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1.1 Definition of common terms: Sewer, Sewerage, Sewage/Waste

water, Domestic sewage, Industrial sewage, Strom water, Sullage,
Rubbish, Garbage, Refuse/Solid waste
Sewer: underground conduit or drain through which sewage is carried to a
point of discharge or disposal.
SANITARY ENGINEERING
B. E. IN CIVIL ENGINEERING (III/II)
Sewerage: Structure, device, equipment and appurtenances intended for
the collection, transportation and pumping of sewage and liquid waste but,
LECTURE SLIDES excluding works for the treatment of sewage.
ER. NARAYAN CHHETRI Sewage/Wastewater: liquid waste generated from the community.
Includes: Sullage, discharge from latrines, urinals, industrial wastes and
ground surface and storm water.
CHAPTER 1 Domestic sewage: sewage obtained from the laboratories basins,
urinals, and water closets of residential buildings, offices, theatres and other
institutions.
Industrial sewage: waste water obtained from the industrial and
commercial establishments.
1
IntroductIon Storm water: indicates the rainwater from the locality.
Sullage: indicates the wastewater from the bathrooms, kitchen, washing2
places and wash basins etc. It doesn’t create bad smells since organic matters
in it is neither absent nor in negligible amount.

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Rubbish: indicates sun dried solid wastes from offices, residential and other  J.W. Adams first applied engineering knowledge in the design
buildings. Includes: waste building materials, broken furniture, paper, rags etc. of sewerage in Brooklyn, USA.
generally it is dry and of combustible nature.
 In 1762 AD, sedimentation and chemical precipitation were the
Garbage: indicates dry refuse. It includes: paper, decay fruits and
vegetables, grass and leaves, sweeping from streets, markets and other public first process of sewerage treatment.
places. It contains large amount of organic and putrefying matters.  Chadwick is known as father of sanitation in England.
Refuse: indicate what is rejected or left out as a worthless. May be liquid,  In 1868 intermittent sand filter was carried out in England.
semi-solid or solid form.
1.2 Historical development of wastewater and solid waste  In 1876 first septic tank was made in USA.
management  In 1882 an aeration carried out in England.
 In 26th century BC, sewer in Tell Asmar in Iraq was constructed.  In 1884 first bar racks introduced in USA.
 In 3750 BC, the sewer arch at Nippur in India was constructed.
 In Nepalese context, rectangular brick sewer were constructed
 Waste water farming practiced in Germany in 1550 AD and England in
1700. in Mall Period (1200-1768 AD)
 Human excreta were excluded in 1815 in London, Boston in 1833 and Paris  Circular sewer of diameter 600 mm was constructed in Rana
in 1880. dynasty (1898-1950 AD)
 Sewerage works heavily practiced after outburst of Cholera in 1848, 1849,
1852 and 1842. 3  Establishment of DWSS in 1972 AD. 4

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1.3 System of Sanitation Water Carriage System

Conservancy System:  Hygienic system.

 Old system.  Collection, conveyance and disposal of various type of waste is carried out
 Dry system. with the help of water.
 Various types of wastes such as night soil, garbage etc. are collected  Sufficient quantity of water is to be mixed so that the dilution ratio is so great
separately in vessels or deposited in pools or pits and then removed that mixture flow just like water.
periodically at least once in 24 hours.  Human excreta is flushed with 5-10 liters of water after used by every person
 Unhygienic since everything is visible over the ground. in a specially designed water closets (WC).
Advantages:  Wastes from kitchen, bathrooms, sink, basins etc. are also led to the sewers.
 Cheap
 Quantity of sewage reaches the treatment plant is low. Advantages: Disadvantages:
Very hygienic.  High initial cost.
Less chances of epidemic burst outs.  Large quantity of water is
Disadvantages:
Labor and maintenance work is low. required.
 Unhygienic Less odor, smell.  Large quantity of sewage is to
 Lot of foul smells. Compact design of building is possible. be treated.
 Large area of land requires for disposal. Less maintenance cost.
5 6
 Compact design of building is impossible.
 More chances of outbreak of epidemic.

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1.4 System of Sewerage

S.N. Conservancy System Water Carriage System  Separate system
1. Unhygienic science everything is Hygienic. Sewers are laid below the
visible. ground. Human excreta is not
 Combined system
visible.  Partially combined system
2. Due to putrefication, there is a No chances of putrefication, hence
lot of foul smell. no foul smell. Separate System
3. Compact building design is Compact building design is possible.
impossible.  Consists two different sewer: one for domestic sewage and other
4. Large labor force is required. Labor force is negligible small. for storm water.
5. Water consumption is small. Large quantity of water is required.  Only domestic and industrial sewage is treated, storm water is

6. Initial cost is small, but large High initial cost, but small running directly disposed in to natural water bodies.
running cost. cost. Advantages:
7. Risk of spread of epidemic. No such risk of epidemic.  Load on treatment plant is reduced.
8. Large area of land required for Small area of land required for  Reduces possibilities of pollution due to overflow in rainy season.
disposal of untreated sewage. disposal of treated sewage.  Storm water directly disposed without treatment.
 Sewer of small section can easily ventilated.
7 8
 Cost of installation is low.
 Sewage is of uniform character, more easy to putrification.

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Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
 Requires, two set of sewer so costly.  Construction cost is high due to large size of sewer.
 Difficult to clean due to small size of sewer.  Rainwater is unnecessarily polluted.
 Likely to get chocked.  Handling and transportation is difficult due to large size.
 Possibility of wrong connection due to two set of sewer.  Load on treatment plant is increased.
 Occupies more space due to two set of sewer.  The sewer may overflow during the rainfall creates pollution and unhygienic
condition.
Combine System
 consists only one sewer to carry both domestic sewage and storm water.
 Large sewer easily silted if not properly designed.
 Difficulties on ventilation due to large size.
 Sewage must be treated before disposal.
Advantages: Partially Combined System
 Requires only one sewer, which reduces cost.
 A single set of underground sewer is laid which allow for passing both
 Easy to clean and chances of chocking is less due to large size. industrial, domestic and storm sewage.
 Strength of sewage is reduced by dilution.  As soon as the quantity of storm water exceeds a certain limit, the storm
 House plumbing is easy and economical. water overflows, and those collected and conveyed through open drains.
 Easy to construct in congested area. 9 10

 Self cleaning velocity is available.

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S.N. Separate System Combined Systtem

Advantages:
1. Consists two set of sewer. Consists only one set of sewer.
 Sewer are of reasonable size.
2. Treatment cost is low as the Treatment cost is high as the quantity
 Combines advantages of both combined and separate system. quantity of sewage to be treated of sewage treatment is high.
is low.
 Less chances of chocking and sewer are completely clean
3. Storm water is disposed into the Storm water unnecessarily get
during rainy season. natural water bodies without any polluted, so can’t disposed without
 Storm water disposal is easy from houses. treatment. treatment.
4. Chocking problems may occurs. Chocking problems doesn’t occurs due
Disadvantages: to attained self cleaning velocity.
 During dry weather flow, self cleaning velocity may not be achieved. 5. Suitable if rainfall is heavy and Suitable if street sewage is to be
 Strom water increases load on treatment plant. for short period of time. treated.
 Cost of pumping increases in case if pumping is required. 6. Less costly since requires small More costly since it requires large size
dimension sewer. of sewer.
7. If pumping is required, pumping If pumping required, pumping cost is
cost is low. So, suitable if high as domestic as well as storm
pumping is required. water is to be pumped.

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Selection of sewerage system:

 If area has heavy rainfall for a short duration it is better to use separate
system because in combined system self cleaning velocity may not be
achieved in dry season due to large size sewer.
 For planned area, if sewer are laid before then the separate system is suitable.
 For narrow street, it is suitable to use combined system.
 If excavation work required is more, separate system is suitable.
 If pumping is required, separate system is suitable.
 As the cost of installation is low, separate system is suitable for low budgeted
project.
 If subsoil strata is present within shallow depth, difficult to construct large
sewer, so separate system is preferred.

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2.1 Introduction to Source and types of Waste Water

 Waste water consists of all types of liquid waste generated from the community
and the quantity of such waste water should be computed before the design of
any sewage system.
SANITARY ENGINEERING  Under estimate quantity results the overflow of wastewater in the streets
B. E. IN CIVIL ENGINEERING (III/II) whereas overestimated causes uneconomical design of the section of sewer and
LECTURE SLIDES self cleaning velocity may not be attained.
ER. NARAYAN CHHETRI Wastewater flow rate is computed separately for the following types of sewage:
 Sanitary sewage or Dry Weather Flow (DWF):

 Normally available during non-rainfall period.

CHAPTER 2  Flow of only sanitary sewage in the absence of storm sewage in dry
season.
 Includes: wastewater from residences, industries, groundwater
infiltration into the leaked joints of sewer.
 Strom sewage or Wet Weather Flow (WWF):
1
Quantity of wastewater  Flow occurs only during rainy season due to rainfall.
 Includes: runoff reaching to the sewer or drains.
2
 Source: precipitation.

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Sources of Sanitary Sewage 2.2 Calculation of discharge of sanitary sewage

1. Public water supply.  Quantity of sanitary sewage (DWF) can be computed actually by the
summation of total quantity of water supplied to the several additions and
2. Private supply
deducting the several subtractions.
3. Private sources
 The accurate value of addition and subtractions can not be computed easily
4. Infiltration of groundwater hence DWF is generally taken as 70-90 % of average water supplied.
5. Unauthorized connection  The design of sewer should be such that can carry sewage in peak hours.
Peak flow/design flow = DWF * Peak factor.
Factors affecting Sanitary Sewage:
= (0.7-0.9) Pn *qw *Pf
 Population
Where;
 Rate of water supply
qw = average water supplied
 Type of area
pn = design year population
 Additions (infiltration of ground water, unauthorized connection)
pf = Peak factor i.e. ratio of peak flow to average flow (2 – 4)
 Subtractions (waste from supply line, evaporation, washing of clothes, roads,
garden irrigation, consumption of water in drinking, cooking and in industries)

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Peak Flow: Factors affecting quantity of storm sewage

 Catchment area
 Rate of sewage flow is not constant.
 Ground slope
 Varies with every hours of a day, every day of a season and with every
season of the year.  Permeability of soil
 Variation in flow may be due to habits of the people, working hours of the  Extent of impervious area such as buildings, paved yards, road
office, climatic conditions, timing of water supply, type of industries etc. surfaces, lawns, gardens etc.
 In residential areas, sewage flow rises by about 6 AM and reaches  Extent of vegetation growth
maximum between 8 AM and 10 AM. Then it falls gradually up to 4 PM  Rainfall intensity
and rises again.  Rainfall duration
2.3 Description of storm water, factors affecting quantity of storm  Condition of ground prior to the rainfall
water, calculation of discharge of storm sewage by rational methods  Compactness of the catchment area
and its limitation
 When rainfall takes place, a part of it infiltrates and percolates into the
ground water while the remaining part of rainfall flows over the land
depending upon the permeability of the ground, its surface slope and
many other factors.
 The amount of water flowing over the ground surface, pavements, houses 5 6
roofs etc. is commonly known as storm water or runoff.

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Calculation of strom sewage discharge by rational methods:

Catchment Area (A)
Quantity of storm sewage (WWF) is given by;  Directly computed from map showing the position of streets, houses,
playgrounds, sewers etc. using planimeter graph etc.
Q= 𝑚 /𝑠  Different types of surface area is determined separately for different regions
Where; because runoff coefficient (C), may be different for different surfaces.
c = coefficient of runoff
Intensity of Rainfall (I)
i = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr
A = Catchment area in Hectares (1 ha. = 104 m2)  Depth of rainfall in a particular area per unit time expressed in mm/hr.
Intensity of rainfall is given by;
Coefficient of runoff (C): .
I=
 Is the imperviousness factor or impermeability factor representing the ratio Where,
of runoff to rainfall.
I = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr
 For catchment having various types of surfaces, the overall runoff coefficient
t = duration of storm in minutes = time of concentration
is given by;
Ʃ𝑪𝑨 𝑪𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑨𝟐 ……….. 𝑪𝒏 𝑨𝒏 a,b = constants.
C= =
Ʃ𝑨 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 ……. 𝑨𝒏 British Ministry of Health recommends following values of a and b;
7 Duration of Storm a B 8
5 to 20 min. 30 10
20 to 100 min. 40 20

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Limitation of Rational Methods 2.4 Concept of time of Concentration and Time – Area graph
 It is use full in small catchment areas (normally < 500 ha.)
 Time of concentration is defined as the largest time taken to travel water from
 It is very difficult to find out exact value of C. the farthest point of the catchment area to any point under consideration in
 It doesn’t consider slope of catchment, wetness of soil and condition of the sewer.
ground prior to rainfall.
 Kulchling’s Formula:
i= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.

i= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

9 10

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Time Area Graph

Let,
A = farthest point of catchment
B = inlet of sewer
P = point of concentration in the sewer for maximum flood
Tc = Te + Tt
Where,
Te = time of entry
Tt = time of travel = Length of sewer/velocity in sewer.

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 Graph obtained by plotting the time (in min.) after the commencement of
storm along the X-axis and impervious area (in ha.) contributing flow to
sewer in Y-axis.
 If t = duration of rainfall, Tc = time of concentration, there may be any of
three cases as: t = Tc , t > Tc and t < Tc .

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3.1 Constituents of Wastewater

 Wastewater is the dilute mixture of various wastes from residential areas,

commercial, industrial and other public places.
SANITARY ENGINEERING  Before treatment and disposal it is essential to know it’s composition, quality
and characteristics.
B. E. INCIVIL ENGINEERING (III/II)
 Characteristics of wastewater depends upon the source of it’s discharge, sewage
LECTURE SLIDES
in general contains organic matters, inorganic matters and living organisms.
ER. NARAYAN CHHETRI
 Organic and inorganic matters may be in dissolved, colloidal and suspended
state.
CHAPTER 3  Inorganic matters consists of ash, cinder, sand, grit, mud etc.
 Organic matters may be nitrogenous or nitrogen free.
 Nitrogen matters are urea and protein while nitrogen free compounds includes
carbohydrates, fats , soaps etc.
 Living organism may be plant life such algae, fungi etc. and animal life consists
1
Quality of wastewater microorganisms such as protozoa, bacteria, viruses etc.

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3.2 Properties of wastewater  Biological characteristics:

• Various micro-organisms found in waste water, some of which may be pathogenic.
 Physical characteristics: However all bacteria present in wastewater are not harmful, some of these helps to treat
 Total solid: 99.9% water and 0.1% solids, remains residue at 103° - 105° C. waste water and reduce the cost of treatment plant.
 Smell or odor: Normal fresh – musty odor, starts to get stale – offensive odor.
 Color – fresh domestic – grey, after certain time black and septic – black & dark. Characteristics of waste water and their Sources:
 Temperature: higher than supplied water temp. with increase in temperature viscosity
increases and bacterial action also increases. Color Domestic and industrial wastes, naturally decay
 Turbidity – quantity of solid matter presence in suspension state, light emitting. of organic matters.
 Chemical characteristics:
 pH value – acidic or alkaline, fresh sewage alkaline(7.3-7.5), with increase in time pH Odor Decomposing wastewater, industrial wastes.
value get decreased. Physical
 Chlorine content – mineral salts(kitchen, human faeces and urinal discharges) Characteristics Solids Domestic water supply, domestic and industrial
 Nitrogen content – indicates organic matters presence, building element in synthesis of wastes, soil erosions, inflow- infiltration.
protein.
 Facts, grease and oil content – kitchen wastes, waste from garage, industrial waste.
 Sulphide, sulphates and H2S gas – formed due to decomposition, SO4 naturally presence Temperature Domestic and industrial wastes.
in water supply.
 DO
 COD 3 4

 BOD
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Carbohydrates Domestic, commercial and industrial wastes.

Fats, oils and grease Domestic, commercial and industrial wastes. H2S Decomposition of domestic wastes
Chemical Gases Methane Decomposition of domestic wastes
pesticides Agricultural wastes.
Characteristics
Organic phenols Industrial wastes. Oxygen Domestic water supply, surface water
Proteins Domestic and commercial wastes.
infiltration
Surfactants Domestic and industrial wastes. Animals Open water courses and treatment
Biological plants.
Others Natural decay of organic matters.
Characteristics Plants Open water courses and treatment
Alkalinity Domestic wastes, domestic water supply, ground
water infiltration. plants.
Chemical Chlorides Domestic water supply, domestic wastes, ground Protista Domestic wastes, treatment plants.
Characteristics water infiltration, water softeners.
Viruses Domestic wastes.
Heavy metals Industrial wastes.
Inorganic
Nitrogen Domestic and agricultural wastes.
pH Industrial wastes.
Phosphorus Domestic, industrial wastes, runoff.
Sulfur Domestic water supply, domestic and industrial
wastes. 5 6
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3.3 Aerobic and Anaerobic Decomposition 3.4 Cycle of Decomposition: Nitrogen, Carbon and Sulphur Cycle
Aerobic Decomposition: Nitrogen Cycle:
 In this process biodegradable organic compounds decomposed by aerobic as well
as facultative bacteria in the presence of air or dissolved oxygen. 1. Decomposition
Nitrogenous Organic Ammonia (NH3)
 By utilizing free oxygen organic matters are oxidized to stable and non-
Matters Nitrogen
objectionable end products.
 The end products are Nitrates(NO3), CO2 , SO4 , H2O and heat.

8. Denitrification
2. Nitrification
 Yields better effluent quality than that obtained in anaerobic decomposition.

5b. Death
 Examples: oxidation ponds, aeration tank, trickling filters etc.
OM + Free O2 new cells + stable products + Co2 + heat

Anaerobic Decomposition:

3. Consumption
4. Consumption
 If free oxygen is not available in sewage anaerobic process takes place.
 Anaerobic bacteria survive by extracting and consuming bonded molecular Animal Plant Nitrites (NO2)
oxygen present in organic compounds such as NO2 , SO4 , CO2 etc. Protein Protein Nitrates (NO3)
 The end products are H2S , CH4 , NH3 etc.
 Examples: septic tank, sludge digestion tank etc.

OM + Molecular O2 new cells + stable products + NH3 +H2S + CH4 + 7 8

CO2 + heat
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Main Steps: Carbon Cycle:

1. Nitrogenous organic matters in the form of waste animal and plant matter,
consisting of urea, proteins and hydrocarbons undergoes decomposition either
by aerobic process or by anaerobic process, resulting in the formation of NH3 Carbonaceous
and other gases. 1. Decomposition
Organic Carbon dioxide
2. By process of nitrification, ammonia is first converted into nitrites (NO2) by (CO2)
partial oxidation then finally to nitrates (NO3) by action of aerobic bacteria. Matters
3. The products formed in step 2 are consumed by plant life as food, through
photosynthesis. The plant life grows due to which plant tissues, plant protein

2. Photosynthesis

5a. Respiration
and free oxygen are produced.
4. The plant protein is consumed by animals, resulting in the production of animal

4b. Death
proteins.
5. The animal wastes in the form of urine and other excretions as well as the dead
bodies of the animals result in the formation of nitrogenous organic matter.

6. The death or decay of plant life may directly result in the formation of
nitrogenous organic matters. Plant
7. Waste products such as urea and excretions of animals may sometimes Animals Fats and Carbohydrates,
decompose directly and formed ammonia, nitrogen. Proteins 3. Consumption Fats and Proteins
8. The nitrates formed after step 2 may be converted or reduced into free nitrogen
and sometimes ammonia by anaerobic bacteria, known as denitrification.
9. However free nitrogen formed in step 8, may directly be converted in plant 9 10
protein by certain type of bacteria present in the roots of plant, through process
known as nitrogen fixation.
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Main Steps: Sulphur Cycle:

1. The decomposition of carbonaceous organic matters, through oxidation by
aerobic bacteria results in the release of CO2.
Sulphurous Organic 1. Decomposition
2. Plants, in the presence of sunlight and by the process of photosynthesis Hydrogen Sulphide
Matters (H2S)
consumes Carbon from CO2 produced in step 1. This results in the
formation of plant carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
3. Plants are consumed by animals, resulting in the formation of animal fats

2. Oxidation

6. Reduction
5b. Death
and proteins.
4. Waste products or death of animals results in the formation of carbonaceous
organic matters.

(Photosynthesis)
3. Consumption
4. Consumption
5. (a) plant life gives off carbon dioxide at night, through the process of
respiration. (b) similarly, animal life gives off CO2 during respiration. Animal Sulphates (SO4)
Plant Protein
6. Carbonaceous organic matters may also be formed directly by the Proteins
death/decay of plant life.

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3.5 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Derivation of BOD equation,

Main Steps: Introduction to first and second stage BOD, Ultimate BOD, Relative Stability,
1. The decomposition of Sulphurous organic matter, through the action of an Population Equivalent
aerobic bacteria, in the absence of oxygen, results in the formation of H2S.
 BOD is measure of the oxygen required to oxidized the organic matters
2. By process of Oxidation, H2S is first converted into Sulphur and finally to present in a sample, through the action of microorganisms contained in a
Sulphates (SO4). sample of wastewater.
3. Sulphates, when consumed by plants, through photosynthesis, changes into  BOD may be defined as the oxygen required for the microorganisms to carry
plant protein. out biological decomposition of dissolved solids or organic matter in the
4. Animal consumes the plant protein. Resulting in the formation of animal waste water under aerobic conditions at standard temperature.
protein. BOD test results are used for the following purposes:
5. Waste produced by animals and their dead bodies results in the formation of 1. Determination of approximate quantity of oxygen required for the
Sulphurous organic matters. biological stabilization of organic matter present in the waste water sample.
2. Determination of the size of waste water treatment plant.
6. Sulphates, in the absence of oxygen, are converted into H2S, by the process 3. Measurement of efficiency of waste water treatment facilities.
of reduction.
4. Determination of strength of sewage.
7. Organic Sulphurous matter may directly be produced by the death or decay
5. Determination of amount of clear water required for the efficient disposal of
of plants.
waste water by dilution.
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CURVE FOR COMBINED DEMAND

 Ultimate carbonaceous BOD of a liquid waste is the amount of oxygen (CARBONACEOUS + NITRIFICATION)
necessary for the micro-organisms in the sample to decompose the
carbonaceous matters that are subjected to microbial decomposition. This is
the first stage of oxidation and corresponding BOD is called first stage BOD.
 In the second stage, the nitrogenous organic matters are subjected to

𝑦 ,( )
𝑚𝑔
microbial decomposition and gets oxidized. And the corresponding BOD is

𝑙
known as Second stage BOD or nitrification demand.
SECOND STAGE
 Biochemical process is the slow process and theoretically takes an infinite (NITRIFICATION
time to go to completion. DEMAND)
 A 5 day period is choosen for the standard BOD test, during which oxidation
is about 60-70 % complete, while within 20 days period, the oxidation is
about 95-99% complete and a constant temperature of 20 °C is maintained.
CARBONACEOUS DEMAND
(FIRST STAGE)
𝑦 = 𝐿 (1 − 10 )

Times (Days)
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The amount of BOD remaining at any time t is

At a given temperature, the rate at which BOD is satisfied at any time may be
Lt = L0 (10 –kt)…………(v)
assumed to be directly proportional to the amount of organic matters present in
sewage. The amount of BOD that has been exerted at any time t is given
𝑑𝐿 by, 𝑳𝟎 𝑦 = 𝐿 1 − 10 =𝐿
= −𝐾 𝐿 … … … … … … … … … … … . 𝑖 Yt = (L0 – Lt) = L0(1-10 –kt)………(vi)
𝑑𝑡
Where, In the above equation Yt is the BOD of t days, i.e. Yt = BODt 𝐿 −𝑦

Lt = amount of first stage BOD remaining in the sample at any time t, mg/l ∴Y5 = BOD5 = L0 – L5 = L0(1-10-k5)………..(vii)
The ultimate first stage BOD is obtained by substituting t = ∞ 𝑦 (i.e. BOD EXERTED)
K’ = rate constant, day -1
T = time in days 𝑦 = 𝐿 1 − 10 = 𝐿 ……..(viii)

Integrating equation (i)

𝑑𝐿
= −𝑘′ 𝑑𝑡

𝐿,𝑦
𝐿 𝑦
𝐿
𝐿𝑜𝑔 = −𝑘 𝑡 … … … … 𝑖𝑖
𝐿 𝐿 (i.e. BOD REMAINING)
𝐿
=𝑒 = 10 … … … 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐿
𝐿
17 18
Where rate constant 𝐾 = … … . (𝑖𝑣)
. TIME t (Days)
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Relative Stability:
 Relative stability of waste water is defined as the ratio of available oxygen to
the required oxygen satisfying the first stage BOD.
 The available oxygen will include DO as well as Oxygen present as nitrate or
nitrite.
Determination of relative stability in laboratories:
1. The waste water is filled in a glass stoppered bottle and a small amount of
methylene blue is added to it.
2. The mixture is than incubated either at a temperature of 20 0C or at 37 0C.
 The value of k depends upon type of waste water and temperature 3. During the incubation period, anaerobic bacteria start their function, the
during the reaction. available DO is consumed and H2S is produced which decolorizes the
 The range of k at 20 0C is 0.05 to 0.3 day -1 mixture. The time t(in days) required for bleaching the blue color is noted.
 Value of k for temperature other than 20 0C is determined as: 4. The relative stability (SR) is calculated as:
 SR = 100(1-0.794t20)
KT = K20 𝞱(T-20) ……….(ix)
 SR = 100(1-0.605t37)
𝞱 may be taken as 1.056 for temperature range of 20 0C to 30 0C Where, t20 and t37 are the number of days of incubation at 200C and 37 0C respectively.
and 1.135 for temperature range 4 0C to 20 0C. Constant value of  If t < 4 days, effluent may be taken as relatively unstable, can't discharge safely into
receiving water bodies.
𝞱 =1.047 may be adopted. 19 20
 If t ≥ 5 days, effluent is relatively stable, safely discharge in to the receiving water
bodies.
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Population Equivalent: 3.7 Examination of Waste water

 Waste water carried by sewer mainly consists of domestic and industrial
sewage. 3.7.1 Sampling of waste water
 BOD contribution per capita per day for domestic sewage may be taken as 80  Process of collection of representative sample to determine characteristics.
g/day.  Characteristics changes continuously with respect to time.
 Industrial waste water are generally compared with per capita domestic  So, 24 hours sample (100-150 ml) collection is done at 1 hrs. interval.
sewage, through the concept of population equivalent (PE) using per capita Grab sampling:
BOD value as the basis.
 Sample collected manually at particular time and location.
( )
 𝑃 =  Suitable for testing pH, residual chlorine and DO.
/
 Generally, population equivalent (PE) is used to indicate the strength of
industrial sewage required for: Composite Sampling:
 Estimate the treatment required at the common treatment plant.  Grab samples are mixed as per the weightage of sewage flow is called grab
sampling.
 Charging appropriate levy on the industries.

21 22
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Determination of BOD by Dilution Method:

Preservatives and Storage:
 Suitable preservatives such as chloroform, Sulphuric acid, formaldehyde etc. This method is based on determination of dissolved oxygen originally present in
are added to prevent the change in quality of sewage. undiluted sample and dissolved oxygen present in diluted sample after it is
 For determination of sewage alkalinity, acidity and organic solids Sulphuric incubated at constant temperature 20 0C for 5 days.
acid is not used as preservative.
 Loss of oxygen or oxygen consumed = Initial DO – Final Do.
 For test of organic matters and greases chloroform is not used as
preservative.  BOD5 = Oxygen Consumed * Dilution factor.
 For BOD test no preservative is used.  Dilution Factor =
Collected samples are carried in a color box and kept in cool places of lab so
that bacterial activity may not change the characteristics of sewage before test. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
Each sample should be labeled with the information as:  The equivalent amount of oxygen required to oxidized organic matter in a
1. Source waste water sample by means of a strong oxidizing agents is called COD.
2. Location  BOD analysis takes minimum of 5 days that cannot be useful to control
treatment process, so COD results are used.
3. Date and time
4. Preservatives used  COD analysis is fast process compared to BOD analysis. (3 hrs.)
5. Temperature  COD values are higher than BOD values.
6. Atmospheric pressure  COD analysis is used during plant operation whereas BOD analysis is used
7. Collector’s identity
23 for monitoring sewage as per environment regulation and standards. 24
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4.1 Hydraulic formula for Sewer Design

SANITARY ENGINEERING  Manning’s Formula:

B. E. INCIVIL ENGINEERING (III/II) 1
𝑉=
𝑅 𝑆
LECTURE SLIDES 𝑛
ER. NARAYAN CHHETRI Continuity Equation, Q = AV

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝑸= 𝑨𝑹𝟑 𝑺𝟐
𝒏
Unit - 4 Where,
V = velocity of flow, m/sec
Q = flow discharge, m3/sec
Design and Construction of Sewer n = Manning’s roughness coefficient,

1 R = Hydraulic mean depth / Radius = ,

S = Longitudinal bed slope
A = x-sectional area, 2
P = Wetted perimeter
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Manning’s Roughness Coefficient (n)

Bazin’s Formula:
S.N. Conduit Material Condition of interior surface 157.6
Good Fair 𝐶=
𝐾
1. Salt glazed stoneware 0.012 0.014 1.81 +
𝑅
2. Cement concrete 0.013 0.015
S.N. Types or Nature of inside surface of sewer or drains K
3. Cast iron 0.012 0.013
1. Very smooth surface 0.109
4. Brick, unglazed 0.013 0.015
2. Smooth brick or concrete surface 0.29
5. Asbestos cement 0.011 0.012
3. Rough brick or concrete surface 0.833
6. Plastic smooth 0.011 0.011
4. Smooth rubble masonry surface 1.54
Chezy’s Formula: 5. Good earthen channel 0.5
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆 6. Rough earthen channel 3.17
V = velocity of flow, m/sec
R = Hydraulic mean depth / Radius = , Kutter’s Formula:
0.00155 1
S = Longitudinal bed slope 23 + +
A = x-sectional area, 𝐶= 𝑆 𝑁
P = Wetted perimeter
0.00155 𝑁
1 + (23 + 𝑆 )
C = Chezy’s constant 3 𝑅 4
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4.2 Self cleansing velocity, Minimum velocity and Maximum velocity

Hazen and William’s formula:
V = 0.85 CR0.63S0.54  Sewage flowing through a sewer contains organic as well as inorganic solid matter which remains
suspended as the sewage flow. In order to keep the solid matter in suspended form, a certain minimum
C S.N. Types of Materials C velocity of flow is required, otherwise the solid particles will settle in the sewer, resulting in its clogging.
1. Steel pipe under future condition 95 Such a minimum velocity is known as self-cleansing velocity.
2. Old C.I. pipes, brick sewer in good condition 100  A self cleansing velocity may be defined as that velocity at which the solid particles will remain in
3. Stoneware pipe in good condition 110 suspension, without settling at the bottom of the sewer.
4. Cement lined pipe 110  At self cleansing velocity, deposited particles of given size will scour.
5. New C.I. pipes 130  It is not possible to maintain self cleansing velocity throughout the day due to fluctuations.
6. Pipes with very smooth inside surface 140  During minimum flow, velocity of flow is less than self cleansing velocity.
7. Asbestos cement pipe 140  Self cleansing velocity should maintained at least once a day.

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Self-cleansing Velocities Suggested by Beardmore

Shield’s expression for self cleansing velocity:
S.N. Nature of Materials Self cleansing velocity (cm/sec)
8𝛽
𝑉 = 𝐺 − 1 𝑔𝑑 1. Angular stones 100
𝑓 2. Round pebbles(12-25 mm) 50-60
Where, 3. Fine gravel 30
Vs = self cleansing velocity, 4. Coarse sand 20
β = characteristics of solids flowing in the sewage, in suspension 5. Fine sand and clay 15
= 0.04 for initial scour of clean grit, 6. Fine clay and silt 7.5
= 0.8 for full removal of sticky grit,
Self-cleansing velocities suggested by Badwin Latham
f = Darcy- Weisbatch friction factor, 0.03
Gs = specific gravity of sediment (2.65 for inorganic and 1.2 for organic solids) S.N. Diameter of sewer (cm) Self-cleansing velocities(cm/sec)

g = acceleration due to gravity 1. 15-25 100

ds = solid particles diameter 2. 30-60 75

3. Above 60 60

7 8
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4.3 Shape of Sewer: rectangular, horse shoe, circular and non-circular with their application
Maximum velocity:
 Minimum velocity should be equal to the self cleansing velocity so that the particles shouldn’t settle and
stick to the invert.
 There is also an upper limit velocity of flow in sewer so that the interior surface of the sewer is not
damaged due to weathering.
 At high velocity, sewage flow becomes turbulent, resulting in continuous abrasion of interior surface by
the suspended particles. Hence, maximum velocity of flow is also limited.
 The maximum velocity at which no scouring action or abrasion takes place is known as non-scouring
velocity.

S.N. Material of sewer Non-scouring velocity(cm/sec)

1. Earth channels 60-120
2. Ordinary brick-lined sewer 150-250
3. Cement concrete sewer 250-300
4. Stone ware sewer 300-450
5. Cast iron sewer 350-450
6. Vitrified tile and glazed bricks 450-500 9 10
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Shapes of Sewer
B. Non-circular sewer:
 Closed- Normally called sewer/Circular is common.  Open sewer: used for draining storm water/ may be lined with PCC, Cement soil, clay,
 Open- Normally called drain/ non circular is common. brick, stone.
 Closed Sewer: semi elliptical, Horse shoe, basket handle, rectangular and egg shaped.
Closed Sewer:
 Circular Sewer  Rectangular section:
 Non Circular Sewer
 Closed or open.
A. Circular sewer: Common
 Constructed by concrete at the bottom/ side walls with stone or brick masonry/ plastered
Merits:
 Least perimeter and maximum hydraulic mean depth / hydraulically efficient / gives higher
/ may have separate cover. Or constructed with RCC which may be precast or cast-
discharge. insitu.
 No corners/ less chance of deposition of OM. • Merit: It has more stability and ease in construction.
 Easy to construct, transport and handle. • Demerit: It is not preferred in a sewer line because it is not so hydraulically efficient.
 Stable in laying and useful in separate sewers.
Demerits:
11 12
 Not useful in combine system because self-cleansing velocity cannot be maintained at DWF
conditions.
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(b) Egg shaped section: Horse shoe:

 closed sewer / depth is one and half times of width.  It May be used for soft soils as it is more stable, but useful only for carrying large amounts of sewage, in a
sewer size is about 1.8 m in diameter.
 has smaller radius at bottom and larger at top
 This may be used for large sewers with heavy discharges such as for trunk and outfall sewer.
 mostly constructed with RCC.
 Such sewer is suitable when headroom for the construction of sewer is limited.
Merits:  The invert of this section may be flat, parabolic or circular.
 hydraulically efficient than circular.  Its height is more than its width.
 maintains self-cleansing velocity even in DWF.  Its wall most inclined with semicircular arch at top.
 equally suitable for separate system.

Demerits:
 Difficult in construction / less stable hence requires good

masonry backing.

13 14
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4.4 Requirements of Sewer Materials, types of sewer materials: CI, Concrete, PPR,
Basket Handle Sewer: PVC, DI, Stainless steel, Salt glazed stoneware
 In this type of sewer, the upper portion of sewer has got the shape of a basket handle.

 The bottom portion is narrower in width than the upper portion.

Requirements of Sewer Materials:
 Hydraulic efficiency: Manning’s n should as low as possible.
 It carries small discharge through the bottom narrow portion and during monsoon it
 Resistance to abrasion: should posses high degree of resistance to abrasion.
runs full.
 Resistance to corrosion.
 It is out dated.
 Strength
 Durability
 Cost
 Weight
 Imperviousness

15 16
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Types of sewer Materials

 Concrete:
 Cast Iron:  Either be plain or reinforced.
 Stronger and capable to withstand tensile, compressive and bending stress.  PCC pipes are used from 80 mm to 450 mm, with thickness varying from 25-35 mm.
 Are of diameter 150 – 750 mm.  For larger diameters, these are reinforced with longitudinal and transverse reinforcement.
 Lengths up to 3-3.5 m. Advantages:
 Easily acted upon by the acids present in the sewage, unless properly protected by  They are able to bear internal as well as external load to great extent.
coating it with paint or cement concrete.  Able to resist corrosion.
Advantages:  Economic.
 Are of longer lengths and water tight joints.  Can be used for the places where ground water table is higher.
 Can withstand relatively high pressure and external loads.  Available are of different sizes.

 Resistance to corrosion in natural soils.

Disadvantages:
 Difficult to transport in case of precast.
 Suitable for the places where temperature is variation, ground susceptible due to heavy
movements and vibration.  Pipes are affected by acids, alkalis and salty water, their carrying capacity reduces with time due to
corrosion.
Disadvantages:
 Initial cost is relatively high.
 Costly in nature. 17 18

 Subjected to corrosion in highly septic sewage.

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Crown corrosion:  H2S gas produced is malodorous and inflammable, having odor like rotten eggs, due to
which blackening of sewage takes places. Thiobacullus thioxians bacteria convert
 Presence of nitrogen, calcium and sulphates in sewer and insoluble, organic matters get gradually
deposited at sewer bottom. Due to this flow gets chocked and flow velocity decreased. H2S gas into H2SO4 as:
 Due to aerobic and anaerobic condition presence in the lower layers of waste water, sulphates are reduced H2S + 2O2 H2SO4
to sulphides and to hydrogen Sulphide as:  H2SO4 so formed is collected into the droplet from at the crown of the sewer, and acts
Bacteria
SO4- - + OM S - - + H2O + CO2 with concrete to form CaSO4, resulting in crown corrosion.
S -- + 2H + H2S
 To protect concrete pipes against erosion and corrosion, their interiors are lined with
vitrified clay lining.
Methods of reducing crown corrosion:
a) Lining with vitrified clay block,

b) Ventilating in sewer

c) Making the sewer full run

19 20
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 Salt glazed stoneware: 4.5 Derivation of Hydraulic Elements of Circular Sewer

 Stoneware pipes are made of stoneware vitrified clay which is manufactured from clays and shales.

Manufactured process:
 Ingredients are taken in proportion and by the application of pressure, standard length and diameter of
pipes are manufactured.
 They are allowed to dry and burn in regulated temperature. Temperature in kiln is raised to 150 oC and
final vitrification is placed at 1200 0C.
 To form the glaze at pipe surface, salt is added to kiln at high temperature. Hence, these pipes are also
called salt glazed stoneware pipes.
 Exterior surfaces are not glazed in order to make water tight joints.

Advantages:
 Hydraulic efficient due to smooth interior surface. Circular sewer running full: Circular sewer running full:
 Highly impervious. Flow area, 𝐴 =
Flow area, 𝐴 =
 Durable and economical for small diameters. Wetted perimeter, P= 𝜋𝑑 Wetted perimeter, P= 𝜋𝑑/2
Disadvantages: Hydraulic Mean radius, 𝑅 = Hydraulic Mean radius, 𝑅 = =
 Heavy, bulky and brittle so difficult to transport.

 Lengths are small so, required large number of joints.

21 22
 Cannot be used as a pressure pipe since they are weak in tension.
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4.6 Derivation of Proportionate variables for partial flow in Circular Sewer, Partial flow diagrams:
Central angle 𝞱 is given by,
𝜃 2𝑑
𝐶𝑜𝑠 =1−
2 𝐷
1. Depth
𝑑= − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 = (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 )

∴ Proportional depth , = 1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 …………….. 𝑖

2. Area
Circular sewer running partial full: 𝜋𝐷 𝜃 𝐷 𝜃 𝐷 𝜃
𝑎= ∗ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∗ 𝑆𝑖𝑛
Let, ‘D’ be the diameter of sewer, ‘𝞱’ be the central angle subtended in degrees and ‘d’ be the 4 360 2 2 2 2
depth of flow at partially flow condition.
Let,
𝜋𝐷 𝜃 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
a = area of partial flow, 𝑎= ( − )
p = perimeter at partial flow,
4 360 2𝜋
r = hydraulic mean radius at partial flow, ∴Proportional Area , = − … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
v = velocity of flow 23 24

And A, P, R is area, perimeter and hydraulic mean radius at full flow condition
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3. Wetted perimeter: 6. Discharge:

𝑃 = 𝜋𝐷 ∗ q = a*v
Taking N/n = 1
∴Proportional Perimeter = = ……………(iii) ∗
Proportional discharge , = = ∗( )
4. Hydraulic Mean Depth: ∗

( )
𝑟= = = (1 − ) ∴ = − (1 − ) = (1 − ) ……….(vi)
For variable value of N/n,
∴Proportional Hydraulic Mean Depth = (1 − )………..(iv) 𝑞 𝑁 𝑎 𝑟
= ∗ ∗ ( ) … … … … … … . (𝑣𝑖𝑖)
𝑄 𝑛 𝐴 𝑅
5. Velocity of flow:
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝐯=
𝐫𝟑 𝐒𝟐 ,
𝐧
where n = manning s rugosity coefficient applicable for partial flow condition.
∴ Proportional Velocity = = .( )
25 26
If = 1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = ( ) = (1 − ) ……………(v)
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PARTIAL FLOW DIAGRAM: SEWER DESIGN CRITERIA

To overcome tedious nature in calculating, a graph called partial flow diagram is used.
 Sewage contains 99.9% water and 0.1% of solid matters
 Design similar to water supply pipes
 Open channel flow
1. Determine Q as in chap 2
2. Select System (separate or combined or partially separate).
3. Select shape and Type of sewer (Closed/open/rectangular/circular etc)
4. Size range (min 15 cm 15, 20, 25, 30 ………60 etc. Max = 3 m
5. Sewer gradient: Min 1: 100 and Max 1:20
6. Designed for 1/2 to 2/3 full at peak or maximum discharge
7. Ensure:
a. Self-cleansing or non-silting or minimum velocity
b. Non-scouring or limiting or maximum velocity of flow
27 28
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4.7 Stages of construction of sewer  Setting out of centerline of the sewer:

 Laid from the tail end, and proceeding upwards.
 Setting out
 First of all the positions of the manholes are located on the ground, generally the sewer line is lay between
 Alignment and gradient
the manholes at a time.
 Excavation of trench, timbering and dewatering  Positions of manholes are transferred to the ground from L- sections and topo maps
 Laying and jointing  The centerline marked on the ground by driving pegs at 7.5 m or 15m interval.
 Hydraulic testing of pipes  Following two methods are generally adopted.
 Backfilling the trench
A. First method:
Testing of Sewer Lines:  A offset line parallel to the CL is marked on the ground at (2 to 3 m) or (half trench width + 0.6 m) from
centerline.
 Test for straightness of alignment and obstruction.  Temporary benchmarks should be established on this offset line, at suitable interval to carry forward the
 Water test levels.
 Smoke test  Useful to avoid inconvenience to traffic.
 Air testing

29 30
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B. Second method:  Alignment and gradient of sewers:

 Two vertical posts called uprights driven into the ground equal distance from Center  Sewers are laid at correct alignment and gradient with the help of boning rods or
Line peg. travelers and sight rails or sometimes with levels.
 A horizontal wooden board called sight rail is fixed between these uprights at a  Modified levels of inverts are obtained by adding suitable vertical length to the invert
convenient height level marked on the L-section
 These are placed at the suitable interval such as 30m and CL is marked on the sight rails  Then these modified levels are marked on the sight rails by fixing nails or marks or by
 A cord is drawn between the consecutive sight rails for taking level of the invert of the
adjusting the top of the sight rails.
sewer line.  The imaginary line parallel to the sewer is obtained on the ground.
 The boning rod or traveler of same height is traveled on the cord to obtain required
gradient.

31 32
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 Excavation, timbering and dewatering of trenches:

• Minimum depth above sewer is to be 0.9 m and width of 0.6 m.
• If depth increases to 1.5 to 2.0 m, timbering of trenches is necessary.
• At joints the width of the trench should be higher for ease in joining.
• If water table is high, dewatering with pumping or under gravity flow is done.

33 34
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 Laying and jointing of sewers:

 Check bottom gradient with the help of set of sight rails, travelers (boning rods) and plumb bob.
 Adjust levels by excavation or earth filling if necessary.
 Lay pipes so that sockets end faces at up gradient.
 Join properly and fill with cement mortar, bitumen etc. as per the type of joints.
 Testing of sewer:
Sewers are tested for water tightness of joint.
(a) Water test:
 Plug the upper and lower end. Lower end is plugged with a provision of funnel and
upper end has a provision of air outlet with stop cock.
 Pass water through the funnel and all air is released through upper end then close the
stop cock.
 After thirty minutes, note the water level and calculate loss of water.
 Leakage in funnel shall not exceeds 15 ml in smaller dia. And 60 ml in larger dia. Per
cm diameter of pipe per 100 mm length.
35  The loss should not be greater than 10 m3/24 hrs. per KM length. 36
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4.8 Sewer appurtenances: manhole and its types, street inlets, catch basins,
(b) Air test: flushing devices, inverted siphon, ventilation in shafts, sewer outlets
• If there lack water and pipe is too big, air testing is preferred

• Plug the sewer at the both ends.  Structure/Appliances constructed at a suitable locations of a sewerage system is called
Sewer Appurtenances.
• Provide air pressure equivalent to 100 mm of water using hand pump from one end
 For efficient operation and maintenance.
• Accept if the pressure is maintained at 75 mm of water.

• In case the drop is more than 25 mm, the leaking joint is identified and treated suitably. Manhole and It’s types:
 Back filling:  A masonry or RCC chamber constructed along the sewer to provide access for
 Do immediately after the successful testing. If beddings are provided, do it only after inspection, testing, cleaning and removal of obstructions.
the sufficient setting time.  May be circular, rectangular or square in shape and has a suitable cover (generally of

 Backfilling soil should be free from pebbles, large lumps, stones etc. Backfill in every CI).
15 cm layers with watering for 60 cm above the crown Objective of providing manhole:
 After one week of weathering, complete back filling 15 cm above the ground surface. a. To provide manual access for inspection, cleaning, testing
b. To allow joining, changing in directions or level or both
37 c. To lay sewer in convenient length 38
d. To achieve the ventilation of sewers
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Location of manhole: Construction of Manhole:

 Directly over the centerline of sewer. 1. Top cover and frame:
 Frame depth = 20 – 25 cm, width = 10 cm, opening > 50 cm.
 Every bend, junctions, and every change of gradient, direction, size and at other
 Weight of cover with frame = 90 – 270 kg.
convenient locations.
2. Access shaft:
Spacing of manhole:  provides an access to the working chamber.
 depends upon size of sewer, bends and junctions and gradient etc.  0.6m×0.75m (rectangular)/0.6 to 0.75m dia. (circular)
 normal spacing with respect to diameter. 3. Working chamber:
 lower portion of manhole, provides working space
 minimum 0.9m×1.2m (rectangular)/1.2 m dia. (circular)
4. Bottom or invert or Benching:
semi-circular/U-shape concrete bed (150–300mm thick)/slope 1:6 to center
5. Side walls:
minimum thickness 22.5 cm (1 brick thick). t = 10 + 4d, t is thickness of the wall in cm and d is
depth of manhole in m.
39 6. Steps or Ladder: 40
CI/steel steps placed 30 cm apart vertically for up and down to access.
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Classification of Manhole: Drop Manhole:

a. Shallow manhole:  Special manhole to connect
• Depth = 0.75 – 0.9 m branch sewer from a high-level
• constructed at the start of branch (0.5 to 0.6 m) to low-level
sewer with light CI cover main sewer.
 Purpose of drop manhole is to
b. Normal or medium manhole:
avoid splashing of sewage as
• depth about 1.5 m
well as for smooth fall of
• square (1m ×1m) or rectangular (0.8m sewage.
× 1.2m)
 May be inclined drop type or
c. Deep manhole: vertical drop type (common).
• depth > 1.5 m
• larger at bottom and reduced at top.

41 42
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Street Inlets: Catch Basins or pits:

 constructed to intercept the storm water and surface wash along the street to convey it  RCC or masonry chamber constructed below the street inlets to prevent the
into the sewer by means of pipes of 25 – 30 cm diameter. flow of girt, sand or debris
 provided at road junctions and at 100 – 130 m spacing.  depth of 600 to 750 mm.
 Made up of stone masonry, brick or concrete blocks.  may be square, rectangular or square of dimension 600 – 900mm.
 Classified as (a) Curb inlets (b) Gutter inlets (C) Combined inlets  outlet pipe is fixed about 60 cm above the bottom with trap to prevent from
out coming of odor.
 Catch pits needs regular cleaning.

43 44
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Flushing Devices (Automatic):

• Required to clean the sewer from possible clogging due to lack of self cleansing
velocity.
• a flushing chamber or tank is used to store the water to flush sewers called flushing
tank.
• constructed at the head of the sewer.

• may be manually operated or automatic.

• In manual, water is stored to certain level and opened when desired

• Automatic type is common to flush for regular intervals normally twice or thrice in a
day.
• It consists of a masonry /concrete chamber provided with a inlet, an overflow and one
outlet with U-tube and bell to sewer.

45 46
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Inverted Siphons:
 At depressions such as to cross roads, canals etc. sewer is depressed below called
depressed sewers or inverted siphon.
 Consists of an inlet and outlet chamber with cover and three pipes of different sizes laid
in parallel to each other.
 At minimum flow central pipe of smaller diameter is used and for more flow overflows
to the other two.

47 48
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Ventilating Shafts: Sewer Outlets:

 Decomposition of OM produces explosive and poisonous foul gases causes harm to  A sewer that receives the sewage from a sewage collection system and carries it to the
health and reduces life of sewers. point of final discharge or treatment plant is called sewer outlet.
 Provided to escape gases.  Sewage is usually discharge into the water bodies.

 Provided at every 80m – 300 meters.  If the sewer system and water bodies both are large then the sewer is discharged to a

 In open areas hole in the lid of MH acts as ventilation. certain depth below the surface of water for ensuring proper mixing with surrounding
water.
 In crowded areas air tight RCC or CI pipe (15 – 30 cm diameter with a cowl) is
provided as ventilating shaft.
 Height > the tallest building in the locality.

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5.1 Objectives of sewage disposal

Sanitary Engineering
5.2 Natural methods of sewage disposal: dilution, land treatment
B.E. in Civil Engineering (III/II)
5.2.1 Dilution method: essential condition, self purification process of stream
Lecture Slides
Er. Narayan Chhetri 5.2.2 Factors affecting self purification of stream, oxygen sag curve and Streeter Phelps equation
(expression only )
5.2.3 Land treatment method: essential conditions, merits, demerits
5.2.4 Methods of land treatment: broad irrigation, Overland run-off, rapid filtration
CHAPTER 5
5.2.5 Sewage sickness and preventive measures
5.3 Numerical examples on calculation of critical DO deficit and plotting of oxygen sag curve

DISPOSAL OF WASTEWATER
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5.2 Natural methods of sewage disposal: dilution, land treatment:

5.2.1 DILUTION METHODS: ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS, SELF PURIFICATION OF STREAMS:

5.1 Objectives of sewage disposal: DILUTION:

 When large water bodies such as river, streams, ponds, lake, groundwater, sea etc. are available,
wastewater after the certain level of treatment or sometimes without treatment may be disposed in
such water bodies.
 Throw sewage safely without causing offensive odor, fly, and mosquito
nuisance.  They dilutes the wastewater and under the various natural actions and the unstable organic matters
 Maintain sanitary condition and aesthetic look without pollution. are converted into stable substances and the purification occurs due to the natural forces.
This process of disposal is called the dilution method of wastewater disposal.
 Reduce risk to public health by possible contamination of land, water
supplies, bathing areas etc. from improper throwing. ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS FOR DILUTION:
 Prevent the destruction of fish or other aquatic life.  When the sewage is comparatively fresh.(3-4 hrs. of production)
 Utilize plant nutrients containing in the sewage by safely irrigating it in  Where the floating and suspended matters have been removed from sewage.
farms.  Natural water bodies has large volume of water in comparison to sewage.
 Where it is possible to thoroughly mix of diffuse sewage through diluting water.
 Where sufficient currents are available in diluting water.
3
 Where diluting water has high DO content. 4
 Where sewage doesn't contain any toxic substances.
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Standards of Dilution Based on Royal commission Report

Dilution Factor Standard Purification Process

> 500 No treatment is required. Raw sewage can directly discharged into
the volume of dilution water.
300 – 500 Primary treatment such as plain sedimentation should be done.
150 – 300 Treatment such as sedimentation, screening, chemical precipitation
are required.
˂ 150 Complete through treatment should be done.

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5.2.2 FACTORS AFFECTING SELF PURIFICATION:

SELF PURIFICATION OF STREAM:
Dilution:
 After disposal of sewage in natural stream or river, receiving water gets polluted but after some
downward distance of travel, it get purified due to natural forces of purification such as dilution,  when sewage is discharged into stream, it gets rapidly dispersed and diluted which result in the
diminishing the concentration of organic matter and other parameters.
sedimentation, oxidation and reduction in the presence of sunlight and air.
 If Discharge in the river is higher than that of wastewater, dilution factor will be more and
 The suspended solids gradually gets deposited at the bottom and washed away in the course of aerobic condition is achieved and purification will be faster.
time.
 When sewage flowing at a rate QS with concentration of any constituent in sewage CS is
 Organic matters present in sewage is acted upon by aerobic bacteria by utilizing the DO discharge into a stream flowing at a rate Qr with concentration of same constituent Cr the
present in stream water and converted them into simple offensive and stable substances. concentration of that constituent of the mix is given by:
 The deficiency of oxygen in the stream in such process is fulfilled by absorbing the oxygen CS QS + Cr Qr = C(QS + Qr )
from the atmosphere. C = ( CS QS + Cr Qr ) / (QS + Qr )
 Nitrogen, carbon, Sulphur etc. from wastewater move under their natural cycles. Current:
 Algae and other microorganism utilize the mineralized food and supply oxygen to maintain  In lesser current or velocities in the river, several matters containing in sewage deposited
aerobic condition. near the outfall causing formation of sludge bank and foul odor.
 The bacteria are eaten by protozoa which is further food of fish and aquatic life.  In heavy current, reaeration is higher, the sewage is mixed thoroughly but growth of algae
is not possible and matters are washed away rather than deposition.
 Thus, the water bodies in the course of time free from organic matters, algae and bacteria etc.
This phenomena is called self purification of stream or rivers.  In medium current, sedimentation takes place with the growth of algae resulting
7 production of oxygen. So medium current is better for self purification. 8
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SUNLIGHT:
 Sunlight is responsible to increase temperature of water. OXIDATION:
 Pathogens are killed when they are exposed to sunlight.
 After mixing, the organic matters present are acted or oxidized upon by the aerobic bacteria which
 It is essential for algae during photosynthesis to produce oxygen which enhances aerobic used DO present in stream water and the deficit oxygen is filled up by absorbing oxygen from
process. atmosphere.
 It stimulates the growth of algae and acts as a disinfectant. So, the presence of sunlight makes
 The process of oxidation is continue till the oxygen demand is fully satisfied.
self-purification better.
 Self-purification is faster even in mixing of highly polluted sewage, if the stream water is capable to
absorb atmospheric oxygen rapidly.
TEMPERATURE:
 At low temperature, the activities of the organisms are slower.

 So, in summer, the self purification occurs in lesser time.

REDUCTION:
 At higher temperature, the rate of biological and chemical activities are high but capacity to
 The organic matters settled on the bottom are reduced to liquid and gases due to hydrolysis either
maintain DO is low. chemically or biologically.
 Anaerobic bacteria split the complex organic matters to liquids and gases thus make a way for
SEDIMENTATION: their stabilization by oxidation.
 In slow current, heavier solids settle down at stream bed and are thus easily separated.  Such reduction assists the self purification of stream.
 Further, at the bottom, anaerobic decomposition of settled organic solid may takes place then
the stable product again mixed up with water and washed away. 9 10
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ZONE OF POLLUTION IN THE STREAM:

The self purification process of stream polluted by the wastewater or effluent discharge into it can be
divided into the following four zones:
1. Zone of degradation
2. Zone of active decomposition
3. Zone of recovery
4. Clear water zone

ZONE OF DEGRADATION:
 Situated just below the outfall sewer when discharging its contents into the stream.
 In this zone, water is dark and turbid, having the formation of sludge deposits at bottom.
 DO reduced to 40 % of saturation value.
 Increase in CO2 content, reaeration is much slower then deoxygenation.
 Though condition are unfavorable for aquatic life, fungi at higher points and bacteria at
lower points breed small worms which ‘work over’ and stabilize the sewage sludge.
11  Decomposition of solid matters takes place in this zone and anaerobic decomposition 12
prevails.
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CLEARER WATER ZONE:

ZONE OF ACTIVE DECOMPOSITION:
 In this zone, the natural condition of stream is restored with the result-
 This zone is just after the degradation zone and is marked by heavy pollution.
I. water becomes clearer and attractive in appearance
 Water in this zone becomes greyish and darker than the previous zone.

 DO concentration in this zone falls down to zero.

II. DO rises to the saturation level
 Active anaerobic decomposition of organic matters takes place, with evolution of CH4 , H2S , III. Oxygen balance is attained
CO2 & N2 , bubbling to the surface with masses of sludge forming black scum.
 Fish life is absent in this zone but bacterial flora will flourish. OXYGEN SAG CURVE:
 Near the end of this zone, as the decomposition slackens, reaeration sets in and DO again rises to its
 Oxygen sag or oxygen deficit in the stream, at any point of time during the self purification process
original level of 40 %.
is the difference between the saturation DO content and the actual DO content at that time:
Oxygen deficit, D = Saturation DO – Actual DO
ZONE OF RECOVERY:
The normal saturation DO value for fresh water varies with temperature, and its value varies from
 In this zone, the process of recovery starts, from its degraded condition to its former
14.62 mg/l at 0 °C to 7.63 mg/l at 30 °C.
condition.
 At the point where wastewater is discharged into the stream, it is not necessary that the DO content
 Stabilization of organic matters takes place in this zone. Due to this most of the
stabilized organic matter settles as sludge, BOD falls and DO content rises above the 40 of the stream will be equal to the saturation DO; there may be initial oxygen deficit Do.
% value.  At this stage, when the wastewater effluent, with an initial BOD load L0 , is discharged into the
 Near the end of zone, microscopic aquatic life reappears, fungi decreases and algae13 stream, the DO content of the stream starts depleting and the oxygen deficit increases.
14
reappears.  The variation of oxygen deficit(D) with the distance along the stream is depicted by the oxygen
sag curve.
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DEOXYGENATION AND REOXYGENATION CURVE:

 When pollution load is discharged into the stream, the DO content of the stream goes on depleting.
This depletion of DO content is known as DEOXYGENATION.
 The rate of deoxygenation depends upon the amount of organic matter remaining(Lt) to be
oxidized at any time t, as well as temperature, T of the reaction.
 The variation or depletion of DO content of the stream with time is depicted by the deoxygenation
curve, in the absence of aeration.
 Though the DO content of the stream is gradually consumed due to BOD load, atmosphere supplies
oxygen continuously to the water through the process of reaeration or reoxygenation.
 Along with deoxygenation, reoxygenation or reaeration also continuously takes place.
 The rate of reoxygenation depends upon-
 Depth of water in the stream (more for shallow depth)

 Velocity of flow in the stream (less for stagnant water)

 Oxygen deficit below saturation DO

THE MAJOR POINT OF INTEREST IN THE OXYGEN SAG ANALYSIS IS THE POINT OF MINIMUM DO, OR
POINT OF MAXIMUM DEFICIT. THE MAXIMUM OR CRITICAL DEFICIT, DENOTED AS DC OCCURS AT  Temperature of water
15 16
THE INFLECTION POINT OF THE SAG CURVE.
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STREETER PHELPS EQUATION (EXPRESSION ONLY)

THE ENTIRE ANALYSIS OF OXYGEN SAG CURVE CAN BE EASILY DONE BY SUPER-IMPOSING THE RATES OF DEOXYGENATION AND
REOXYGENATION.

Since, the atmospheric re-aeration takes place and proportional to DO deficits, its rate will increase with increasing
deficit, till a critical point is reached where the rate of oxygen utilized for waste decomposition is equal to the rate of
atmospheric reaeration. Downstream from this critical point, rate of reaeration is greater than the rate of utilization of
DO and hence DO begins to increase.

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5.2.3 LAND TREATMENT METHOD: ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS, MERITS, DEMERITS

 Land treatment is that method of wastewater disposal in which the sewage is evenly spread on the DEMERITS:
surface of land.  Larger area of land is required.
 Organic solids and suspended solids remains at the surface of soil and the water in the sewage  Ineffective in rainy season and heavy rainfall area.
percolates to the ground.  Not suitable for clayey soil consisting area.
 Organic solids partly acted by bacteria and partly get oxidized by atmospheric actions of heat,  Proper supervision is necessary to prevent sewage sickness.
sunlight and air.

SUITABILITY OF LAND TREATMENT:

MERITS:
 When the rainfall in the area is low, sewage may be used for farming.
 Natural methods of wastewater treatment.  When there is no large water bodies available for dilution.
 Natural water bodies can be prevented from pollution.  When the quantity of sewage is more.
 Disposal is possible even if there is no large water bodies near the vicinity.  When the soil type is alluvial, porous and sandy.
 Sewage containing high fertilizing matters can be used for irrigation purpose.  When ground water table is much deep and even in rainy season there is no chance of ground water
pollution.
 very cheap and does not required treatment.
 When the river usually runs dry.
 Operation and maintenance cost is low. 21 22
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5.2.4. METHODS OF LAND TREATMENT:

OVERLAND RUN-OFF:
 Broad Irrigation  In this method controlled amount of sewage is discharged in a thin layer on the impermeable vacant
 Overland run-off land having 2 to 8 % slope where it flows downwards and appears as a runoff at downstream where it
is collected and disposed off to natural water drains.
 Rapid infiltration
 This method is useful when land is impermeable.
Broad Irrigation:
 This type of land is generally planted with a grass cover to provide the habitat for the micro-
 In this method, the wastewater is flooded on the vacant land (not for farming purpose) having porous organism and to prevent from erosion.
soil, which acts as a filter media.
 The accumulated matters on the soil are acted by aerobic bacterial action.
 Below the porous soil, an under drainage system of 15 cm diameter porous pipes network with 10 to
30 cm spacing with open joints are laid to collect the percolated sewage and discharge on natural
water courses.

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RAPID INFILTRATION: 5.2.5 SEWAGE SICKNESS AND AND ITS PREVENTION:

 In this method, sewage is applied to spreading basins where it is allowed to percolate down to the
ground water table, which is helpful in ground water recharge.  Continuous application of sewage on the land causes decrease in size of pores of soil and finally a stage
 This method is effective if the underlying soils are high permeable. comes when soil pores gets clogged by the deposition of solids of sewage then air circulation in the soil
 Two or more basins are used for alternative use to provide rest in order to maintain adequate stops.
infiltration capacity.  In this stage, aerobic condition stops whereas anaerobic condition gets starts creating foul odor with the
production of H2S gas.
 In this case, the sewage treating capacity of land is exhausted and called sewage sickness.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES:
1. Proper choice of land which is porous in nature.
2. Pretreatment of sewage to prevent clogging from suspended solids.
Methods of application of sewage on lands: 3. Giving rest to the land i.e. intermittent sewage application.
 Flooding 4. Planting different crops in rotation which will aerate the soil
 Surface irrigation
5. Shallow depth application and providing under drainage system
 Ridge and furrow method
 sub-surface irrigation 6. Frequent ploughing and rotation of soil.
25 26
 Spray irrigation
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6.1. Objective of sewage treatment

SANITARY ENGINEERING
B. E. IN CIVIL ENGINEERING (III/II)
 To remove various contaminants present in sewage.
LECTURE SLIDES
ER. NARAYAN CHHETRI
 To reduce the strength of sewage i.e. BOD.

 To make safe environment without causing health hazards.

CHAPTER 6
 To remove nuisance causing elements.

 To prevent water bodies from pollution.

WasteWater treatment

 To remove biodegradable organics, suspended solids, pathogens.

1
 To prevent sewage sickness of land.

 To utilize the fertilizing element containing in the sewage

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6.2. Different types of treatment

 Preliminary : Removal of gross solids and sand The stages of the treatment

 Primary : Removal of settled suspended solids, fluctuating materials (oil  Mechanical treatment- Use of physical forces (screening, sedimentation and
filtration) prevails.
and grease) and part of the organic matter in suspension
 Chemical treatments- Use of external reagents and chemical reactions
 Secondary : Removal of the organic matter dissolved and in suspension (flocculation, precipitation, redox, disinfection)

which was not removed by the primary treatment .  Biological treatments - Based upon the activities of microorganisms- mainly
bacteria-which use the bio-degradable organic pollutants as a substrate for
their metabolism (activated sludge, trickling filters, lagoons, aerobic and
 Tertiary (or advanced): Removal of specific components and/or anaerobic digestion)
complementary removal of components which were not sufficiently

removed by the secondary treatment e.g. nutrients or pathogenic organisms.

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6.3.1 Screening
Screens
 Fine: for spacing lower than 10 mm;
 Medium: for spacing between 10 to 40 mm;
 Coarse (gross): for spacing larger than 40 mm

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design consideration 2. Design flow = 3* Qavg =Q max

3. Approach velocity of wastewater ≥ 0.3 𝑚/𝑠
1. The head loss through screens mainly depends on: 4. Maximum velocity through screens = 0.6-1.2 m/s
Size and amount of solids present in wastewater 5. Inclination of bars=30-60°, usually 45° with horizontal.
Clear openings between bars
Methods of cleaning and its frequency 6. Maximum allowable head loss =30 cm
Velocity of flow through the screens. 7. Clear spacing of bars are normally = 25-50 mm for hand cleaning
Head loss is computed by the expression: = 15-75 mm for mechanical cleaning.
ℎ = 0.0729 𝑉 − 𝑉
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚 ;
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑠, 𝑚/ sec(𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)

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grit chamber
Types of grit chambers
6.3.2. grit chamber
1.Rectangular horizontal flow type:
 Organic material is not allowed to settle down with proper velocity control.
 Normally designed to remove particles of about 0.2mm size or more than
specific gravity about 2.65.
 The length of channel is normally governed by the depth required for specific
setting velocity (critical velocity).
 The cross-sectional area is governed by the flow through velocity and number
of channels provide.

2.Aerated grit chamber:

 Organic solids that would otherwise settle down by gravity is kept in
suspension by rising air bubbles of the aeration system provided at the bottom
of the tank or by means of some type of agitation.
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grit chamber design criteria

Assumption
Flow = Maximum
• Particles are of same size and of spherical shape having uniform Number of channels = 2 minimum

diameter. Peaking factor (P.F) = 2.5-3.0

Detention time, t = 30-90 S (usually 60 s)
• Particles in suspension are dilute and therefore, it behaves and
Flow through velocity, vh = 0.15-0.3 m/s.
settles discretely. Settling velocity = 0.015-0.025 m/sec for particles of

• Particles are distributed uniformly throughout the depth of water 0.2 mm dia and sp. gr of 2.65
Liquid depth, D = 1-2 m
in the tank or basin.
Length, L = 3 -25m
• Factors like hydraulic short-circuiting, sludge deposition at the Width = around 1 m

bottom of the tank, baffles causing turbulences at the inlet and Sludge depth = 0.3-0.5 m
Quantity of grits = 0.05 -0.15 m3/1000 m3 of flow
outlet, etc affecting the performance of a grit chamber are
Overflow rate = 1200-2250 m3/m2-day (at Qpeak)
neglected in the design aspects.
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design criteria design criteria

Bottom scour and flow through velocity
Determining settling velocity
The settling velocity VS( or terminal velocity VC) theoretically for
spherical discrete particles is given by  The critical velocity for scour is calculated from modified shield’s

𝟒 𝑺𝒔 − 𝟏 𝒈𝒅 formula.
𝑽𝒔 =
𝟑𝑪𝑫
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑲 𝒈 𝑺𝒔 − 𝟏 𝒅

The settling velocity of grit particles in the transition range is also Where k =3 to 4.5. A value of 4 is usually adopted for grit particles.
calculated by the Hazen’s modified equations as given
3𝑇 + 70
𝑉 = 60.6 𝑆 − 1 𝑑
100
 In actual practice, a horizontal velocity of flow of 15 to 30 cm/s is used at

peak flows.

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6.3.3 FLOTATION OR SKIMMING TANK design consideration

 Are small size tanks provided to remove oil and grease and other small
(a) The surface area required (As) for skimming tank is determined by:
floating materials such as fats, vegetables debris, fruit skins ,grease, oils, wax,
soap, free fatty acid etc 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟐𝑸 𝟐
 If sewage is allowed to remain quiescent condition for certain detention time 𝑨𝑺 = 𝒎 ,
𝑽𝒓
(normally 3 minute) they will rise to the surface of sewage as scum.
 It is done before sedimentation (primary sedimentation) tank to protect 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑
pumps and downstream treatment components.
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠(𝑚 ⁄ 𝑚𝑖𝑛)

= 0.25 𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛
(b) Detention time = 3-5 minutes.
(c) Length width ratio (L/B) = 1-2
(d) Efficiency can be increase by using chlorine gas.

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6.3.4 sedimentation  Flocculent particle settling: that settling in which particles flocculates with
alternation to their shape, size and mass during settling and settles at non-
 Sedimentation is the widely used unit operation in wastewater treatment with
uniform but faster rate. It occurs in primary settling, chemical-floc, upper
the objective or purpose to separate suspended particles heavier then water
portion of secondary settling of bio-floc.
under the influence of gravitational force.
 Hindered or zone settling: the settling particles hinder the settling of the
 On the basis of concentration and tendency of particles to interact with each
other neighboring particles. They tend to remain in fixed position with respect
other: settling phenomenon may occur during sedimentation are:
to each other and settles as a unit. It occurs in the secondary settling unit in
 Discrete particle settling: that settling in which particles do not alter their
conjunction with secondary treatment.
shape, size and masses during settling but settles at uniform rate, such
 Compression settling: the particles form a structure which is further
particles are called discrete particles and their only settling velocity is
compress by the structured particles during settling. It occurs in the bottom
determinable.
layer of secondary settling unit and sludge thickeners.

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sedimentation
CLASSIFICATION
1. Classification based on method of operation:
(A) Fill and draw type
(B) Continuous flow type
(a) Horizontal flow type
i. Rectangular with longitudinal flow
ii.Circular with radial flow
--Circular with redial feed(common)
-- Circular with peripheral feed
Vertical flow settling tank
(b) Vertical flow type (Hooper bottom tank)
2. Classification based on location
(A) Preliminary sedimentation tank (grit chamber)
(B) Primary settling tank
(C) Secondary settling tank

21 Circular settling tank 22

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plain sedimentation PLAIN SEDIMENTATION

 When the sedimentation operation is used for the wastewater treatment without
using chemicals in primary treatment process it is called plain sedimentation.
 The main purpose of plain sedimentation is to remove large amount of
residual suspended and organic solids present in wastewater to reduce the
load on the other treatment plant.
 The principle of plain sedimentation is that if wastewater is retained in
quiescent condition in a tank for certain period by reducing flow velocity, the
suspended solids having specific gravity greater than water will settle down
at bottom of the tank due to gravitational forces.
 Plain sedimentation removes 45 to 60 % of suspended matters and 30 to 45 %
of BOD from domestic sewage.

Rectangular sedimentation Tank 23 24

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plain sedimentation
plain sedimentation
Surface loading or surface overflow rate (SOR) of sedimentation tank:
Removal efficiency of sedimentation tank

Let 𝑉 is the settling velocity of smaller particle less than SOR and if out of
X0 particles, X particles settle down and are removed. Removal efficiency
( )
𝑋 Vs 𝑉
= =
𝑋 Vs 𝑄
𝐵𝐿

𝐿 𝑑 𝑉 𝐿 Where VS is SOR of sedimentation tank and all

𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = particles having SOR i.e. 𝑉 ≥ will be settle
𝑡 𝑡 𝑉 𝑑
Or down and will be removed.
𝑑 𝑄 𝑑 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉 =𝑉 × = × = =
𝐿 𝐵𝑑 𝐿 𝐵𝐿 𝐴
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plain sedimentation plain sedimentation

Design consideration for horizontal flow sedimentation tank Design consideration for horizontal flow sedimentation tank
Surface overflow rate (SOR) = 40-50 m3/m2/day
Settling velocity (VS)
For Laminar settling (𝑅 ≤ 1, 𝑑 ≤ 0.1 𝑚𝑚)𝑢𝑠𝑒 Stokes equation Detention time = 1-4 hours
𝑔𝑑 Effective length = 15 − 100m(Typical 30 m)
𝑉 = 𝑆 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
18𝜗
Flow velocity (Vh) = 30-60 cm/min
𝑉 = 418 𝑆 − 1 𝑑 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 T in °C and d in mm.
Width (b) = 3 − 30 𝑚(𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 10 𝑚)
For turbulent settling (𝑅 = 1000 𝑡𝑜 10000, 𝑑 > 1 𝑚𝑚)𝑢𝑠𝑒 Newton’s equation Length to width ratio (L/b) = 1.5 − 7.5 (𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 3)
𝑉 = 3.33𝑔𝑑(𝑆 − 1)
For transition settling (𝑅 = 1 𝑡𝑜 1000, 𝑑 = 0.1 𝑡𝑜1 𝑚𝑚)𝑢𝑠𝑒 Hazen’s equation Effective depth (d) ≤ 3.5 𝑚
4𝑔𝑑 Freeboard (FB) = 0.3 -0.5 m
𝑉= 𝑆 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑎𝑧𝑒𝑛 𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3𝐶
60.6 𝑆 − 1 𝑑 3𝑇 + 70 Depth of sludge zone (ds) = generally 1m.
𝑉= 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
100 Bottom slope =1% from outlet end towards inlet end.
T in °C and d in mm.
Cd is coefficient of drag is given by For circular tank- the diameter =3-60 m (Typical 30 m)
24 3 Depth = 3-5 m (4m)
+ + 0.34
𝑅 𝑅 27 28

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 Chemically aided sedimentation removes 60-80% of suspended matters and

45-65% of BOD from domestic sewage.
6.3.5 DESCRIPTION OF CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION & COAGULATION
 The chemicals added are called coagulants; the process of adding
coagulants to sewage and mixing it thoroughly is known as coagulation; the
 The wastewater contains electrically charged colloidal particles and smaller formed insoluble gelatinous precipitate is called floc; and the process of

suspended solids which are not settled down in plain sedimentation. formation of floc is called flocculation.
 Coagulants: aluminum sulphates (alum), iron salts, lime, sodium carbonate.
 The settling and removal of such fine lighter non- settleable suspended solids,
 Principle of chemical precipitation: The ions of floc are positively charged
colloidal and few dissolved solids can be achieved by chemically assisted
and attract negatively charged finely dispersed solid and colloidal matter
sedimentation which is called chemical precipitation. present in wastewater resulting aggregation and binding for the formation of
floc which become heavier and so that it can be removed by sedimentation.
 It is usually done before biological treatment and after plain sedimentation.

29 30

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OPERATION AND PROCESS:

A. Feeding the coagulants using dry or wet feeding devices

B. Mixing of coagulants in mixing basins with baffles walls
C. Flocculation using slow stirring device called flocculator
D. Sedimentation in settling tank

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6.4 Biological (Secondary) treatment process

SECONDARY TREATMENT Design of secondary treatment:

 The colloidal and dissolved solids, mainly organic in nature, takes longer
Usually employs biological processes the microorganisms is able to utilize the
time in PST and the reduction of dissolved solid requires their stabilization
colloidal and dissolved biodegradable organic matter as their food for their
or conversion into such solids which can then be removed by gravity
growth and multiplication. So, to remove the colloidal and dissolved solids from
settling.
primary effluent, the wastewater is further treated normally using biomass as an
agent.  The microorganisms utilize these biodegradable organic matter as their food
for their growth and multiplication.
Removal Mechanism:  The further treatment of these colloidal and dissolved solids using biomass
as an agent is called secondary treatment, also termed biological treatment
 Removal of colloidal suspensions is by the principle of physiochemical of wastewater.
absorption and by enmeshment of suspended solids while reduction of
soluble organic solids (BOD or COD) is achieved by microbial biosorption Objective
and their further degradation and stabilization by microbes.
 Synthesize on new cells known as Biomass or biological floc. To coagulate and remove both organic and inorganic non-settable
colloidal particles which do not get remove in PST

To stabilize the dissolved organic matter that remains present in the
33 effluent from primary treatment. 34

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Classification of biological treatment processes:

Processes according to microbial maintenance in the system
I. Processes according to operational conditions and
II. Processes according to microbial maintenance in the system
 Suspended growth process: Microorganisms are maintain as suspension within the
liquid in the reactor by an appropriate mixing method. ASP, oxidation ditch, aerated
Processes according to Operational conditions: lagoons etc.
 Attached growth or fixed film process: Microorganism in the reactor remains
 Aerobic Process attached to some inert packing material or medium, such as rock, slag or specially
 Anaerobic Process
 Facultative processes designed ceramic or plastic materials. Intermittent sand filter , Trickling filter, rotating
 Anoxic process- Microbes converts nitrate nitrogen of wastewater into biological contactor etc.
nitrogen gas in the absence of oxygen, also known as denitrification
process.

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6.4.1 Sewage Filtration

 Secondary or Biological Treatment process.
 About 60-80% of unstable organic matter present in raw sewage can be
Removal Mechanism removed by secondary Treatment process.
 In Filtration sewage is passed through open beds of coarse porous
medium capable to passing air.
Removal of colloidal suspensions is achieved by the principle of physiochemical
absorption and by enmeshment of suspended solids or particulate matter on the
 The effluent from filter is taken to secondary settling tank for
biological floc (Biomass), and secondary settling
Filter Types
Reduction of soluble organic solids (BOD or COD) is achieved by
1.Intermittent sand filters
microbial biosorption and their further degradation and stabilization by
2.Contact beds
microbes.
3.Trickling filters
Active biomass in the reactor is normally expressed as mixed liquor volatile
suspended solids(MLVSS). Intermittent sand filter –
(purpose, construction, working and cleaning with merits and demerits)
• Easiest type of sewage filter with sand as filter media and for the
purpose of the biological treatment of sewage.
• Rarely used but used in certain places such as tuberculosis Hospital
because it produces highly nitrified and polished effluents.
• Various units are needed because it cannot be used continuously.
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Construction, Working and cleaning

Construction, Working and cleaning
Somehow similar to slow sand filter.
Consists of rectangular tank with especially prepared bed of sand constructed below
the ground surface without any lining.

 Construction Details:

 Depth = 0.75- 1.0 m deep

 Area = 2000-4000 m2
 L/B = 3-4
 0.15-0.3 m thick layers of filter media(sand) of effective size 0.2-0.5 mm with
CU= 2-5 is provided.
 15-30 cm depth of gravel is provided at the bottom of sand layer to facilitate the
drainage of filter.
 Below the sand layer open jointed effluent pipes are provided in the gravel bed.
 Usually 3-4 beds are provided for rotational working and symphonic dosing

39 tank is provided for influent to serve for all beds. 40

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Working and cleaning Merit and De-Merit

 Sewage is applied over sand for 5-10 cm depth from the dosing tank applied Merit
once in 24 hours only.
1. No need of secondary sludge treatment
 Gradually percolates and suspended organic matters get trapped in the voids
2. No chance of anaerobic condition
of top portion of sand bed, through straining action.
3. Operation is simple, no need of mechanical equipment except a small
 Now the bed is keep in rest for some time for the action of organic bacteria
dosing tank.
after percolation of all liquid.
4. High efficiency (Effluent BOD < 5 mg/l ; effluent SS < 10 mg/l)
 The effluent from intermittent sand filter is stable and highly nitrified , quite
5. No insects are attracted.
clear and containing suspended solids less than 10 ppm. Also the BOD less
than 5 ppm. 6. Can be operated under smaller head.

 After a long use the beds may be clogged so certain portion of sand (about 25 De-Merit
mm) is scrapped, cleaned and reused. The rate of filtration depends upon the
1. More land is required.
effective size of sand used.
2. Larger quantity of sand is required.
 Finer sand will results in better quality effluent but the rate of filtration is low.
3. Loading per unit surface area is very small. So, cannot be employed for
 Coarser sand will permit higher filtration rate, but in that case the medium size or bigger plants.
penetration of solids will be too deep. 41 42

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Contact beds construction, working and cleaning

(purpose, construction, working and cleaning with merits and demerits)

 Is an improvement over intermittent sand filter and also called contact

filter.
 It is similar to intermittent filter and used for the purpose of biological
treatment of sewage. It lies between intermittent sand filter and trickling
filter
 not used nowadays. Construction – Two contact beds in series

 Rectangular watertight tank constructed below the ground and lined with cement
concrete or cement plaster on masonry both at bottom and sides.
 The filter media gravel or brick ballast or broken stones of size 2-5 cm
 Depth of filtering media = 1-1.8 m (1.2 m common)
 Rates of filtration = 4000-6000 m3/ha/day.
 The area of one bed shouldn't exceed 0.2 hectare.
 Usually 3-4 beds of depth 5-10 cm each are provided.
 A dosing tank of siphon and under drainage pipes in open joints at bottom for effluent
removals.
43  Contact beds can be placed in series for higher efficiency. 44

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working and cleaning CONTACT BED REMOVES:

Four cycles of working or operation which requires 8-12 hours.
*85-90% SUSPENDED MATTERS
1.Filling: Outlet is closed and tank is filled slowly 50-100 mm depth and then inlet is
*60-80% ORGANIC MATTERS
closed. It takes 1-2 hours. *50-75% BACTERIA
Merit and De-Merit
2.Contact: Inlet and outlet both remain closed for contact and filtration. The sewage
admitted over the contact bed is allowed to stand for about 1-2 hours and called Merit
contact period. during this period, the colloidal and dissolved matter gets transferred
to the filter media, and comes in contact with the bacteria film covering the filter  It works under small heads.
media.  There is no nuisance of flies.
 The problem of odour is less as compared to trickling filter.
3.Emptying: outlet of under drainage is open. Sewage present in the contact bed is
withdrawn slowly, without disturbing the organic film. It takes 1-2 hours.
De-Merit
4.Resting for oxidation: It is left for 4-6 hours.
 Loading load is lesser than trickling filter.
In this period atmospheric oxygen enters the void space of contact media which
supply oxygen to aerobic bacteria and results oxidation of the organic matters  Larger area of land is required.
present in the film.  Operation requires skilled supervision.
 Cost is more than trickling filter.
After long use, the beds may get clogged so the filter media is taken out, washed, dried  Requires longer rest period.
and refilled. The drain pipes are also washed and cleaned once after every 4-5 years.  High chance of clogging than other filters.
45 46

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Trickling Filter
Trickling Filter (purpose, construction, working and cleaning with merits and demerits, types
(purpose, construction, working and cleaning with merits and demerits, types (high rate and standard rate), recirculation, two stage filters, design criteria)
(high rate and standard rate), recirculation, two stage filters, design criteria)
Concept
Concept
 Is attached growth type wastewater treatment systems.
 Recirculation: means the return of a portion of effluent from the TF or final
effluent from the SST to the TF before or after primary settling tank(PST).
 Similar to contact beds in construction, but their operation is continuous and they allow
continuous aeration. The main advantages of recycling the filter effluent are as follows:
 It improves the distribution of flow over the media and thereby reduces the problem
 It consists, normally of a circular tank with a bed of coarse material , are large size
rocks, stones or ceramic pieces, slag, etc. At present, plastic modules of various shapes of clogging and filter flies.
and sizes as filter media.  It helps in seeding the microorganism, particularly in the case of industrial

 Wastewater is usually applied over the bed of supporting media by rotating distribution wastewater.
arms.  It dilutes the incoming strong wastes and thereby decreases the organic loading to

 The effluent is collected in the secondary clarifier, popularly known as humus tank, to the filter.
separate washed out biomass solids before final disposal of effluent.  It maintains average flow rate during low flow periods.

 The recirculation of effluent is practiced in the case of a high rate trickling filter.  It increases the contact efficiency and thereby treatment efficiency.
 It increases the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the influent.
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Removal mechanism Removal mechanism

 Formation of bio-film or slime layer on a filter media is aerobic to a depth of only o.1
to 0.2 mm and the remaining part of the film is anaerobic.
 When wastewater passes over this stationary microbial film, contact between the
substrates (food) and microorganisms is established and the substrate is decomposed or
degraded aerobically by the attached biomass.
 Since food concentration is higher at outer layer, the microorganisms near the
outer surface are in a rapid growth phase.
 As the microorganisms at the outer surface grows, the thickness of the slime layer
increases and the diffused oxygen is consumed before it can penetrate the full depth
the slime layer.
 A stage comes when anaerobic conditions are developed and slime layer eventually
Schematic diagram of removal mechanism in TF peels off and is removed from the filter along with flow- called sloughing or unloading
of the filter.
 Organic removal is not by the “filtering” but rather by the substance diffusion and

49 microbial assimilation, i.e. biodegradation. 50

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Classification
Classified in two ways:
1.According to organic or hydraulic loadings.
2.According to the number of units used in series.

According to Organic or Hydraulic Loadings

 Low rate or standard rate trickling filter-
More dependable to obtain an effluent of consistent quality when
strength of influent wastewater is varying.
usually filter effluent is not recycle and organic loading ranges from
0.08 to 0.03 kg BOD5/day-m3 of tank volume (Volume of filter bed)

 High rate trickling filter-

Is designed to take higher organic loadings with the recirculation of
filter effluent and to prevent the flooding or pounding of filter. Normally,
excluding recirculation, organic loading ranges from 0.35 to 2.4 kg BOD5 /d-m3.

 Super rate trickling filter-

Uses plastic media with a large specific area to treats wastewater of high
organic content. The organic loading ranges from 1-6 kg BOD5 /d-m3.
51 52

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Classification
According to number of units used in series

1.Single stage trickling filter-

Only one (Single) filter is adopted for the system. When two or more
filters are required to use, they will be provided in parallel. Effluent flow
is usually not recirculated.

2.Two stage trickling filter-

 Consists of two filters in series.
 Recirculation of effluent from each stage.
 In certain cases, an intermediate clarifier is used between the two
filters.
 Is normally used for treating high strength wastewater or when removal
of nitrogenous organic matter is desired.

53 54

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Construction Construction
A trickling filter is not a straining or filtering unit as the name implies.

55 56

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Construction

 Consist of a cylindrical structure - height varies from one to some meters

 Filler with stones of a size from 25-75 mm or plastic material for the development
of the bacteria biomass and through which the slurry is filtered. This is an aerobic
system.
 Depth varies from 1.8 m to 3.0 m.
 Filter floor: RCC slab 10 to 15 cm thick, 0.5 to 5% slope towards main
collecting channel
 Filter walls: fully plastered stone or brick masonry or RC concrete. Honey
combed or otherwise with openings for circulation of air.
 Ventilation: for dia. More then 30 m peripheral head channel on the side of the
filter with vertical vents is desired,
 Since the anaerobic fermentation produces gas, the biologic film separates from
the surface and leaves it free to start a new cycle.
 The filtered wastewater collected on the lower portion is send to a sedimentation
tank which separates the water from the sludge. 57 58

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59 60

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Design Criteria
Operational and process design parameter of trickling filter
Design criteria Standard rate or High rate TF Super rate TF
low rate TF (Stone media) (Plastic media)
Hydraulic loading 1-4 10-40a 40-200
(m3/m2/d)
Organic loading 0.08-0.35 0.35-2.4b 1-6
(BOD5kg/d-m3)
Depth of filter (m) 1.5-3.0 1.0-2.0 2-12
Recirculation 0.0 1-4 1-14
ratio,R
BOD5 removal 80-85 65-80 65-85
efficiency (%)
Air supply Ventilating area in main channels and at the filter periphery
should not be less than 1.0 m2/250 filter surface area for draft
of air supply.

a: Including recirculation b: excluding recirculation

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Design Equation
Difference between Normal rate and High rate TF
NRC Equation
Normal rate trickling filter High rate trickling filter  used to determine the efficiency
1. Low hydraulic loading 1. High hydraulic loading
For a low rate or single stage TF
2. Low rate of filtration 2.High rate of filtration (20-50 times)
3. Low organic loading 3. Higher organic loading
4. Large area is required 4. Comparatively small area is required.
5. Large initial cost 5. Initial cost is low
For a High Rate or Two Stage TF
6. High depth is required 6. Low depth is sufficient
7. Has high efficiency 7. Has low efficiency.
8. No need of recirculation 8. Due to lower efficiency, BOD removal is low
so to improve efficiency, recirculation is done.

9. Dosing interval is not more 9. Dosing interval is not more than 15 sec.
than 5 minutes.

10. Sloughing is intermittent 10. Sloughing is continuous type.

type

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Design Equation
Design Equation
NRC Equation
E1 = BOD removal efficiency of the filter of a single stage TF system or first filter of NRC Equation
two-stage TF system, in % R1 = Recirculation ratio of the filter of a single stage TF system or first filter of
E2 = BOD removal efficiency of the second filter of two-stage TF system, in % a two stage TF system.
R2 = Recirculation ratio of second filter of a two stage TF system
W1 = BOD loading of settled influent to the filter of a single stage TF system or first f = treatability factor usually assumed as 0.9 for domestic wastewater.
filter of a two-stage TF system, in Kg BOD5/day
W2 = BOD loading of settled influent to second filter of a two-stage TF system,
in Kg BOD5/day = W1(1-E1)
V1 = volume of the filter of a single-stage TF system or fist filter of a two- stage
The overall or total BOD removal efficiency of a two-stage system is
TF system, in m3
V2 = Volume of second filter of a two-stage TF system,m3

F1 =Recirculation factor for first stage filter is given by

F2 =Recirculation factor for second stage filter is given by

65 66

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6.4.2 Activated sludge process activated sludge process

 The ASP is a most versatile biological process for the treatment of almost all types
of wastewaters.

 Basically, it is an aerobic suspended growth type biological process that uses the
microorganisms kept in suspension in the reactor to decompose and stabilize the
soluble and particulate (colloidal and suspended) organic matter present in
wastewater.

 The suspended activated biomass is called activated sludge and is measured in

terms of MLVSS.
 The process essentially has two distinct functions–
 synthesis of new cells and
 stabilization (oxidation) of organic matter.

The treatment system normally consists of -

1.A reactor (an aeration tank)
2.A settling tank (a secondary clarifier) in which suspended solids (biological
flocs) from the reactor is separated by gravity settling. Flow diagram for an activated sludge plant with high degree of treatment

3.A recycle system to return the portion of settled sludge (activated sludge)
from the clarifier bottom to reactor.
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Removal Mechanism
Removal Mechanism

 The removal of colloidal solids in suspension is done by  Organic Matters + O2 + nutrients micro-organisms CO2 + H2O + Energy+
micro-organisms
physiochemical adsorption on the active biomass and by enmeshment
in the biological floc. The major sub process involved in the removal of colloidal and soluble organic matter
includes:
 Soluble organic solid is removed by bio-sorption of matter by
• Dissolution of oxygen into liquid/wastewater (By aeration)
microorganisms and then by their biodegradation or decomposition
and stabilization. During the biodegradation by oxidation of organic • Turbulent mixing of reactor wastewater and biomass (Returned activated
solid, a portion of organic matter is synthesized into new cell and sludge)
another fraction is stabilized.
• Adsorption of organic matter (substrate) by activated sludge (Biomass)

 A part of synthesized cell will undergo self oxidation (also known as • Molecular diffusion of dissolved oxygen and soluble substrate/nutrient into
auto oxidation or endogenous respiration), in the reactor during the activated biomass (biological floc)
endogenous growth phase of microorganism.
• Basic metabolism of micro organism (cell synthesis)
• Bio flocculation
• Auto oxidation of cell
• Release of CO2 from active cell mass.
69 • Decomposition of dead cell. 70

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design consideration

Hydraulic Retention time (HRT):

Average time for which the wastewater flowing into the reactor remains in the reactor,
or in the entire system.
design consideration

71 72

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design consideration design consideration

Volumetric organic loading or Volumetric BOD Loading (VOL) Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) or Sludge retention time(SRT) or sludge age
The BOD applied per unit volume of reactor per day. (θc)
- average time for which the volatile suspended solids (VSS) (or the biological solids)
Organic BOD loading in mg/l per day = remain in the reactor or aeration tank. The mean cell residence time is given by

Where,
S0 BOD concentration of influent wastewater in mg/l,
Q is influent wastewater flow rate in m3/d, and
V is volume of reactor in m3, The θc of biological solid is much greater than hydraulic retention time.
Settling quality of sludge
Food to microorganism (F/M) ratio
The settling characteristics of activated sludge or MLSS is measured in terms of sludge
Amount of food (substrate) available per unit weight of microorganisms volume index (SVI).
(biomass). It is the ratio of volume of the sludge settled after 30 minutes of settling in a one liter
The substrate is usually measured as BOD5 or soluble COD while the biomass is cone (known as Imhoff cone), to the MLSS concentration of a wastewater sample.
approximated in terms of concentration of Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS)
in the reactor or aeration tank.

SS concentration in returned sludge, (mg/l)

Sometimes sludge density index (SDI) is used to determine the quantity of solids
concentration in the returned sludge. It is given by the following expression.
73 74

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design criteria of asp 6.4.3 Oxidation Pond

 Length of aeration tank ≤ 100 m
 Depth of wastewater in the tank = 4.5-7.5 m (for diffuse aeration)  Is an artificially constructed earthen pond with relatively small depth of
= 1-6 m (for surface aeration) controlled design and is biological or secondary treatment process.
= 3-4.5 m (usually)  Also known as Waste stabilization ponds
 For rectangular aeration tank L:B = 3:1 to 5:1  Popular for when high quality effluent is not the requirement and a large
 Free board = 0.3-0.6 m (for diffuse aeration) and area of land is available for such treatment.
= 1-1.5 m (for surface aeration)  In general settled sewage is treated by such pond. It is sometime
 Air requirement synonymously termed is stabilization pond.
(1) 30-55 m3 of air/kg of BOD removed when F/M ≥ 0.3
 Normally wastewater to be treated is applied directly to the pond(s) after
(2) 70-115 m3 of air/kg of BOD removed when F/M < 0.3
removing floating materials through bar racks without any primary
treatment. - The oxygen required is mostly supplied by the algae present in
Process criteria
the system through the symbiotic actions of algae and bacteria .
Process SRT HRT MLSS Qr/Q F/M ratio Volumetric
 The system has low construction and negligible operating costs as it
(ƟC) (Ɵ) X (mg/l) ratio (per day) loading(kg
requires minimum operation skills, and does not use any mechanical
days hours BOD5/1000 m3day) equipment to supply oxygen by aeration. Ponds may be multi-celled and can
Complete 1-15 3-5 1000-6500 0.25-1.0 0.2-1 800-2000 be provided in series or parallel.
mix  Accumulation of sludge at the bottom of the pond is negligible, only few
Conventional 5-15 4-8 1000-3000 0.25- 0.2-0.5 300-600 centimeters, in a year and therefore, requires its removal once in 4-5 years.
plug flow 0.75

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oxidation pond Oxidation Pond

Removal mechanism

The suspended solids settle to the pond bottom by gravity due to long retention time.
The soluble organic matter in upper top and intermediate layers is decomposed
(oxidized) under aerobic and facultative conditions by the microorganisms. The
required oxygen is supplied by the photosynthetic metabolism of algae present and
synthesized in the pond. The solids settle at the bottom of the ponds are decomposed to
stable end products by anaerobic bacteria.
Additional oxygen can be provided by mechanical or diffuse aeration systems.
Theory
 Shallow depth tank open to the atmosphere,
 Aerobic Action
 Bacterial- algal-symbiosis.
 The produced solids settle at the bottom .When the accumulated sludge fills 1/3rd
Symbiotic relation between bacteria and algae
of the depth of the pond it should be cleaned.

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Function

 To retain sewage comparatively sufficient long time to satisfy the BOD for
the change in the characteristics of the sewage and the waste matter into
stable substances by aerobic action.
location
 Should located at least 300 m far away from the inhabitants.
 There should not be any tree and buildings around at the 50 to 60 m
 water sources should be at least 15 m far away from it.
 It should be located on the leeward side of the building.

construction

 Surrounded by the earthen dykes of 1-1.5 m wide on top in 1:15 to 1:3 slopes
which is turfed for good appearance.
 30 cm above and below the operation level of the inner portion of the dykes are
provided with stone riprap or PCC or brick lining .
 sewage is discharged at the centre of the pond from inlet chamber through inlet
pipe from bell mouth end. An outlet chamber is provided with a tee for entering
liquid only
Aerobic waste stabilization pond
79 80

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Commissioning Design criteria

The way to start the new pond after constructed
1. Culture Method 1.Detention time (t) = 4- 45 days (depends on temperature)
2. Natural Method

Advantage 2.Surface area (AS) = 0.2-0.4 ha/1000 persons

 Low initial cost where land are cheap. 3.Volume of pond (V) = Q * t
 No equipment required.
 Low maintenance cost. 4.Organic loading (U) =W/AS= 40-160kg/ha/day.
 No skilled persons required. 5. Shape=rectangular
 Efficiency is high.
 Can be used as fish farming. 6.Effective depth (d) = 80- 150 cm (no sludge depth is required)
Dis -advantage 7.Free board (FB) = 20-50 cm (higher the wind velocity, FB is less)
 Larger area of land is required. 8.Length width ratio (L/B) =2-3
 Creates mosquito nuisance.
 Creates foul nuisance. 9.Slide slope =1:15-1:3
 Not suitable for that place where high rainfall occurs 10.Oxidation pond is used where at least 200 days are sunny in 1 year.

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6.4.4 INTRODUCTION OF MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY

Permeate

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GAC TREATMENT IN WWT

 A filter with granular activated carbon (GAC) is a proven option to remove

certain chemicals, particularly organic chemicals, from water. GAC filters
also can be used to remove chemicals that give objectionable odors or tastes
to water such as hydrogen sulfide (rotten eggs odor) or chlorine.

 However, other chemicals, like iron and nitrate, are not attracted to the
carbon and are not removed and another type of filter, such as reverse
osmosis (RO) or green sand may be needed. RO filters will also remove
certain organic chemicals.

 Granular activated carbon is made from raw organic materials (such as

coconut shells or coal) that are high in carbon. Heat, in the absence of
oxygen, is used to increase (activate) the surface area of the carbon; this is
why these filters are sometimes referred to as “charcoal” filters. The activated
carbon removes certain chemicals that are dissolved in water passing through
a filter containing GAC by trapping (adsorbing) the chemical in the GAC.
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6.4.5 Introduction of membrane bio-reactors for WWT

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7.1 Sources of Sludge

 The products obtained from the waste water treatment plant and the
constituents such as screenings, grits, scum and sludge. The treat effluent is
SANITARY ENGINEERING
directly disposed in the water bodies or land treatment.
B. E. IN CIVIL ENGINEERING (III/II)
LECTURE SLIDES  The sources of sludge vary according to the systems adopted for wastewater
ER. NARAYAN CHHETRI
treatment. Normally the sources of sludge are sewage and sludge generation
are from the different treatment units as:

 Primary settling tank (primary sludge)

CHAPTER 7
 Mixed liquor line from the aeration tank or influent to the secondary
clarifier (biological sludge)
1
 Activated sludge settling tank (secondary sludge or activated sludge)
Sludge treatment and diSpoSal  Trickling filter settling tank (Secondary sludge or humus) 2

 Chemical precipitation tank (chemical sludge)

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Necessity of Sludge Treatment

 The large bulk volume of sewage should be reduced so that the volume of disposal
reduced.

 The sludge contains decomposable substances which should be digested to stable Characteristics of sludge
substances. Sludge characteristics depends on the Source, age and type of processes
 The sludge contains harmful pathogenic bacteria which should be killed for safety of employed for its removal. The characteristics of sludge are normally described
on the basis of
public health.
Objective of Sludge treatment  The total solid content of the sludge and its specific gravity and
 Fractions of mixed (mineral) and volatile (organic) solids in the total solids
 The major objective of sludge treatment is to reduce the volume of sludge by
of the sludge and the specific gravity of the total solids.
extracting the water from sludge.
 To kill harmful pathogens so that it cannot affect the public health.
 To reduce volume of sludge so that it can be easy to dispose off.
 To reduce water content so that handling and transportation is easy.
 To stabilize organic matters present in sludge so that they do not cause trouble.
3 4
 To recover and reuse oils, grease due to its industrial and heating value.
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Determination of sludge volume, Volume-moisture relation

Sludge origin Quality
Primary sedimentation tank(Primary Usually grey and slimy, has extremely
sludge) offensive odor and can digested easily.

Chemical precipitation (Chemical sludge) Black with objectionable odor and

decomposes slowly.
Secondary clarifier after activated sludge Normally brownish flocculent becomes
process (Secondary sludge) dark when sludge
is septic, good sludge has inoffensive odor
and digest
readily.
Secondary sedimentation tank after Brownish flocculent usually contains more
trickling filter(Secondary worms and becomes offensive more
sludge/humus) quickly, undergoes decomposition more
slowly.
Aerobic and anaerobic digester (digested Brown to black in color, normally don't
sludge) have offensive odor and dries easily.
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Sludge Treatment Methods

Sludge Treatment Methods

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Sludge treatment may include all or a combination of the following unit

operations and process.
 Grinding and blending
 Thickening or concentration

 Digestion or stabilization

 Dewatering Sludge thickening is commonly done by gravity thickening, floatation

thickening and centrifugation
 Drying
Gravity thickening:
 Composting  It uses the forces of gravity. It is adopted for sludge having greater than 40% of
activated sludge.
 Incineration (it is taken as separate process)  Is a simple open circular tank, similar to design to a conventional sedimentation tank
except that it is deeper and has a heavier but slowly rotating racking mechanism like
deep truss. It has steeply sloping floor.
 The diameter of this tank should not exceed 60 m, maximum depth is 3m and a free
Grinding and blending
board of 0.5-1m is provided. The typical surface loading @ 15 – 35 m3/day of
Preliminary operation done to produce homogenous and uniform size
sludge/m2 area of tank may be used. A detention period of 3-4 hours is taken.
sludge by grinding machine. Blending is done in blending tank to mix 9 10
sludge of different character.
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 Digestion is a biological process, in which the organic matter present in the

sludge is decomposed by microorganism and converts it into simple stable
foul less compound.
 After digestion, the solids in the sludge is converted into liquid and gas so that
the volume of the sludge is reduced by 60 to 75%. It also removes the
Coliforms by 99.8% after 30 days digestion at 95-100 F.
 The moisture can be removed easily after digestion and the produced gas may
11 12
be used as fuel whereas digested sludge has good fertilizing value.
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 It is biological degradation of organic matter by the anaerobic bacteria in the

 The biological degradation of organic matter by the aerobic bacteria in the absence of free oxygen to decompose and stabilize the organic and
presence of free oxygen . inorganic content of sludge.
 More reduction of volatile solids occurs in the aerobic digestion than an  In this process most of the organic matter is converted into methane, carbon
anaerobic digestion. The supernatant from this process has low BOD. dioxide and water. So, anaerobic digestion is a net energy producer.
 Very little carbon and energy remains available to sustain further biological
 Stabilization process is similar to the activated sludge process. activity and the remaining solids are stable. The process occurs in three
 The digester is usually an open circular or rectangular tank equipped with steps :
aeration system to supply the required oxygen and to provide the mixing of
Step 1: Hydrolysis:
the tank contents. Higher the molecular weights of compounds of sludge like proteins, cellulose
 It requires one or more tanks provided with diffused aeration system for the and lipids are converted into low molecular compounds suitable for use as a
supply of air necessary for digestion. It requires high oxygen supply and has source of energy and cell carbon by microorganism. This is achieved through
high operating cost. enzyme-moderated transformations.
Step 2: Acidogenesis:
Low molecular compounds are converted into identifiable lower mass
intermediate acidic compounds such as acetic and fatty acids, by facultative
and anaerobic bacteria, collectively referred as acid formers.
Step 3: Methanogenesis:
13 Bacterial conversion of intermediate acid compounds into simpler end 14
products like CO2 and CH4 is carried out through stabilization by strictly an
anaerobic bacteria usually called methane former.
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Conventional or standard rate digester

 Also known as single stage digester.
 Normally consists of circular tank in which thickening and digestion of
 Normally it includes an air tight reactor in which sludge is fed continuously or sludge takes place together.
 Usually, the unit is not heated and sludge content is not mixed. Normally less
intermittently, usually by pumping and is retained in it for a predetermined period.
than 50% of the digester volume is used effectively
 The digested sludge, the bio gas produced and the supernatant formed due to
stabilization of organic content are withdrawn and finally disposed or used or recycle.

Types of digester
In practice, the following types of digesters are used for anaerobic sludge digestion
I. Conventional or standard rate digester
II. High rate or completely mixed single stage digester
III. Two stage digester

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Conventional or standard rate, single stage digester

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High Rate completely mixed single stage digester:  Consists of two circular tanks in series.
 The diameters of tank are usually more than 6 m and the liquid depth in
 Consists of a single circular tank in which the sludge is normally fed each tank is generally not less than 7 m.
continuously and mixed vigorously.
 The sludge is feed continuously and mixed vigorously in the first tank in
 The digester is heated to operate in the mesophilic range of temperature
(20-40 °C).sludge is thickened to solids concentration of about 6% and the
which digestion of sludge takes place. The digested sludge is then feed to
detention time is usually 10 to 20 days. the second tank for concentrating and storing the sludge.

Design consideration of Digester

The factors on which the digester capacity depend are -

 Moisture or total solid content of sludge.
 Fraction of fixed (inorganic) and volatile (organic) solids in total solids of sludge.
 Specific gravities of solids (Total, fixed and volatile solids) and sludge.
 Concentration of suspended solids in the raw wastewater or influent.
 Suspended solids removal efficiency of primary and secondary clarifiers.
 Hydraulic and mean cell retention times of sludge in digesters.
17 18
 Plant operating temperature.
High Rate Completely mixed single stage Process
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(a) Sludge Drying beds:

1. No of units = 1 for plants upto 4 MLD and 2 or more in multiple of 2 for larger  In this method sludge can be dried in an open atmosphere
plants above 4 MLD capacity. where temperature is higher.
2. Diameter of tank = 6-30 m  It consists of specially prepared beds on land as shown in
3. Side water depth of digester = 4-9 m figure. The bed consists of sloping bottom layer of gravel over
4. FB = not less than 0.4 m for fixed dome and not less than 0.6 m for floating which bed of clean sand with effective size of 0.3-0.75 m and
covers dome and less than 0.8 m for fixed slab or flat roof. coefficient of uniformity less than 4 is laid. Open jointed under
drains are laid in the gravel to drain off the liquid passed from
5. Volumetric loading = 1.6 -6.4 kg BODL/m3-d
sand and then gravel.
Dewatering
 Sludge is partly dried by evaporation of water in sunlight and
 It is done after digestion and defined as the process of removal of water from the infiltration of water to under drains through sand and gravel
digested sludge. beds. Sludge drying takes place in about 2-3 weeks.
 The main purpose of dewatering is to remove water from sludge after digestion  Drying beds should be located 100 m far from the inhabitants

which reduces the volume and cost of subsequent process as well as and should be covered by glass roofing where rainfall is high.
transportation and protects landfill site from lechate formation. 21  The dried sludge cakes can be removed from disposal. 22

 Dewatering is done either by air drying on drying beds or by mechanical method

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 Consists of a cylindrical drum whose outer surface is of copper mesh over which a
filter cloth is stretched and wired.
 The inner space between the solid shell and outer shell is subdivided into various
compartments. Each compartment is connected to a vacuum pump and the drum is
suspended horizontally so that one quarter of its diameter is submerged in the tank
containing sludge.
Fig: Sludge Drying Beds
 On immersion, the vacuum is created inside of filter compartments and the pump
23 24
sucks out the water from the sludge. The sludge blanket made at the surface of the
drum is scrapped by means of scrapper from the rotating drum.
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It is sludge treatment and disposal which is a most hygienic method in which sludge is
changed into ashes.
Either raw or digested wet sludge may be treated and disposed off by incineration.
 Flash type incinerator:
Consists of a tower which is first heated by burning fuel then wet sludge is thrown from  It is also a method of sludge treatment and disposal done for sludge to destroy
the top. The hot gases from the bottom ,sludge is collected at the bottom and can be used
as burning material for the same tower. organic matters present which is decomposed aerobically through a biochemical
process and converts into a stable minerals compounds which can be used as a
 Multiple hearth type incinerators:
 Consists of a furnace having series of circular hearths one upon another. fertilizer.
Wet sludge cake is placed on the top hearth and it is passed through five or  It is done in thermo filling zone and to develop thermo filling range sludge is mixed
six successive hearth in which removes the moisture and burns the sludge
with dry organic mix and water content is reduced.
cake.
 It is useful for the large quantity of sludge.
 The incinerator has drying zone where sludge is dried at 500°c, burning
zone where sludge is burnt at 1000°c and cooling zone where it is cooled at
300 °c.
 The produced smoke is released to atmosphere through chimney whereas
25 26
the ash produced may be disposed off by sanitary land filling.
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(a) Dumping (b) Land filling (c) spreading on land (d) Lagooning
 Stabilized or digested sludge may be disposed off by spreading over farm or land
Dumping:
as fertilizer for raising crops.
 Disposed off in an abandoned mine and quarry or depressions just by  After application of the sludge the land should be ploughed before raising crops.
throwing away, is suitable only for sludge that has been stabilized.  It is applied to 2-4 cm depth in a year.
 Adopted for digested sludge, clean grit and incinerator residue.  Only small amount of sludge is used so it is not suitable for larger quantity sludge.
 It is not hygienic method.

Land filling: Lagooning:

 If suitable and sufficient land is available, both raw and stabilized sludge  Sludge is disposed into the lagoons or pond .
after dewatering can be disposed off by filling such low laying area in proper  A lagoon is a shallow earth basin used for storage, digestion, dewatering.
way is called land filling.  Lagoon is of fill and draw type with stabilization of sludge.
 It is a hygienic method.  The water is drained or evaporated and the dried contents of lagoons are
 Covering should be done to protect from foul gases and odour. dug out and can be used as good manure.
 Surface topography should be maintained for proper drainage or runoff.
 Monitoring and control of lechate formed to protect ground water pollution.
 Control of erosion by planting.
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NECESSITY
 Onsite sanitation system is developed with onsite treatment and disposal
of sewage. So privies, septic tanks are useful in such areas.
SANITARY ENGINEERING  The purpose of sanitation is to reduce or stop the spread of diseases by
B. E. IN CIVIL ENGINEERING (III/II) disposing of excreta safely and isolating it so that flies and other insects
cannot reach it and it cannot get into water supplies.
LECTURE SLIDES
ER. NARAYAN CHHETRI Privies

 Privies are commonly underground chamber or pit used for collection

and disposal of human excreta. It may be of masonry or just pit only
CHAPTER 8 generally with or without superstructure.
 Different privies are used for safe collection and disposal of human
excreta in isolated buildings of unsewered areas but in Nepal the
following privies are common.
1  Pit privy
 VIP privy
 Pour flush toilet
Disposal of sewage from 2
isolateD BuilDings

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Simple pit latrines Simple pit latrines

3 4

Single pit sealed lid Single pit ventilated

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Simple pit latrines

CONSTRUCTION:
 A pit (90-120 cm in diameter or 1m X 1m plan and 2-3 m deep), which
may be lined or unlined and covered with squatting plate seat with
covered hole.
 Temporary foundations and superstructure are made to protect from
rain and for maintaining privacy. Twin pit ventilated

 Pit lining to prevent collapse and better standards of superstructure

 When the digested sludge reaches up to the level of 50 cm below the
top, the pit should be filled with 50-75 cm thick earth layer and the
superstructure and squatting seat is shifted to next position. After 2
years the filled pit can be used.

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Pour flush latrines

Advantages:
 Easy construction and maintenance
 Cheap in nature
 Easy to clean

Disadvantages:
 It produces foul nuisance
 It acts as a breeding place for flies and mosquitos and increases risk
of spread of disease
 Improper lining and poor construction of pits leads to collapse of the
superstructure

7 8

Pour flush single pit offset

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Pour flush latrines Purpose:

 Pour flush latrine is used for disposal of excreta by providing water seal which
doesn't let smell to escape into surrounding.
Construction steps:
 A pit of 1 m depth is dug. Circular pits are built for stability.
 The pit is built of brick or stone masonry covered with RCC slab.
 A squatting plate or slab made of concrete with water seal pan is kept under
superstructure. From water seal pan, a pipe with sufficient grade is connected
to the junction chamber.
 The junction chamber, built of brick or stone masonry is covered by RCC
slab and connected to waste pipe.
 Waste pipe is fixed at 15°slope to horizontal. The dia. of pipe is 10 cm.
 The junction box has two function:
a. To divert waste flow to either pit
b. To allow access to clear blockage in waste pipe

9 10

Pour flush twin pit

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Advantages: The Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrine

 Reduction of flies, mosquitoes and odor

 Easy to clean

 Easy to construct and maintain

Disadvantages:
 It requires regular water for operation

 Water seal prevents the use of solid anal cleaning

materials
 Expensive then other types

 High skill required to construct the pan

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Construction steps:
 It has four major components: pit, slab, superstructure and vent pipe
SEPTIC TANK
 Pit with minimum 1.3 m*1m in plan and 1.5 – 2.8 m depth.  Septic tank is a rectangular watertight combined sedimentation and
 Laying, casting and curing of slab are done. digestion tank, constructed of brickwork or RCC or stone masonry.
 Vent pipes and slab are tested for strength.  It is built underground to collect the human excreta as well as other
 The superstructure of length 120 cm, width 80 cm, height 180 cm(front) and sewage.
100 cm(rear) is constructed.
 The main purpose of septic tank is to collect the sewage, settle the
 Finally vent pipe and seat slabs are installed. solid matters, effectively creates the digestion process and disposes
Design criteria: effluent in efficient way.
 Volume of pit, V = NRT
where, N = number of users, R = sludge accumulation rate (0.0425
m3/person), T = filling time of pit in years (generally 2 years)
 In double VIP case, two pits of design life 15-20 years are used.
 Ground water table should be minimum 2 m below from the bottom of pit.
 10 cm dia. Pipe is used for ventilation to escape foul gases.

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CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
Septic Tanks
 It is rectangular in plan with minimum width of 0.75 m
 length width ratio 2 to 4; Minimum effective depth of 1 to 1.8 m.
 FB 0.3 to 0.45 m
 Walls are made of masonry ( ≥20 cm thick for brick and ≥38 cm for stone or RCC)
and inside of walls are plastered with not less than 12 mm thick 1:3 rich cement plaster.
 The floor should be 1:2:4 cement concrete and if sludge outlet is provided, slope is
given towards outlet.
 On the top RCC slab with airtight RCC or cast iron manhole covers are provided.
 Footsteps are arranged on walls inside to enter into the tank.
 For smaller tanks hanging baffle wall is placed at 20 to 30 cm far from the inlet pipe in
such a way that it remains 15 cm above and 30 cm below liquid level.
 For larger tanks continuous type baffle or partition wall is provided at 1/5 th of length of
septic tank from inlet pipe and a hole of 15 cm X 15 cm is made at a height of 45 cm
above the bed of tank to connect two chambers.
 The inlet and outlet are fitted with T joints for not to disturb both scum and sludge.
 An inlet T is submerged at a depth of 15 – 25 cm below the liquid level whereas it is
submerged at a depth of 15 cm below liquid level at outlet.
15 16
 A vent pipe of 7.5-10 cm diameter of AC or CI or plastic is provided with cowl at the
top. It is provided 2m high if septic tank is 15 m far from building and if it closer than
15 m, the vent pipe is extended 2m above the roof height of tallest building.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR SEPTIC TANK

 Decomposition by partial liquefaction and gasification for human excreta (a) Detention time (t) = 1-3 days.
(b) Minimum width (B min) = 0.75 m.
through the action of anaerobic bacteria which decomposes wastes in the (c) Free board (FB) = 0.3 – 0.45 m
(d) Minimum effective depth (d min) = 1 m
absence of free oxygen and humidity and even in the darkness and warmth,
(e) Length to width ratio ( L: B) = 2 - 4
which are the conditions created in the septic tank. Hence digestion by bacteria (f) Volume (V) = It is the summation of the followings-
i. Volume for settling of sewage (V1) = Q.t
and sedimentation takes place in septic tank. ii. Volume for sludge digestion (V2) = 0.0425*N in m3 (i.e. 0.0425 m3 /Person)
iii. Volume for storage of digested sludge (V3) = Cds N in m3
 During the course of action the lighter materials are rises to the surface (Scum) Where, Q = quantity of sludge; t = detention time; N = no of users; 0.425 is the digested
volume of digested sludge per person; Cds = Digested sludge rate which depends upon
whereas heavier material will sink to the bottom of the septic tank. (sludge)
the cleaning period ‘T’
 The gases produced are escaped from the high vertical vent shaft. Effluent So, Effective volume (V) = V1 + V2+ V3

from septic tank is disposed off by absorption in soil through soak pit.
Desludging period (T) 6 month 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year
Digested sludge rate (Cds) in 0.0283 0.0490 0.0708 0.0850
m3/person
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DISPOSAL OF SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENT Soak pit or seepage pit:

Effluent from septic tank is septic and malodorous containing organic matter and pathogens
hence should be properly disposed off to prevent nuisance and hazard to public health.

 Drain field
 Evapotranspiration moulds
 Soak pit

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DRAIN FIELD:
The main purpose of drain field to deal with septic tank effluent by allowing it to
Design criteria: percolates into the ground and remove all the impurities from the liquid.
 Minimum diameter = 0.9 m
Construction:
 Maximum Diameter = 3.5 m .
 The depth depends upon the level of GWT but effective depth should not  Series of perforated pipes laid along the bottom of trenches and connected to
less than 1m. outlet of septic tank
 There should not be ground water sources within the radius of 60 m.  Soil should be permeable and ground water should be at least 3 m below
 The design depends upon the absorption capacity or infiltration capacity of surface.
surrounding soil.  Open jointed or perforated tile drains are buried in a trench and surrounded
by washed gravel. The liquid seeps out of the joints into the ground.
πϕd = Q/I
 Pipes are 10 cm dia. With 15-25 cm surrounding gravel. The trenches are 0.3-
Where, ϕ =diameter of soak pit,
1 m wide and 50 cm to 1 m in depth.
d= effective depth in m,
Q = effluent discharge in m3/day and  Individual drain shouldn't be more then 30m in length and spaced not closure
I = Infiltration capacity of soil in m3/m2/day. than 2 m between pipes for liquid to seeps out.
I = 130/√ Tr (in l/m2/day), where Tr depend upon soil type, for porous  Trench are excavated to a slight gradient of 0.25%.
soil its value is 25 minute/cm.

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Evapotranspiration mound:
The main function of evapotranspiration mound is to disperse effluent
in atmosphere through evaporation, transpiration by plants and
through percolation into the soil.
Construction:
 15 cm thick gravel layer is laid over the top soil in the depression and
then 20 - 40 cm of sand layer is kept over gravel.
 Inside the gravel layer perforated pipes are laid in open joints.
 The slope of mound may be kept as 1:3 and depth of mound varies from
2-5 m.
 The effluent from septic tank is passed to the mound through pipes.

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unit-9 disposal of SOLID WASTE

Leaching Cesspool:
 Circular or rectangular underground tank, whose top portion acts as an soak What is waste?
pit and bottom portion as a septic tank. • Anything rejected, useless or worthless
• Things in wrong place
 With in the same tank collection, digestion and disposal of sewage and
effluent by settlement of heavier particles where as liquid is absorbed by the
surrounding soil. What is solid waste?
 Min. diameter = 1 m. • Generic term used to describe the things we throw away including garbage,
 Water tight bottom to retain the heavier sludge for digestion. refuge and trash
• Wastes arising from human and animal activities that are discarded as useless
 A shell filled with 15 cm coarse aggregate and 30 cm sand for the
and unwanted that are solid in nature
absorption of effluent in the surrounding soil.
• Includes heterogeneous throwaways from urban communities as well as
homogeneous accumulation of agricultural, industrial and mineral wastes.

 Solid waste is a byproduct of human activities which tends to

increase with rapid urbanization, improved living standards and
changing consumption patterns.
 Solid wastes are the dry waste matters produced in the
community and may be organic and inorganic as well as
27 39
combustible or non combustible in nature.

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9.1 TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE:

Types:
1. Municipal wastes:
 Garbage
* includes all putrescible organic wastes from kitchen
2. Industrial wastes
* also includes animal dung, leaves of trees
* includes all the waste generated industrial processing, rubbish,
* decomposes quickly, producing foul odor and breeding of flies and ash, demolition and construction wastes
mosquitoes.
* it can be recycled and recovered
 Rubbish
3. Hazardous wastes
* includes combustible wastes and non combustible wastes
* it includes all the waste generated from hospitals, research lab
 Ashes and residues and industrial processing
* includes residues of burning of wood, coal, coke etc. * consists of toxic, infectious, radioactive substances, chemicals
* incombustible and composed of fine powered materials
 Demolition and construction wastes
* includes wastes from demolished building and construction structures
* comprises stones, bricks, dirt, plaster
40 41
 Special wastes
* street sweeping, roadside litter, catch pit debris, dead animal, abandoned
vehicles and electronic wastes

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9.3 METHOD OF SOLID WASTE COLLECTION

9.2 COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTE Solid wastes are collected in the following ways:
 Collected in individual houses in small container

 Public dustbin may also be used

 Hand carts of 0.5 m3 capacity is also suitable
Transportation of collected wastes to the disposal sites is achieved by the
following vehicular means
 Auto-rickshaw
capacity: 0.25-0.75 tons, used only for narrow localities
 Trailers
capacity: 2-3 tons, loading: manually, unloading: mechanically with the
help of hydraulically operated jacks
 Trucks
capacity: 5-10 tons, tilting-tipping type so that unloading is automatic

42 43

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9.4 DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES:  Incineration:

 modern and most hygienic method
 Dumping:
 used in conjunction with land filling method.
* simply the throwing away method to fill the natural low laying areas
or the artificial depressions by the solid wastes  the incinerator consists of furnace provided with grating and chimney
* simple and economical method of disposal  charging doors are provided for feeding the refuse and ash formed is
removed through the ash door.
* as far as possible the waste without garbage is thrown so that no
nuisance is produced  furnaces may be circular, rotary kiln, multi-cell or even rectangular
Advantages:  to reduce load in furnace, inert materials like earth, broken glass, metal pieces are
separated out
 simple and economical in operation
Advantages:
 does not need segregated waste, costlier plant, equipment and skilled manpower
 Complete destruction of pathogens and insects
Disadvantages:
 No dust nuisances or odor trouble
 unhygienic
 Heat produced by burning of solid wastes can be used for steam power
 creates fly, insects and scavenger bird nuisance in the locality
 Clinkers produced may be used for road construction
 unpleasant and water pollution due to uncontrolled leachate
Disadvantages:
 Large initial cost
 Improper handling leads to air pollution
44  Requires further disposal of residue 45

 High chimneys required

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 Composting:  Composting by trenching:

 It is a method applied for putrescible organic matter that can be decompose aerobically/  Trenches of 3-12 m length, 2-3 m width and 1-2 m deep are excavated on the ground
with clear spacing of 2 m and filled with organic solid waste and WWTP sludge in a
anaerobically by biochemical process.
layer of 15 cm.
 Beneficial in agricultural value  For solid waste only, each layer is filled with 5 cm thick layer of night soil or animal
 Separation of organic matters is necessary for composting excreta on semi liquid form for adding bacteria.
Advantages:  At the top 10 cm thick layer of good earth is spread.( 30 cm above the ground surface)
• Converts wastes into fertilizer and provide good return  After 2-3 days biological action starts and temperature rises to 75 °C.
• Consumes less energy  After 4-5 months refuse gets stabilized and changed into brown colored odorless powder
called compost mal can be used as soil moisturizer.
• Can be done in decentralized level with community participation
 Open window composting:
Disadvantages:
 WWTP sludge and separated organic and putrescible matters from solid waste
• Needs separation of organic solids is dumped on the ground in the form of 0.6-1 m high, 6 m long and 1-2 m wide
• Mechanical composting is more costly in construction, operation and maintenance piles with about 60 % moisture content.
Methods of composting:  It is then covered with animal dung, cattle urine, night soil etc. for addition of
 Composting by trenching germs.
 Open window composting  When aerobic process occurs temperature rises to 75 °C.
 Mechanically composting  The pH should be adjusted to 7.2-7.4
 When temperature rises to 75°C, pile is overturned and moisture content and ph
46 is adjusted. 47
 Takes 4-6 weeks for bacterial activities.

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 Mechanical composting:
 The trenching and open window methods of composting requires larger area of land and
are slower process.
 The principle of composting is same as in open window method but in this method
composting is carried out in a closed room. Advantages:
 In this method solid waste stabilized within 3-6 days.  Simple and no costly plants are required.
 Sprayers are used to adjust the moisture content and the coils are used to make the  Separation of waste is not needed.
temperature constant at 70 °C so that bacterial activity becomes faster to decompose  No residue is left for further disposal.
organic matters.
 Pits of low lying land are reclaimed.
 Sanitary landfill: Disadvantages:
 Improvement over dumping method
 Require more land and suitable land may not be available nearer the
 Solid waste is disposed on the land in controlled condition under an engineering design, vicinity.
construction and operation.
 Creates foul gases and nuisance near the site.
 Leachate collection, gas releasing mechanism are provided not to create nuisance and
 May be difficult to get good earth.
hazard to public health.
 Surface and ground water may get polluted.
 Solid waste is dumping in layer of 1-2 m cell and covered with good earth at least 20 cm
thickness and well compacted with rollers.
 When the solid waste is filled to design height, final cover of a thick layer of a soil is
spread with geotextile and well compacted. 48 49
 The filled site may be used for a park after some time.

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