Tree Biomechanics

Petr Horáček

2014

Tento projekt je spolufinancován Evropským sociálním fondem a Státním rozpočtem ČR InoBio – CZ.1.07/2.2.00/28.0018
Content 2

1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree ….............. 3

2 Hazard Tree Management …................................ 12
2.1 Tree risk assessment …............................... 12
2.2 Problems (defects) identification ….......... 15
2.3 Biomechanical approach ….................... 17
3 Introduction to Wood Science …..................... 18
3.1 Tree structure and function ...…................. 18
3.2 Tree growth and onthogeny …................... 23
3.3 Intro to wood science …............................. 25
4 Components of Tree Stability ….......................... 53
4.1 Tree geometry (root, stem, crown) …....... 56
4.2 Wood properties (strength and stiffness) … 64
4.3 Loads applied to tree …............................. 69
5 Biomechanics of Tree …....................................... 75
5.1 Application of mechanics of materials …... 76
5.2 Failure of tree …........................................ 102
5.3 Factors influencing tree stability ….......... 124
6 Practical applications – SIA, SIM …................... 132
7 Conclusion …....................................................... 141
1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree 3

The mechanical behaviour of a tree is in the centre of interest of many forestry

and arboricultural research due to damages to trees or buildings, properties or
even the human life. Modelling the tree behaviour and measurement of the actual
condition of the tree in situ is, therefore, important for the tree safety assessment.
Trees adapt their stem (Telewski, 1995) and root growth (Nicoll and Ray, 1996)
in response to the wind loading to which they are subjected in order to resist
breakage or overturning. By understanding the behaviour of trees in strong
winds (Mayer, 1987; Gardiner, 1994, 1995; Peltola, 1996; Blackburn,
Blackburn, 1997; Gardiner et al., 1997) and the mechanisms of root anchorage
(Deans and Ford, 1983; Coutts, 1986; Ray and Nicoll, 1998) it has become
possible to develop mechanistic models that predict the critical wind speeds for
damage to occur and how these are affected by the properties of the trees within
the stand. Such an approach allows predictions of the impact of any arbocultural
operations on tree stability and the design of arbocultural strategies for reducing
wind damage.
Various authors describe the mechanical behaviour of a tree in various ways.
Because of large dimensions and complicated geometry of a tree, the
calculations are carried out usually by the use of computers. There is a trend to
utilize the finite element method (FEM) that is very powerful to describe such
complicated mechanical structure as a tree (Mattheck 1995, 1998, Badel, Perré
2000, Fourcaud et al. 2000, Alhasani 1999, Daudeville 1999, Grill, Laghdir and
Jullien 1997).
1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree 4

Other authors proceed from Timoshenko’s theory (Spatz 2000) or a tree is

considered as an elastic cantilever beam accordingly to Euler theory (Wessolly
1998, Mossbruger 1986).
Consideration of the tree as a forced damped harmonic oscillator, has allowed to
model its dynamic response to wind loading (Mayer, 1987; Gardiner, 1991;
Gardiner, 1993), but these considerations are not going to be observed in this
paper, as well as those related to growth stresses (Archer, 1986). Both Leiser and
Kemper (1973), and Milne and Blackburn (1989) have found that axial stresses
due to wind loading vary along the stem with a maximum occurring at a position
which depends on taper. According to Mamada et al. (1984), the theoretical
height of maximum stress was in good agreement with the height at which the
stem breaks. However, other authors (Petty and Swain, 1985; Mattheck, 1991;
Wood, 1995) suggest that the stress should be constant in the stem.
Mechanistic models (e.g. Peltola and Kelloma»ki, 1993; Peltola et al., 1999)
have recently been under development for predicting the critical wind speeds at
which trees are likely to be uprooted or broken; i.e. to provide tools for assessing
the risk of wind and snow damage in the context of tree safety and stability.
However, much basic work is still needed, especially with regard to the
components of root anchorage (because of the complexity of the root-soil
system), and also with regard to stem stability. These can be investigated using
static loads, with the reservation that the results may need to be modified when
the dynamic forces caused by wind are introduced (Coutts, 1986).
1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree 5

In a static system the breaking and uprooting forces, usually calculated as

bending moments at the base of the stem, are treated as arising in two ways.
Firstly, the force produced by wind action on the crown, simulated by pulling
with a rope, causes defection of the stem. The leaning stem then assists in
uprooting the tree because its centre of gravity moves over the hinge point in the
root system (Ray and Nicoll, 1998). Thus, a second force is provided by the
weight of the stem and crown. The uprooting moment is resisted by bending of
the tree stem and various components of root anchorage: the weight of the root-
soil plate, the strength of the windward roots, the strength of the root hinge and
the soil strength at the base of the root-soil plate. If the uprooting moment
exceeds the resistive bending moment of the tree at a particular angle of
deflection, the tree will deflect further. The tree will give way if the uprooting
moment exceeds its maximum resistive bending moment, with the relative
strengths of the stem and roots determining the mode of failure (Petty and
Worrell, 1981).
Measurement of maximum resistive bending moment is provided by the use of a
winch system. It is used to pull the trees and the applied force needed to
“uproot” a tree or bend its stem is measured. This technique or its principles are
used relatively wide. Utilization of the pulling test is referred in Wessolly
(1995a, 1996b), Stokes et al. (1995, 1997, and 2000), Brüchert and Gardiner
(2000), Crook et al. (1997). In the seminar, the “Elasto- and Inclinomethods" for
tree stability assessment using the pulling test (Wessolly, Erb 1998) was applied.
1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree 6

● Focus of interest (for forestry and arboricultural research) owing to the

potential for trees to harm people or property

● Significant practical implications for tree safety assessments

● Response to wind loading – breakage or overturning of tree

● Mechanistic models that predict the critical wind speeds above which
damage may occur

● It is possible to predict the influence of arboricultural operations upon

tree stability
1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree 7

Objectives of biomechanical approach

1. Assessment of the mechanical safety of the tree as used by engineering

concept with generally accepted rules
2. Identification of forces acting on tree
3. Determination as to whether the tree structure withstands these forces
4. Finding the weakest places in the tree and determination the size of the
weakest place relative to the adjacent cross-sections
5. Determination of residual carrying capacity of a tree
6. Quantitative prediction of fracture safety
7. Non-destructively monitor exactly the same place for years
1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree 8

Key concepts

1. Mechanical principle of tree design

2. Principle of optimal design
3. Principle of similitude
4. Principle of adaptive growth
5. Principle of stability and flexibility strategists
6. Principle of holistic approach
1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree 9

Key terms

1. Adaptive growth
2. Optimal design = compromise in respect to functions
3. Safety factor
4. Tree stability = resilience (S-strategy) vs. resistence (K-strategy)
5. Tree reiteration = repeating pattern of design
6. Hollow structures
1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree 10

Limitations (special cases)

We are limited by very complicated interactions in tree stability concept.

To take all possible potential factors into account is impossible (yet).

1. Simplifications:
a) loads (laminar steady flow, sailing area x 3-D crown surface, Cx
concept, streamlining, ...)
b) wood properties (very complicated, spatial distribution, static x
dynamic behaviour, changes in time, ...)
c) geometry

2. Assessment of „static“ picture of tree – often without its history and

future development

3. Root system – out of our reach, non-destructively tests ?

1 Introduction to Biomechanics of Tree 11

Methods of analysis (solutions steps)

1. Discovery of damage, situation, site

2. Determination of loads – wind, mass
3. Determination of tree form – basic statics structures, organ correlations,
defects
4. Comparison damage stage to basic structures
5. If necessary, definition of damage more precisely (device-aided)
6. If necessary, carry out tree-care measurement (device-aided)
2 Hazard Tree Management 12

2.1 Hazard Tree Evaluation

• Interest in hazard tree management has increased in recent years due to

safety and liability concerns resulting from preventable accidents.

2.2 Problems (defects) identification

• Recognizing hazardous trees and taking proper corrective actions can

protect property and save lives.
• A “hazard tree” is a tree with structural defects likely to cause failure of all
or part of the tree, which could strike a “target.”

2.3 Biomechanical approach

The development of the approach is schematically presented.

+ =
2 Hazard Tree Management 13

2.1 Hazard Tree Evaluation

Components of Hazard Tree Evaluation

1. Site
● History

● Recent exposure to loads

● Construction activities

● Environmental conditions

2. Tree
● History – toping

● Architecture – growth habit

● Signs of decay

● Weak structures

● Root system

3. Target
● Potential to fail and injure or damage a target
2 Hazard Tree Management 14

2.1 Hazard Tree Evaluation

What to Look For

• Hazardous defects are visible signs that the tree is failing.

• We recognize seven main types of tree defects:

• dead wood,
• cracks,
• weak branch unions,
• decay,
• cankers,
• root problems,
• and poor tree architecture.

• A tree with defects is not hazardous, however, unless some portion of it

is within striking distance of a target.
2 Hazard Tree Management 15

2.2 Problems (defects) identification

The key to reducing the risk with a tree is to identify and correct the
problem.

Problems identification:
● Visual tree assessment (Body Language of Tree)

● Devices-aided assessment (Resistograph, Arbosonic, ...)

● Combination of visual and devices-aided assessment

Objectives

1. Determination of tree stability without injury.

2. Monitoring of stability.
3. Assessment of safety against fracture.
4. Determination of weakest places within the tree.
2 Hazard Tree Management 16

2.2 Problems (defects) identification

Key concepts

There are 6 current tree inspection systems in wide use:

1. The Visual Tree Assessment method (VTA)

2. The Evaluation of Hazard Trees in Urban Areas (EHT)

3. Statics-Integrated Assessment (SIA) and Statics-Integrated

Methods (SIM)

4. The Forestry Commission in the United Kingdom developed a

quantitative windthrow hazard classification scheme

5. The Windthrow Handbook for British Columbia Forests

6. Mechanistic approaches (static and dynamic models)

2 Hazard Tree Management 17

2.3 Biomechanical approach

Resistance to breakage

● Wind- and mass-induced stresses are calculated according to

elastic theory.
● Stresses are calculated within the tree at any height.

● When stresses exceeds the strength of wood, the stem will break.

● The critical load is product of stem diameter and wood strength.

Resistance to overturning (uprooting)

● Tree overturns if the load (due wind) exceeds the support

provided by the root soil-plate anchorage.
● Uprooting forces (bending moment) at the base of the stem are
provided by the wind and weight of the stem and crown.
● The uprooting moment is resisted by bending of the tree stem and
various components of root anchorage.
3 Introduction to Wood Science 18

3.1 Tree structure and function

Form of tree trunk and branches is probably largely controlled by

biomechanical requirements. In respect to their form, stem and branches
are not simple “optimum structures” adapted to only one function, but are
“good enough” or “optimum compromise” structures which perform a
number of different functions.

3.2 Tree growth and ontogeny

Tree functions, and thus also the design of the tree, may vary during
ontogeny of a tree.

3.3 Intro to wood science

Stability is one of the most important prerequisites of tree design. Trees

are compromise structures to meet mechanical requirements.
3 Introduction to Wood Science 19

3.1 Tree structure and function

Key terms
Tree represents open dissipative system satisfying vital requirements:
(1) must growth
(2) need stability to support the energy producing leaves
(3) water and minerals have to be conducted from roots
(4) nutrients and water must be stored

All functions are tightly interconnected.

● Supporting, storage and conductive functions are
indispensable for growth.
• A complex framework of genetical, abiotic, biotic factors
controls the system.
3 Introduction to Wood Science 20

3.1 Tree structure and function

STORAGE

GROWTH

GENOME,
ABIOTIC
AND BIOTIC
FACTORS

STABILITY TRANSPORT

Prerequisite for Antagonistic functions

(Mosbrugger 1990)
3 Introduction to Wood Science 21

3.1 Tree structure and function

Assumptions
The tasks must be performed by every part of a tree (roots, stem,
branches, leaves), but their relative importance varies from organ to
organ.
In general, the trunk should represent an energy-saving compromise
structure for stability, conduction and growth.
Wood is also measurements of “surplus” assimilates substances formed
during growing season.

Stability Vitality
3 Introduction to Wood Science 22

3.1 Tree structure and function

• Key concept
• Basic idea of constructional morphology is the principle of optimal
design – each biological structure is optimally adapted to its natural
load, which acts also as its design mechanisms.
• This type of mechanism is called adaptive growth – trees are
compromise structures that have to meet a number of different and
opposing mechanical requirements.
• The principle – the stem and branches of trees should have a form
which functions best using a minimum amount of material
(assimilates).
• The shape of tree may be viewed as “good enough” or optimum
compromise structure, which perform a number of different functions
with (nearly) a minimum cost of energy.
3 Introduction to Wood Science 23

3.2 Tree growth and ontogeny

Key concept

The anatomical tree-ring structure may be compared to a display in which

we can observe the resultant effects of ecological conditions.

The tree-ring structure is the result of a complex of factors that affect the
site, and it is also an expression, both quantitative and qualitative as well,
of these prevalent conditions on the site.

Trees are capable of responding to the effects of environmental factors in

a variety of ways.

Cambial age affects the intensity and frequency of abrupt growth

changes.
3 Introduction to Wood Science 24

3.2 Tree growth and ontogeny

Young cambium, whether at

the apex of old trees or at the
base of young individuals,
features fewer changes and is
less susceptible than at an
older age.

There are two aspects involved

in plant aging:
(1) physiological aging
(senescence) and
(2) ontogenetic aging. The
annual growth in width
(thickness) is determined
in part by the maturity
state of the individual
3 Introduction to Wood Science 25

3.3 Intro to wood science

Objectives

1. Wood – victory or loss ?

2. How does wood structure limit wood properties ?
3. Why mechanical properties are determined by wood structure ?
4. Wood is hierarchical structure, unfortunately very complicated – true
or false ?
5. Wood is optimised compromise structure – how to apply it in tree
biomechanics ?
3 Introduction to Wood Science 26

3.3 Intro to wood science

Key concept

– Wood nature
– Chemical composition
– Submicroscopic structure X Wood as material
– Microscopic structure
– Macroscopic structure
3 Introduction to Wood Science 27

3.3 Intro to wood science

Key terms

1. Orthotropic nature of wood – unique and independent mechanical

properties in the directions of three mutually perpendicular axes

2. Mechanical properties represented as „strength“ properties – maximum

(ultimate) stress = resistence to failure

3. Mechanical properties represented as „elasticity“ properties – modulus

of elasticity = resistance to deformation

4. Allowable stress – the maximal stress anywhere in the structure

5. Factor of safety = the ratio of actual (calculated) stress to required

strength

6. Tree design – the desired response of tree is given (key concept of

biomechanics)
3 Introduction to Wood Science 28

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as material

a) Wood is a material with anisotropy of all physical properties,

including mechanical.
b) This anisotropy is based on the chemical composition and
structure of the wood.
c) The anisotropic nature of wood is the best compromise between
requisite functions (bearing, storage, conduction).

How does the wood look like…

3 Introduction to Wood Science 29

3.3 Intro to wood science

• Wood as biomolecular composite with
similar hierarchical structure on every
organization levels.
• Hierarchical structures are assemblages of
molecular units or their aggregates that are Tapered trunk
embedded or intertwined with other phases,
which in turn are similarly organized at
increasing size levels.

Layered structure of
cell wall

Needle-shape cells

• Wood as composite is
rich in cellulose and
lignin. The interaction Fibrilar structure
between cellulose and
lignin determines Cellulose ligament
mechanical properties.
3 Introduction to Wood Science 33

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – anatomical structure

What is important for tree biomechanics ?

Softwoods

● Simple structure
● Two types of elements only
● Regular structure
● Rare irregularities
● Universal elements
3 Introduction to Wood Science 34

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – anatomical structure

What is important for tree biomechanics ?

Hardwoods

● Irregular, complicated structure

● Three types of elements at least
● Cells more specialized
3 Introduction to Wood Science 35

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

– Stress-strain diagram
– Different wood mechanical behaviour
– Important properties
– Density of wood
– Modulus of elasticity
– Strength
– Deformation
3 Introduction to Wood Science 36

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

How get to know your material – Stress-Strain Diagram

Maximal
strength

60
Stress [MPa]

40

Proportional
limit
20

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Deformation [%]
3 Introduction to Wood Science 37

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

What is the stress-strain diagram providing us?

• Character of material (will be discussed immediatelly)
• Important values (could be measured only)
• Modulus of elasticity
• Strength
• Proportional limit
• Deformation
• Energy saved
3 Introduction to Wood Science 38

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Stress-strain diagrams all in one

Bodig, Jayne (1983)

3 Introduction to Wood Science 39

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Compression parallel to grains
• Viscoelastic behaviour
• High stiffness
• High strength
60
• Deformation about 1 %
• High amount of saved energy
• “No failure”- good way of loading
Stress in MPa

40

max
σ :64.3 MPa
20 E-Modulus
:10649 MPa
µcrit :-
ε :1.18 %
T-S :3.489e-003
Hustota
:677.176
kg/m^3

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 Strain in %
1.5 2.0
3 Introduction to Wood Science 40

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Compression perpendicular to grains
• Plastic behaviour
• High deformation
50 • Low strength
• Hardening
40 • Bad way of loading
Stress in MPa

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40
Strain in %
3 Introduction to Wood Science 41

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Tension parallel to grains
• Elastic brittle behaviour
• Fails by tearing
150 • High stiffness
• Very high strength
• Low deformation (1 %)
•
Stress in MPa

100
Good way of loading

50

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Strain in %
3 Introduction to Wood Science 42

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Tension perpendicular to grains
• Brittle material
• Very low strength and
6 stiffness
• The worst way of loading
• Fails by tearing
Stress in MPa

0
0 10 20 30
Path in %
3 Introduction to Wood Science 43

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Shear
• Viscoelastic behaviour
• Low strength and stiffness
15
(one exception)
• Fails by shearing
• Bad way of loading
Stress in MPa

10

0
0 1 2 3
Strain in %
3 Introduction to Wood Science 44

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Bending
3 • Combined loading
• Viscoelastic brittle material
• Fails by breaking on the tension
side
• Combines compression and
2
tension
Force-Stress in kN

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Path in mm
3 Introduction to Wood Science 45

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Wood – what a strange thing !

• Wood mechanical behaviour depends on:

• Mode of loading (bending, compression, etc.)
• Direction of loading relative to grains
• Velocity and maintenance of loading
• Water content
• Temperature of wood

• Wood can behave like:

• Plastic – viscoelastic – elastic matter
• Ductile – brittle
3 Introduction to Wood Science 46

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Key terms

• Modulus of elasticity – stiffness of wood

• Strength
• ultimate/maximal
• strength at the proportional limit
• Deformation
• ultimate/maximal
• deformation at the proportional limit
3 Introduction to Wood Science 47

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Modulus of elasticity (stiffness)

• Ratio between stress (strength) and relevant deformation

• Tangent of elastic part of stress-strain diagram
• Shows internal resistance of material against unit elongation
• E-modulus - describes the stiffness of the material. It represents the stress
necessary for the unit deformation (strain) of the material [MPa, kN/cm2].

Stress

Strain
3 Introduction to Wood Science 48

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Modulus of elasticity (stiffness)

Taxon Moisture Density E G

(%) (kg.m-3) (MPa) (MPa)
Spruce Green 497 7 300 400
Picea abies 12 350 9 500 500
Beech Green 833 9 800 800
Fagus sylvatica 12 600 12 600 1 100
Oak Green 833 8 300 -
3 Introduction to Wood Science 49

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Strength of wood

• Force per area

• Expresses maximal bearable force of material
• Need to be distinguished from stress (it is the physical field, strength
is the property)

Stress

Strain
3 Introduction to Wood Science 50

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Strength of wood

Taxon Moisture Density MOR Comp. || Tension ||

(%) (kg.m-3) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Spruce Green 497 36 17
Picea abies 12 400 66 35 84
Beech Green 833 65 28
Fagus sylvatica 12 689 110 54 130
Oak Green 833 59 28
3 Introduction to Wood Science 51

3.3 Intro to wood science

Wood as bio-composite – mechanical properties

Deformation
• Displacement x deformation (strain)
• Deformation = relative change of dimensions
• Three types of deformation
• elastic (reversible immediately)
• elastic in time (reversible during certain time period)
• plastic (irreversible)
• Transversal deformation Stress

Strain
3 Introduction to Wood Science 52

3.3 Intro to wood science

Relation between stress and strain

Strain – only quantity which could be easily measured (compared to stress)

E-modulus – only material constatnt ever known (the criterion of the
stiffness) because of the wood nature (chemical constitution
and anatomical structure)
Ultimate
strength

Stress in MPa 60

σ =E ε 40

Proportional
limit
σ max : 64.3 MPa
20 E-Modulus: 10649 MPa
µ crit :-
ε : 1.18 %
T-S : 3.489e-003
Density : 677.176 kg/m^3

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Strain in %
4 Components of Tree Stability 53

The development of the approach is schematically presented. The main

limitations of the adopted approach are that it does not account for large tree
deflection or for dynamic effects, and that growth stresses are not considered
neither. The hypothesis on which the mechanical analysis is based are
summarized in the following lines, being the ones usually adopted by several
authors who have studied the bending of tree trunks and branches:
a)The stem of standing trees can be treated as an elastic cantilever beam
rigidly fixed on one side and free on the other. Its section varies with
height, and this non-uniform taper can be described by a mathematical
function.
b)The transverse section of the stem is considered either circular or elliptic,
with an area S and a second moment of inertia I.
c)In order to calculate the self-weight of the tree, its canopy weight can be
evaluated as a point vertical force applied in its centre of gravity.
d)In order to calculate the wind load, a horizontal point load applied also in
the canopy centre of gravity can substitute it.
e)When bending, trees will usually fail on the compression side first,
because wood is an extremely anisotropy material whose compression
strength is about half the tensile strength (Mossbrugger, 1990). In the
development of the method the most unfavourable case will always be
considered, searching for the point where maximal compression stress
occurs.
4 Components of Tree Stability 54

4.1 Tree geometry

• The trunk of a tree has a specialised structure in order to support

mechanical efforts, due to the self weight of the tree (crown and stem) and
to the external loads (wind, snow).

4.2 Wood properties

• Wood structure, considered as a strengthening tissue, is supposed to be

closely related to the stress level which affects it during the life of the tree.

4.3 Loads applied to tree

• The distribution of longitudinal stresses in the stem due to its self-weight

and several wind loading is calculated using the structural theory of a
cantilever beam
4 Components of Tree Stability 55

4.1 Tree geometry

4.2 Wood properties

4.3 Loads applied to tree

The triangle of stability

LOADS

GEOMETRY MATERIAL
4 Components of Tree Stability 56

4.1 Tree geometry

Objectives
What is the optimum geometry of tree – stem, branches, crown, roots ?
What is the optimum rate of tapering depending on the kind of loading ?

1. The geometry of tree (stem, branches and roots) is probably largely

controlled by biomechanical requirements.
2. The taper is advantageous for tree to save structural material and not to
rely on extremely high safety factors against fracture, in particular near
the top of the tree.
4 Components of Tree Stability 57

4.1 Tree geometry

Special cases
4 Components of Tree Stability 58

4.1 Tree geometry

4.1.1 Shape of the trunk

The trunk of the tree is a nonprismatic

tapered cantilever beam.
It is fixed in the ground (soil) due its roots.
The stem is bearing structure – its function
is to bear the crown with leaves and fruits, to
spread the active crown area above the
neighbours, to occupy maximum of the roam
for light.
The highest trunks are successive (the
phototropic growth – is opposite to the
requirement of the stability!).
Higher trunk is more advantageous for
dissemination of the seeds.
4 Components of Tree Stability 59

4.1 Tree geometry

4.1.1.1 Shape of the trunk – Tree height

The highest tree of the world was the

Pseudotsuga menziesii with the height 140 m.

Note that:
– The higher the tree – the longer lever arm.
– The higher the tree – the higher wind
velocities
– The higher the tree – the worst water
supplementation

Mattheck (1995)
4 Components of Tree Stability 60

4.1 Tree geometry

4.1.1.2 Shape of the trunk – Stem cross-section

The stem have round cross-section. This is more
advantageous from the mechanical point of view.
The cross-section can be hollow. It is necessary
to remember, that the hollowness of the trunk is
not disadvantage.
The bearing capacity of the tube-like structure
does not decrease directly with the loss of the
material. It results from the way of loading.
In the bending is the bearing capacity of the
trunk given by the modulus of inertia I or section
modulus W.
You can calculate, that the tube with the
remaining residual stem-wall 0.1 of the diameter,
has still 50 % bearing capacity.

Mattheck (1995)
4 Components of Tree Stability 61

4.1 Tree geometry

4.1.2 Shape of branches

Branches are horizontal beams, which

are fixed in the stem. This connection
between the trunk and the branch is very
strong. Is allowed by the systematic
overgrowing of the wood layers of the
trunk and the branch. Resultant structure
look like screw. It allows to carry
branches with weight of several tons.
Permanent loading of branches (bending
due their own weight) causes the cross-
section deviation. Branches have oval
shape, which is caused due the
production of the reaction wood.
The same principle you can see on the
leaning stems on the picture.
Mattheck (1995)
4 Components of Tree Stability 62

4.1 Tree geometry

4.1.3 Shape of roots

The roots have to transmit the forces and

stresses arising in the crown and the
trunk to the soil. There are these forces
spread out by the friction between the
roots and soil.
The shape of roots is also optimised to
the functions, which they have to realize.

Wood is formed in accordance with the dominant

force flow both axially and circumferentially.

Mattheck (1995)
4 Components of Tree Stability 63

4.1 Tree geometry

4.1.4 Shape of root system

The unilateral development of root system is

a measure of asymmetric loads.
4 Components of Tree Stability 64

4.2 Wood properties

Objectives

1. Methodological issues
1.1 Wood at different moisture and physiological activies
1.2 Dimensions of standard specimens for determination of properties
1.3 Statistical processing of data
1.4 Determining of modulus of elasticity and stress at proportional limit

2. Mechanical properties of wood

3. Relationship between properties from static and dynamic material tests

4. Items needed to be address

4 Components of Tree Stability 65

4.2 Wood properties

Relationship between properties from static and dynamic material tests

● Relationship of ultimate stress at short-time loading to that at 5 min

loading, based on composite of results from rate-of-load studies on
bending, compression, and shear parallel to grain.
● Variability in reported trends is indicated by width of band (Forest
Products Laboratory 1999).
4 Components of Tree Stability 66

4.2 Wood properties (Wessolly, Erb (1998))

Stuttgart Material Properties of Wood
green wood, dynamic measurement (1 Hz) green wood, static measurement

Common Specific Modulus Deformation Compression Modulus Compression

species names gravity of elasticity prop. limit prop. limit of elasticity prop. limit
- kN/cm2 % kN/cm2 kN/cm2 kN/cm2
alder (Alnus) 0,86 800 0,25 2,0 780 2,2
ash (Fraxinus) 0,93 825 0,32 2,6 950 2,7
aspen (Populus) 0,76 680 0,24 1,6 650 1,6
basswood (Tilia) 0,84 700 0,25 1,8 720 1,5
beech (Fagus) 1,0 850 0,26 2,3 980 2,8
birch (Betula) 0,88 705 0,31 2,2 990 2,6
black locust (Robinia) 0,95 705 0,28 2,0 1180 4,2
cedar (Chamaecyparis) 0,69 735 0,27 2,0 790 2,4
cedar (Juniperus) 0,75 765 0,20 1,5 550 2,1
douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga) 0,63 800 0,25 2,0 840 2,5
elm (Ulmus) 1,01 570 0,35 2,0 520 1,9
fir (Abies) 0,63 950 0,16 1,5 810 2,2
hornbeam (Carpinus) 0,99 880 0,18 1,6 970 2,7
horse chestnut (Aesculus) 0,92 525 0,27 1,4 530 1,7
chestnut (Castanea) 1,06 700 0,36 2,5 710 2,4
larch (Larix) 0,82 535 0,32 1,7 790 2,4
limetree (Tilia) 0,75 450 0,38 1,7 920 2,6
sycamore (Acer) 0,89 850 0,29 2,5 960 2,3
maple Norway (Acer) 0,92 700 0,36 2,6
oak english (Quercus) 1,1 790 0,35 2,8 830 2,8
oak pubescent (Quercus) 1,0 720 0,28 2,0
pine (Pinus) 0,82 700 0,24 1,7 730 2,2
poplar (Populus) 0,89 605 0,33 2,0 680 1,9
redwood (Sequoiadendron) 1,05 500 0,36 1,8
rowantree (Sorbus) 1,07 600 0,27 1,6
spruce (Picea) 0,70 650 0,32 2,1 740 2,0
sycamore (Platanus) 0,99 625 0,43 2,7 640 2,4
tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus) - 560 0,36 2,0
4 Components of Tree Stability 67

4.2 Wood properties

Relationship between properties from static and dynamic material tests
Modulus of Elasticity (kN.cm-2)
950
Robinia
900 Carpinus
Abies Acer
Fagus
dynamic measurement
850 Fraxinus
Alnus
PseudotsugaTilia
Quercus
800
Juniperus
Betula
750 Chamaecyparis
Castanea
Pinus
Tilia
700 Populus
Picea
650 Larix
Platanus
Salix Populus
600 Ulmus

550 Aesculus

500
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

static measurement

Relationship between static and dynamic measurement of modulus

of elasticity in green condition.
4 Components of Tree Stability 68

4.2 Wood properties

Relationship between properties from static and dynamic material tests
Compression Strength (kN.cm-2)
3,0
Quercus
Platanus
2,8
Fraxinus
dynamic measurement
Acer Castanea
2,5
Fagus
Betula
2,3
Picea
Ulmus Populus Alnus Chamaecyparis
PseudotsugaRobinia
2,0
Tilia
PinusTilia Larix
1,8
Salix
Populus Carpinus
Juniperus
Abies
1,5 Aesculus

1,3

1,0
1,0 1,3 1,5 1,8 2,0 2,3

static measurement

Relationship between static and dynamic measurement of compression

strength at proportional limit in green condition.
4 Components of Tree Stability 69

4.3 Loads applied to tree

Objectives

1. Identification of forces acting on tree.

2. Comparison of such forces respectively, the relative importance.
3. Determination of mechanical stresses caused by the wind and the
weight of the tree.
4. Determination of how loads differ considerably in trunks and
branches.
4 Components of Tree Stability 70

4.3 Loads applied to tree

The Loads – axial loads (normal and shear stresses)

and moments (bending and torque):

• The main factor is the wind.

• The „others“ include own weight of the
tree, additional loads – the snow, the ice,
the water (from rain), birds and other
animals (for instance arborists …), and
torque due to eccentricity of crown center
of gravity.
• Loads caused by the wind are much more
higher then others.
• The gravitational force is relatively weak
compared with the force of the wind on
the crown until the tree starts to sway well
away from the vertical axis.
4 Components of Tree Stability 71

4.3 Loads applied to tree

Summary of mechanical stresses acting in trees

Mattheck (1995)
4 Components of Tree Stability 72

4.3 Loads applied to tree

Factors affecting wind and gravitational forces acting on a tree.

4 Components of Tree Stability 73

4.3 Loads applied to tree

Factors affecting the resistance to wind and gravitational forces

acting on a tree.
4 Components of Tree Stability 74

Conclusion

• Trees adapt their stem and root growth in response to the wind
loading to which they are subjected in order to resist breakage or
overturning.

• By understanding the behaviour of trees in strong winds and the

mechanisms of root anchorage it has become possible to develop
mechanistic models that predict

1. the critical wind speeds for damage to occur and

2. how these are affected by the properties of the trees

• Such an approach allows predictions of the impact of any

arboricultural operations on tree stability and the design of strategies
for reducing wind damage.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 75

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Relationships between external loads and the intensity of internal loads and the
resulting deformations based on the size, shape and type of material used.

5.2 Stability and failure of tree

Failure occurs when forces acting on a tree exceed the resistance to breakage or
uprooting of the root/soil system.

5.3 Factors influencing tree stability

The factors that affect windthrow and breakage of trees are those that influence
the effectiveness of root anchorage, the strength and aerodynamic properties of
the tree, and the direction and characteristics of the wind within and above the
stand.

5.4 Influence of defects

Hazardous defects are visible signs that the tree is failing.

A tree with defects is not hazardous, however, unless some portion of it is within
striking distance of a target.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 76

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Objectives

1. Understand the axial, shear, and bending stresses associated with

simple trunk design and analysis.
2. Understand the stress-strain and load-displacement relationships for
axial members – tree as column.
3. Learn to calculate the stress, strain and displacement for beams under
various loading conditions – tree as cantilever.
4. Learn to calculate the principal stresses in members and how the
principal stresses relate to failure.
5. Use mechanics of materials to analyze structures.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 77

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Assumptions

● Prismatic bar (a straight structural member having a constant cross

section throughout its length)
● Loads act through centroids of the cross sections
● Homogeneous material (the same throughout all parts of the bar)
5 Biomechanics of Tree 78

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Key Terms

● Axial Force – load directed along the longitudinal axis of the bar
● Cross Sectional Area – internal face of a bar taken perpendicular to
the longitudinal axis
● Stress – force per unit area (normal stress, uniaxial stress) (units: psi,
Pa)
● Strain – elongation per unit length (normal strain, uniaxial strain)
(dimensionless)
Stress

Strain
5 Biomechanics of Tree 80

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Key Terms

● Structure - any object that must support or transmit loads

● Factor of safety, n - the ratio of actual strength to required strength
(generally values from 1 to 10 are used) (structure will presumably
fail for n less than 1)
● Margin of safety - an alternative definition to "factor of safety"
(commonly used in the aircraft industry) (structure will presumably
fail for margins of safety less than or equal to zero) (usually given as
a percent)
● Allowable stress - the stress that must not be exceeded anywhere in
the structure to satisfy the factor of safety
● Allowable load- permissible or safe load
● Response - how the structure will behave to loads, temperature
changes, etc.
● Properties - types of members and their arrangement and dimensions,
types of supports and their locations, materials used and their
properties
5 Biomechanics of Tree 81

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Key Terms

● Analysis - the properties of the structure are given and the response
is to be determined
● Design - the desired response is given and the properties of the
structure are to be determined (usually a longer and more involved
process)
● Stiffness - the ability of the structure to resist changes in shape
(stretching, bending, twisting)
● Strength- the ability of the structure to resist failure (compression,
tension, bending)
● Stability - the ability of the structure to resist buckling of columns
(i.e. slender compression members)
● Loads - active forces that are applied to the structure by some
external cause (known in advance)
● Reactions - passive forces that are induced at the supports of the
structure (must be calculated)
5 Biomechanics of Tree 83

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Tree in consideration Forces Stresses Sources Loads

Stem Compression
(normal stress)

Crown Compression
(normal stress)
Bending moment

Wind Bending moment

Torsion moment
5 Biomechanics of Tree 84

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Key concept

● The forces acting upon a tree are divided into

1. the horizontal force due to the wind and

2. the vertical force due to gravity, including the stem and
crown weights and the weight of snow.

● Trees are assumed to

1. be stressed in cross-section by axial forces or moments

(flexure formula, normal stress)
2. deflect and/or to stretch to a point of no return when acted
upon by wind (deflection formula)
5 Biomechanics of Tree 85

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

1. Force due to wind (horizontal)

• There are a number of possible methods for calculating the wind

loading on a tree. These include direct calculation from a knowledge of
the drag coefficient and leaf area of the tree canopy (Jones, 1983),
spectral methods using the approach pioneered by Davenport (1961) or
an empirical approach using the measured drag of trees (Mayhead et
al., 1975).

• The wind speed (u) over a forest canopy is given by a logarithmic or

()
power profile: α
z
v( z )=v ( z 0 )
z0
• The mean wind loading and gravity-based forces are calculated at each
height in the canopy using a predicted wind profile and the vertical
distribution of stem and crown weights.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 86

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

1. Force due to wind (horizontal)

The new Eurocode 1 includes four terrain categories with different

roughness-parameters and in addition to that there are special windmaps
based on different mean wind velocities for different locations:

Profile of the mean wind velocity for different roughness-classes.

5 Biomechanics of Tree 87

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

1. Force due to wind (horizontal)

• The total mean wind-induced force is the sum of the wind forces acting
at each point on the stem and crown that is given (Jones, 1983; Peltola
et al., 1999) at height z by:

2
F =0,5 ρc x Av
where v - the mean wind speed,
A - the area of the stem and crown against which the wind acts,
cw - the drag coefficient, and
ρ - the density of the air.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 88

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

1. Force due to wind (horizontal)

– The wind act in the area of the tree crown as in the sail of a ship.
– We can replace the acting forces in each one part of crown with the one
solitary force acting in the centre of gravity of the crown.
– Than the calculation of the stresses and bending moments is enabled.

• Note that the force increase with the sail area (A), but with the square of
the velocity (v) !
• The Cx is the drag coefficient of the crown (porosity); it depends on the
species, on the wind velocity and other factors.
• Greek letter ρ denotes the density of the air (1,2 kg.m-3).
5 Biomechanics of Tree 89

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

1. Force due to wind (horizontal)

• The drag force on the crown is proportional to the area of branches and
stems exposed to the wind, the drag coefficient of the foliage (i.e. how
efficiently it intercepts wind), and the square of the wind speed (i.e.
when the wind speed doubles, the drag force on the crown increases by
a factor of four).
• Wind tunnel studies with whole trees have shown that the drag force is
nearly proportional to the projected area of the canopy, drag
coefficient, and wind speed.
• However, as wind speed increases, the canopy tends to bend and
deflect and become more streamlined.
• This force is transmitted to the stem, causing it to bend and sway.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 90

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

2. Forces due to crown and stem (vertical)

The weight of the tree is divided into stem weight and

canopy weight. As for the stem load, each section of the
trunk is at any time supporting the weight of the portion of
trunk above
Fstem = Vstem Gstem g
The canopy weight Fc is applied as a point load in the
centre of gravity of the crown generating constant axial
stresses like
Fcrown = mcrown g
Usually, the centre of gravity of the crown will be
eccentric, and the distance to stem e, and height hcg can
define its position
  e 
Fcrown = mcrown sin  arctg   g
 h 
  cg 
5 Biomechanics of Tree 91

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

3. Axial stress (normal stress)

Axial stresses due to stem and crown mass vary along the stem with a
maximum at a position which depends on taper.

Fcrown + Fstem
σ tree =
A

F σ
π π
A= D 2
A= HB
4 4
5 Biomechanics of Tree 92

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

4. Flexure formula

a) bending moments

● bending – mean wind force acting on the crown centre and the height
of center of gravity
● total maximum bending moment is at the base of the stem
● bending moment varies with the height

M wind = Fwind hcg

F

h M

● the eccentric load induces a bending moment which is constant along

the stem

M crown = Fcrown e e
F M
5 Biomechanics of Tree 93

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

4. Flexure formula

b) torsion moments

● wind acting on eccenricaly shifted center of crown gravity

● the resultant load there is torque and stress acting on the tree there is
shear
e
Twind = Fwind e F
M
5 Biomechanics of Tree 94

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

4. Flexure formula

c) section modulus

● both bending and torsion stresses are indirectly proporcional to

section moduli W given by equations:
BENDING TORQUE

π D3 π
W= Wx = H 2B WT = 2W
32 32
π
Wy = HB 2
32
5 Biomechanics of Tree 96

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

4. Flexure formula

e) torsion stress

Twind
τ wind =
WT

• torsion stress = RESISTANCE to BREAKAGE (TORSION)

• wind, crown and stem induced stress in the outer fibres of the tree
stem
• stress can be calculated only at given height
• when stress exceeds the distinct value – shear strength at proportional
limit – the stem will break.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 100

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Factor of safety – the ratio of actual STRESS to required STRENGTH

(generally values from 1 to 10 (100 to 1000%) are used)
Structure will presumably fail for factor of safety less than 1 (<100%)

σ compression
factor of safety = 100
σ wind + σ crown + σ tree

τ shear
factor of safety = 100
τ wind
5 Biomechanics of Tree 101

5.1 Application of mechanics of materials

Factor of safety – the ratio of actual STRESS to required STRENGTH

(generally values from 1 to 10 (100 to 1000%) are used)

Structure will presumably fail for factor of safety less than 1 (<100%)

slope of deflection curve

factor of safety= 100
inclination of tree
5 Biomechanics of Tree 102

5.2 Failure of tree

Objectives

The objective is to determine the largest stresses anywhere in the

structure.
No new theories are involved – only applications of previously derived
formulas and concepts:

1. Select a point in the structure where the stresses and strains are
to be determined (usually where the stresses are the largest).
2. For each load, determine the stress resultants at the point (look
at axial force, twisting moment, bending moment, shear force) .
3. Calculate the normal and shear stresses due to each stress
resultant (σ = F/A, σ =M/W) .
4. Combine the individual stresses.
5. Repeat the process for additional points, until you are confident
you have found the largest stresses anywhere in the structure.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 103

5.2 Failure of tree

Key Terms

Elasticity - a material property that causes the

specimen to return to its original dimensions
when the load is removed

Residual Strain - the permanent strain exhibited

in the material when the load is removed

Elastic Limit - the limiting stress where the

material will still return to its original
dimensions

Plasticity - inelastic behavior of the material

beyond the elastic limit
5 Biomechanics of Tree 104

5.2 Failure of tree

Key Terms

Reloading - applying a subsequent load after the

material has experienced a loading resulting in
permanent deformation

NOTE:

Permanent deformation changes the material

properties:

a) the linear-elastic region is

increased
b) the proportional limit, elastic limit,
and yield point are raised
c) plasticity is reduced (material
becames more brittle)
5 Biomechanics of Tree 105

5.2 Failure of tree

Key concepts

• Trees adapt their stem and root growth in response to the wind loading
to which they are subjected in order to resist breakage or overturning.

• By understanding the behaviour of trees in strong winds and the

mechanisms of root anchorage it has become possible to develop
mechanistic models that predict

1. the critical wind speeds for damage to occur and

2. how these are affected by the properties of the trees

• Such an approach allows predictions of the impact of any

arboricultural operations on tree stability and the design of strategies
for reducing wind damage.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 106

5.2 Failure of tree

The basic structure of

models is very similar
and a general
schematic relevant to
models is shown in
Fig.
The major differences
lie in the method for
calculating the values
at each stage of the
model.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 107

5.2 Failure of tree

Process of failure of tree

1. breakage – a tree will break down if the total axial stress due to wind
and tree mass exceeds the compression strength at
proportional limit in the outer fibres of lee side.

2. overturning (uprooting) – a tree will overturn if the total extreme

bending moment due to the wind / load
exceeds the support provided by the root-soil
plate anchorage.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 108

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

1. Tree as free-standing column

● Upright and free-standing column fixed at base

● Loaded by crown and stem mass (gravity)
● Can fail by
a) compression or
b) global buckling

Compression Buckling
2
F crown F stem  EI
= = 2
A 4L A
 prop.limit
factor of safety = ≥1

σ ≤ strength in
compression
5 Biomechanics of Tree 109

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

1. Tree as free-standing column

● Maximal stress ≤ strength in compression

● Strength is constant
● Resistance to breakage = balance between load
and area
Load Area

Function of tree hight Function of

= LENGTH (L) DIAMETER (D2)

π 2 π
A= D A= HB
4 4
π π
A=  D2 d 2  A= HB hb 
4 4
5 Biomechanics of Tree 110

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

1. Tree as free-standing column

LENGTH
LENGTH = f ( DIAMETER2 )

STEM DIAMETER
5 Biomechanics of Tree 111

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

1. Tree as free-standing column

LOAD = STRENGTH x AREA

LOAD (L) STRENGTH AREA (D2)

5 Biomechanics of Tree 112

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

1. Tree as free-standing column

LOAD = STRENGTH x AREA

AREA (D2)

LOAD (L) STRENGTH

DEFECTS

AREA (D2)
LOAD (L)
LOAD (L) AREA (D2)
WEAKER STRONGER
WOOD WOOD
5 Biomechanics of Tree 113

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

2. Tree as CANTILEVER

● Cantilever resisting a bending moment

● Loaded by wind force
● Can fail by
a) bending or
b) torsion

Bending Torsion

M wind M crown M wind

= =
W WT
 prop.limit
factor of safety = ≥1

σ ≤ strength in compression OR
shear
5 Biomechanics of Tree 114

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

2. Tree as CANTILEVER

● Maximal stress ≤ strength in compression

● Strength is constant
● Resistance to breakage = balance between
moment and area (section moduli)
Moment Area

M =F hcg Function of
1 DIAMETER (D3)
2
F wind = c w ρ v z A
2
3 π
Function of tree hight W=
π D W x= H2B
32 32
= LENGTH (L) and 4 4 3 3
sail area = AREA (A) π D d π H B h b
W= W x=
32 D 32 H
5 Biomechanics of Tree 115

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

2. Tree as CANTILEVER

LENGTH = f ( AREA, DIAMETER 3)

LENGTH

STEM DIAMETER

CROWN AREA
5 Biomechanics of Tree 116

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

2. Tree as CANTILEVER

MOMENT = STRENGTH x SECTION MODULUS

WIND FORCE x LEVER ARM = STRENGTH x AREA (D3)

LOAD (A, L) STRENGTH AREA (D3)

5 Biomechanics of Tree 117

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

2. Tree as CANTILEVER

MOMENT = STRENGTH x SECTION MODULUS

WIND FORCE x LEVER ARM = STRENGTH x AREA (D3)
AREA (D3)

LOAD (A, L) STRENGTH

DEFECTS

AREA (D3)
LOAD (A, L) AREA (D3)
LOAD (A, L) STRONGER
WEAKER WOOD
WOOD
5 Biomechanics of Tree 118

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

CONCLUSION

Risk (Hazard) Tree Safety Tree

AREA
LOAD
WEAKER STRONGER AREA
LOAD WOOD WOOD
CLEAR
DEFECT

SIA – LOAD (tree hight) and AREA

SIM – WOOD STRENGTH and DEFECTS
5 Biomechanics of Tree 119

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to breakage

CONCLUSION

Risk (Hazard) Tree Safety Tree

REDUCED INCREASED
WEAKER
LOAD AREA
WOOD
DEFECT

SIA – LOAD (tree hight) and AREA

SIM – WOOD STRENGTH and DEFECTS
5 Biomechanics of Tree 120

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to overturning (uprooting)

1. Tree as CANTILEVER

● Cantilever resisting a bendeing moment

● Loaded by wind force or own mass
a) wind action on the crown causes defection of the stem
b) leaning stem can uproot the tree because its centre of
gravity moves over the hinge point in the root system
● The uprooting moment is resisted by bending of the tree stem and
various components of root anchorage:
1. the weight of the root-soil plate,
2. the strength of the windward roots,
3. the strength of the root hinge and
4. the soil strength at the base of the root-soil plate.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 121

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to overturning (uprooting)

Stability
1. Tree as CANTILEVER generalized tipping curve
inc lination of the butress in from 400meas ured tr ees
2.5 degrees

If the uprooting moment exceeds the

resistive bending moment of the tree
at a particular angle of deflection, the 2

tree will deflect further. G eneralized tipping

The tree will give way if the 1.5

curve

ver tical
uprooting moment exceeds its Tangents

maximum resistive bending moment, 1

with the relative strengths of the stem s tability

and roots determining the mode of tension zone

upper limit in the
pull test

failure. 0.5

0.25

The evaluation of extremely tipped trees 0

We

shows that the pattern is always the same: 0 20 40 60 80 100 % of tipping

load
no further load increase is possible between Substitute load standardized to a fixed hurricane relationship
2° and 3° inclination. The Inclinometer
method is based on this.
Wessolly (1996)
5 Biomechanics of Tree 122

5.2 Failure of tree

Resistance to overturning (uprooting)

1. Tree as CANTILEVER

● Maximal angle (slope of deflection) ≤ 2-3° of

inclination accordinng to experiments
●
Angle depends on hight position (φ = f(x))
● Resistance to overturning = balance between load,
area (moment of inertia) and stiffness (E-modulus)

Deflection Slope of deflection (angle)

2
Fx Fx
v= 3 L x  v=
'
2 L x 
6 EI 2 EI

slope of deflection curve

factor of safety = ≤1
inclinationof tree
5 Biomechanics of Tree 123

5.2 Failure of tree

Conclusion

1. No scientific training is needed to understand the following

discussion - sound commonsense is enough.

2. Just remember that assessing fracture safety of a structure by all the

relevant standards (BIOMECHANICS of TREE) is based on
computational statics.

3. This means that (1) load, (2) material and (3) geometry must be
known in order to solve the statics equation.

4. The basic question is: what stem diameter does a tree of given size
(tree hight and crown area) need on its site so that it can
withstand a severe storm (hurricane) with safety?
5 Biomechanics of Tree 124

5.3 Factors influencing tree stability

• The factors that affect windthrow and breakage of trees are those that
influence the effectiveness of root anchorage, the strength and
aerodynamic properties of the tree, and the direction and characteristics
of the wind within and above the stand.

• For simplicity these can be separated into

1. individual tree characteristics,
2. stand characteristics,
3. root zone soil characteristics,
4. topographic exposure characteristics,
5. meteorological conditions.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 125

5.3 Factors influencing tree stability

1. Individual Tree Characteristics

At the individual tree level, the following characteristics affect tree

stability:
• the height, diameter, and shape of the bole
• the crown class and size of crown
• the strength and elasticity of the bole, branches, and needles
• the rooting depth and area, size and number of roots, and whether
or not adjacent tree root systems interlock
• the tree defects
5 Biomechanics of Tree 126

5.3 Factors influencing tree stability

2. Stand Level Characteristics

At the stand level, individual trees can be made more or less prone to
windthrow through the effects of:
• stand height and density
• species composition
• silvicultural treatments (thinning, pruning, edge feathering,
ripping, draining, etc.).
5 Biomechanics of Tree 127

5.3 Factors influencing tree stability

2. Stand Level Characteristics

A comparison of
distributions of the relative
windfirmness of individual
trees comprising stands
with different structural
characteristics.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 128

5.3 Factors influencing tree stability

3. Soil Characteristics

Soil characteristics affect windthrow through the interaction of:

• depth
• drainage
• structure, density, texture, and the anchorage strength of the root
system.

Root and soil factors

affecting resistance to
overturning.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 129

5.3 Factors influencing tree stability

4. Topographic Characteristics

Topographic characteristics affect windthrow by modifying:

• wind exposure
• wind direction, speed and turbulence.

Wind flow over a

hill showing flow
acceleration on the
windward slope and
turbulence (roller
eddies) on the
leeward slope.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 130

Conclusion

• The concept of biomechanics refers to mechanical phenomena

observed in a living plant, like a tree, that can be explained by the mere
application of the usual analysis of structure and material mechanics.

• As an example, the global or local deformations of a tree submitted to

sudden wind can be calculated by classical structure mechanics
provided that sufficient information is given on

1. geometry,
2. material properties and
3. wind–structure interaction.
5 Biomechanics of Tree 131

Conclusion

● The assessment of the mechanical safety factor of the tree structure is

a clearly defined engineering concept with generally accepted rules.

● It involves an accurate appraisal of the forces occurring as well as the

determination as to whether the tree’s structure and material can
withstand these forces.

● The procedure is represented in the model of the statics triangle,

which demonstrates the inherent correlation of loads, tree geometry
and wood properties.
6 Practical Applications 132

Some of the earlier inroads into a systematic approach to hazard evaluation

were made by the Parks Service in the USA (in 1963, Wagener, in 1967,
Paine, gathered data on tree failure related to species, size and part of tree.
This early work paved the way for the systems that continue to develop
today.

There are 6 current tree inspection systems in wide use:

1. The Visual Tree Assessment method (VTA)

2. The Evaluation of Hazard Trees in Urban Areas (EHT)
3. Statics-Integrated Assessment (SIA) and Statics-Integrated
Methods (SIM)
4. The Forestry Commission in the United Kingdom developed a
quantitative windthrow hazard classification scheme
5. The Windthrow Handbook for British Columbia Forests
6. Mechanistic approaches (static and dynamic models)
6 Practical Applications 133

6.1 SIA

6.2 SIM – pulling test

6.3 Comparison to other methods

6 Practical Applications 134

6.1 Statics-Integrated Assessment (SIA)

• The method of Statics-Integrated Assessment (SIA; in Switzerland SIB)

has been developed on the basis of of practical measurements and safety
surveys of trees.
• The basic question solved there is: what stem diameter does a tree of
given size need on its site so that it can withstand a severe storm
(hurricane) with safety ?
• The SIA method focuses on the load - the wind load on a tree depends on
its absolute size, crown form and wind permeability.
• It works with four basic forms of crown appearance:
1. a slender cylinder on a pillar,
2. a ball on a pillar,
3. an ellipsoid on a pillar,
4. and a heart-shape.
• Tree species can be grouped when their wood strength differences and
wind resistance coefficients are equalized.
• The compression strengths of the individual woods according to the
Stuttgart Strength Catalogue are also a basis of the SIA, as is the
different wind permeability of the crowns.
6 Practical Applications 135
Discovery of damage

• The flow-diagram shows the new way

of thinking.
• First access the tree from its basic Determination of wind-load

substance and not concentrate on the

damage or symptoms.
Determination of basic statics
• In most cases this saves time and
expensive investigation.

• The SIA method simplifies Comparison damage/basic substance

determination of the basic substance; the

practioner only needs to measure tree
height and stem diameter precisely.
If necessarry, definition of damage more precisely
• A simple form guides the user through.

If necessarry, carry out tree-care measurements

SIM – Elastometer and Inclonometer Methods
6 Practical Applications 136

6.2 Statics-Integrated Methods (SIM)

• SIM is the final stage in diagnosing the safety of important trees.

• Before this the practitioner should be able to make an on-site
decision on the safety of the trees as regards traffic, in accordance
with the statics situation.

• Decisive factors involved there are

1. load,
2. wood-material properties
3. geometry of trees.

• Remember .....

Components of Tree Stabilty and

Biomechanics of Tree
6 Practical Applications 137

6.2 Statics-Integrated Methods (SIM)

• Inclinometer method - the establishment of a stress

generalized tilt curve valid for all trees shows
that stability can be determined without
injury by a pulling test by measurements of The Elastometer
allows the weakest
place in the tree

tilt. to be located
and evaluated

• Elastometer method - the development of the relative degree

of damage

approach, which non-destructively measures

the stretching of the representative peripheral
fibres for the pulling test were the
consequence of the failure process of trees
under bending load is assessed. Elastometer
strain

098
6 Practical Applications 138

6.2 Statics-Integrated Methods (SIM)

• The Elastometer measures the stretching of material properties example

Beech
obtained in laboratory tests
the peripheral fibres, and can non- 85 years

destructively analyze the tree from the limit of elasticity compression strength
2
outside and also locate the place which kN/cm

0,27 4,4 1610 1550 4,4 0,28

gives danger most, even with hidden outside außen

cavities. 0,24 3,4 1400

average
1310 3,1
Mittelwert
0,24

1400 3,1 0,22

0,26 3,6 1400
• In comparison with the mean E-modulus außen

0,28 700
inside
außen

Modulus of Elasticity2
kN/cm
(stiffness) of all the measured trees of the Position of
1,94

same species, we obtain the residual measuring points 870

0,29 2,55
carrying capacity of the hollow tree as Mittelwert
average
limit of elasticity
compared to the solid cross-section. 12 m
Bisheriger Wert: 0,26
45 cm

average: 0,26
• The residual carrying capacity or residual average

950
amplitude: + / -0,02
wall thickness is important for completing 0,27 2,52
the overall picture of the tree's statics, and
for making a prediction. We
6 Practical Applications 139

6.2 Statics-Integrated Methods (SIM)

• The Inclinometer measures ...... material properties example

Beech
obtained in laboratory tests
85 years

• In comparison with theretical and/or limit of elasticity compression strength

2
calculated deflection or slope of deflection kN/cm

0,27 4,4 1610 1550 4,4 0,28

(angle) we obtain outside außen

a) the residual carrying capacity of the 0,24 3,4 1400

average
1310 3,1
Mittelwert
0,24

hollow tree as compared to the solid 0,26 3,6 1400

1400 3,1 0,22
außen
cross-section außen

0,28 700
inside
Modulus of Elasticity2
kN/cm
b) the assessment of tree fixation to the Position of
1,94

ground (the measure of rooted area measuring points 870

0,29 2,55
stability) – the rigidity of tree Mittelwert
average
limit of elasticity
anchorage 12 m
Bisheriger Wert: 0,26
45 cm

average
average: 0,26
amplitude: + / -0,02
950
0,27 2,52

We
6 Practical Applications 140

6.2 Statics-Integrated Methods (SIM)

• The failure behaviour of trees in a storm allows only one

computational possibility of fracture safety analysis:
a) simulation of wind load and Elastometer measurement of
the compression of the heaviest-loaded peripheral fibres
located directly beneath the bark
b) simulation of trunk deflection and Inclinometer
measurement along the stem axis

• Their behaviour is representative for the carrying capacity of the

cross-section.

• Application of method – guarantee of safety.

• Expert statics-integrated tree monitoring is based on individual-tree

analysis of
1. load,
2. geometry and
3. material.
7 Conclusion 141

Assessing the safety of a tree, like that of any engineering structure, is a

clearly defined engineering task with generally accepted rules. It involves,
on the one hand determining as accurately as possible the forces occurring
and, on the other hand whether the structure and material can withstand
them. The procedure is symbolized in the statics triangle, which consists on
the inseparable connection of loads, tree geometry and wood properties.
It would be naturally simpler to determine the safety of trees if nature had
kept to closely limited numerical values which could be used to describe a
uniform residual wall-thickness or a constant safety stress valid for the
entire tree. Since trees consist on roots, stem and crown which are
optimized by adaptive growth, their diversity of form suggests that it will
not be possible to determine safety by generalized numerical values (as
used for example in the VTA method) characterizing the degree of e.g.
hollowness or safety without any measurements (as used for example in the
SIA and SIM Methods).
7 Conclusion 142

The failure behaviour of trees in a storm allows only one computational

possibility of fracture safety analysis: simulation of wind load and
Elastometer measurement of the compression of the heaviest-loaded
peripheral fibres located directly beneath the bark. Their behaviour is
representative for the carrying capacity of the cross-section. How much
these fibres can be compressed before they are irreversibly damaged is
described by both modulus of elasticity (stiffness), and compression strain
and stress at proportional limit (rigidity and strength). Only methods based
on non-destructive spatial determination of the carrying capacity of a part
of a tree and prediction of the fracture load utilising above mentioned
constants, can provide verifiable technique both for fracture safety and for
tree stability assessment.
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