double standards when punishing. You course of action he/she selected
should treat both sexes to same way, and low- - Reinforce the student as she follows the plan
achieving students the same way. and keeps the commitment
• Give the students the benefit of doubt. Before - Accept no excuses if the student fails to follow
accusing or punishing someone, make sure you through with her commitment
have the facts right. - Allow the student to suffer the natural and
• Don’t hold grudges. Once you punish the student, realistic consequences of misbehavior
put the incident behind and try to start with a clean
slate. Use of logical consequence
• Don’t personalize the situation. React to  LC express the reality of the social order;
misbehavior, not to the student LC results from a violation of an accepted
• Document all serious incidents. This is especially social rule (Punishment expresses the power
important if the behavior involves sending the of a personal authority)
student out of the room or possible suspension.  LC are logically related to the misbehavior;
the student sees the relationship between the
Socioemotional-Climate Approach misbehavior and its consequence
 Has its roots in counseling and clinical  LC involve no element of moral judgment;
psychology (Carl Rogers) student’s misbehavior is viewed as a
 Places great importance on interpersonal mistake, not a sin
relationships  LC is concerned with what will happen next;
 The teacher is the major determiner of the focus is on the future (Punishment is in
interpersonal relationships and classroom the past)
climate  LC are involved in a friendly manner
 Attitudes that are essential in effective (Punishment involves either open or
facilitation of learning (Rogers) concealed anger); the teacher should try to
 Realness, genuineness and congruence – disengage himself from the consequence
realness is the expression of the teacher
being himself or herself, the teacher is aware Group –Process Approach
of his/her feelings, accepts and acts on them  Also known as sociopsychological approach
and is able to communicate them when – based on the principles from social
appropriate...allows the teacher to be psychology and group dynamics (Schmuck,
perceived by students as a real person Johnson and Bany and Kounin)
 Acceptance, prizing , caring and trust –  Based on the following assumptions:
behaviors that makes students feel trusted - Schooling takes place within a group
and accepted context- the classroom group
 Emphatic understanding – using student’s - Teacher’s task is to establish and maintain
point of view, sensitive awareness of the an effective, productive classroom group
student’s feelings and is non-evaluative and - The effective, productive classroom group
nonjudgmental. is characterized by certain conditions that
 are compatible with the properties of a Techniques of Building Good Discipline:
social system ▪ Demonstration. Students know exactly what is
- The classroom management task of the expected. In addition to having expected behavior
teacher is to establish and maintain such explained to them, they see and hear it.
conditions ▪ Attention. Students focus their attention on what is
being depicted or explained. The degree of attention
Six properties of Classroom Management correlates with the characteristic of the model
(Schmuck) (teacher) and characteristics of students
1. Leadership – creating a climate in which ▪ Practice. Students are given opportunities to
students perform leadership functions practice the appropriate behavior.
2. Attraction – refers to the friendship patterns ▪ Corrective feedback. Students receive frequent,
in the classroom group specific, and immediate behavior is suppressed and
3. Norms – shared expectations of how group corrected.
members should think feel and behave ▪ Application. Students are able to apply their
4. Communication – the vehicle through which learning in classroom activities (roleplaying,
the meaningful interaction of members takes modeling activities) and other real-life situations.
place and through group processes in the
classroom occur Strategies for Managing Students with Problems
5. Cohesiveness – collective feeling that the ▪ Accept students as they are but build on and
class members have about in the classroom accentuate their positive qualities
group ▪ Be yourself. Students can recognize phoniness and
6. Facilitation and Maintenance (Johnson and take offense at such deceit.
Bany) ▪ Be confident. Take charge of the situation, and
▪ Facilitation – refers to management don’t give up in front of the students.
behaviors that improve conditions within the ▪ Provide structure. Many of these students lack
classroom inner control and are restless and impulsive.
▪ Maintenance – management behaviors that ▪ Explain your rules and routines so students
restore or maintain effective condition understand them. Be sure your explanations are
brief; otherwise you lose your effectiveness and you
Four Kinds of Facilitation Behaviors appear to be defensive of preaching
▪ Achieving unity and cooperation ▪ Communicative positive expectations that you
▪ Establishing standards and coordinating work expect the students to learn and you require work.
procedures ▪ Rely on motivation, and not on your prowessto
▪ Using problem solving to improve conditions maintain order; an interesting lesson can keep the
▪ Changing established patterns of group behavior students on task
▪ Be a firm friend, but maintain psychological and
Three Kinds of Maintenance Behaviors physical distance so your students know that you
▪ Maintaining and restoring morale are still the teacher
▪ Handling conflict ▪ Keep calm, and keep your students calm,
▪ Minimizing management problems especially when conditions become tense or
upsetting. It may be necessary to delay action until
Management Dimension of Teaching (Kounin) after class when emotions have been reduced
▪ Size up the situation and be aware of
undercurrents of behavior, since these students are
sizing you up and are knowing manipulators of their
environment
▪ Anticipate behavior, being able to judge what will
happen if you or a student decide on a course of
action may allow you to curtail many problems.

Establishing Routines
• Beginning and ending the day or class period
• Transitions
• Getting/distribution of materials and equipment
• Group work
• Seatwork and teacher-led activities

Effective Questioning and Reacting Techniques

1. Varying type of question
2. Asking non-directed questions
3. Calling on non-volunteers
4. Rephrasing
5. Sequencing logically Technology Tools of 21st Century Education
6. Requiring abstract thinking 1. Affinity Groups
7. Asking open-ended questions 2. Blogs
8. Allowing for sufficient wait time 3. E-portfolio
4. Hypertext
Functions of Homework 5. Podcasts
1. Pre-learning 6. Web 2.0
2. Checking for understanding 7. Myspace
3. Practice 8. Second Life
4. Processing 9. Semantic Web
10. Webkinz
Principles in the Use of Homework 11. Wiki
1. The purpose of homework and outcome of 12. YouTube
homework should be identified and articulated. 13. Google
2. Homework tasks should be differentiated by: 14. Prezi
a. Difficulty or amount of work 15. Easybib
b. By the amount of scaffolding provided; 16. Social Media Platforms
and 17. Smartboards and Audience Response Systems
c. Learner’s learning style or interest. 18. ReadWriteThink.org
3. Parent involvement in homework should be kept 19. WebQuest Page
to a minimum. 20. Literacy Web
4. If homework is assigned, it should be commented
on. Approach to Integration
5. Move from grading to checking. 1. Multidisciplinary Approach
6. Establish and communicate a homework policy.
7. Establish a homework support programs.

Building and Enhancing New Literacies Across

the Curriculum

21st Century Education

1. Focus on a project-based curriculum
2. There is an innovation in education
3. Schools will go from ‘buildings’ to ‘nerve
centers’
4. Teachers from dispensers of knowledge to 2. Interdisciplinary Approach
facilitators of learning

Attributes of 21st Century Education

1. Integrated and Interdisciplinary
2. Technology and Multimedia
3. Global Classrooms
4. Creating to Constant Personal and Social Change
and Lifelong Learning
5. Student-Centered
6. 21st Century Skills
7. Project-based and Research Driven
8. Relevant, Rigorous, and Real World 3. Transdisciplinary Approach

Characteristics of 21st Century Teachers

1. Multi-literate
2. Multi-specialist
3. Multi-skilled
4. Self-directed
5. Lifelong learner
6. Flexible
7. Creative problem solver
8. Critical Thinker
9. Has passion
10. High EQ
Methods of Curriculum Integration Dimension of Media and Information Literacy
1. Project-Based Learning 1. Tool Literacy
2. Service Learning 2. Resource Literacy
3. Learning Centers/ Parallel Disciplines 3. Social-Structural Literacy
4. Theme-based 4. Research Literacy
5. Fusion 5. Publishing Literacy
6. Emerging Technology Literacy
Multicultural Literacy – consists of the skills and 7. Critical Literacy
ability to identify the creators of knowledge and
interests to reveal the assumption of knowledge Integrating Media Literacy in the Curriculum
from diverse ethnic and cultural perspective. 1. Teach students to evaluate media.
2. Show students where to find digital resources and
Global Literacy – aims to address issues of databases.
globalization, racism, diversity, and social justice. It 3. Compare/Contrast various media sources
requires awareness and action, consistent with a 4. Discuss how media edits and alters
broad understanding of humanity, the planet, and 5. Examine the truth in advertisement
the impact of human decision on both. 6. Have students create media

Dimensions of Global Education Financial Literacy - is a core life skill in an

Dimension 1: Examine issues local, global, and increasingly complex world where people need to
cultural significance. take charge of their own finance, budget, financial
Dimension 2: Understand and appreciate the choices, managing risks, saving, credit, and
perspective world views or others financial transactions.
Dimension 3: Engage in Open, Appropriate, and
Effective Interactions across Cultures Financial Plan Steps:
Dimension 4: Take action for collective well-being 1. Calculating the net worth
and Sustainable Development 2. Determining the cash flow
3. Considering the priorities
Social Literacy – entails the development of social
skills, knowledge, and positive human values Spending Strategies:
toward desire and ability in human beings to act ad 1. Start by listing your goals
react positively and responsibly in a wide range of 2. Divide your goals accordingly
complex social settings. 3. Estimate the cost
4. Project future cost
Types of Social Skills 5. Calculate how much you need to set aside
1. Effective Communication 6. Prioritize your goals
2. Conflict resolution 7. Create a schedule for meeting your goals
3. Active listening
4. Empathy Investment and Investing Aspects
5. Relationship management 1. How long will you invest the money? (Time
6. Respect Horizon)
7. Problem-solving skills 2. How much money do you expect your investment
8. Interpersonal skills to earn? (Expectation of Investment)
3. How much of your investment are you willing to
Media Literacy – the ability to access, analyze, lose in the short-term in order to earn more in the
evaluate, and create media. The ability to identify long term?
different types of media from wide array of sources (Risk Tolerance)
and understand the messages they bring. 4. What types of investment interest you?
(Investment type)
Roles of Media Literacy
1. Learn to think critically Emergency Savings Fund
2. Become a smart consumer of products and 1. To become financially independent
information 2. To save on everything you buy
3. Recognize point of view 3. To prepare for the future
4. Create media responsibly 4. To get out of debt
5. Identify the role of media in our culture 5. To respond to emergencies
Media and Information Literacy – a combination of
knowledge, skills, and practices required to access, Common Financial Scams
analyze, evaluate, and use information and 1. Phishing
knowledge in creative, legal, and ethical ways. 2. Social media scams
3. Phone scams
4. Stolen Credit Card Numbers
5. Identity Theft Visual Literacy - Refers to interpreting and creating
visual images
Things to Avoid
1. Never wire money to a stranger Verbal Creativity
2. Don’t give out financial information 1. Fluency
3. Never click on hyperlinks in emails 2. Flexibility
4. Use difficult passwords 3. Originality
5. Don’t download software from pop-up windows 4. Elaboration

Digital Literacy - Is the set of competencies Aesthetics - Aesthetic or Esthetics is the

required for full participation in society that philosophical study of beauty and taste.
includes knowledge, skills, and behaviors involving
the use of effective use of digital devices. Approaches:
1. It is the study of aesthetic concepts
Cybersecurity - is the practice of protecting 2. It is the study of mind, emotions, attitudes, etc.
systems, networks, and programs from digital 3. It is the study of the aesthetic object
attacks.
Integrating Arts and Creativity Literacy
Cyber Citizenship - is an old value that is now 1. Physical environment
applies to a new medium, the Internet. It means 2. Emotional environment
being responsible when using the internet. 3. Project-based Learning
4. Teach Creative thinking skills
Eco-Literacy - Considers ecological systems and 5. Alternative assessments
awareness of how society operates within natural 6. Scheduling
aspects as an educational imperative. 7. Student Centered and Personalized Learning
8. Incorporate arts
Practices 9. Integration of technologies
1. Develop empathy for all forms of life 10. Preparing the body and brain for creativity
2. Embrace sustainability for all forms of life
3. Make the invisible visible
4. Anticipate unintended consequences
5. Understand how nature sustains life

Integrating Ecological Literacy into the Curriculum

1. Place-Based Learning
2. Project-Based Learning
3. Socratic Inquiry
4. Experiential Learning
5. Interdisciplinary Learning

Arts and Creative Literacy - It’s the act of turning

new and imaginative ideas into reality.

Creativity - is the process of having original ideas

that have value.

Seven Habits of Highly Creative People

1. Prepare the ground
2. Plant seeds for creativity
3. Live in the questions
4. Feed your brain
5. Experiment and explore
6. Replenish your creative stock
7. Liberate your creativity

Eye-Hand Coordination - Coordinated control of

eye movement with hand movement and the
processing of visual input to guide reaching and
grasping along with the use of hands to guide the
eyes.