CH-102 Assignment: Surface Tension

Submitted By: Misbah Nizamani

Submitted to: Dr. Tehmeena Maryam Butt
Reg no: 04182213053
Date: May 2, 2023

Part I
Surface Tension
The attractive interactions between molecules at a liquid's surface are referred to
as surface tension, a feature of liquids. To counterbalance the net inward
attraction of the molecules at the surface, a force per unit length must be supplied
parallel to the surface.

Because molecules in a liquid are attracted to one another but are not completely
surrounded by other molecules like those in the liquid's main body, surface
tension results. As a result, there is an imbalance in the attractive forces, which
pulls the molecules at the liquid's surface into its interior. Surface tension is the
term for the tension that is produced at the liquid's surface as a result of this pull
inward.

Many phenomena, including capillary action, the formation of droplets, and the
behaviour of surfactants, are significantly influenced by surface tension. The
ability of a liquid to flow in small areas despite the pull of gravity is known as
capillary action, and it results from the equilibrium between adhesive and
cohesive forces, both of which are influenced by surface tension. The inward pull
of the surface molecules drives liquids to form spheres, which have the smallest
surface area for a given volume and are connected to the creation of droplets.
Detergents and other surfactants are employed in numerous processes, including
cleaning, since they can reduce a liquid's surface tension by obstructing the
attraction forces between the molecules at the surface.

Capillary Rise Action

The capillary rise method is a common experimental technique used to measure
the surface tension of a liquid. The method is based on the observation that a
liquid will rise up a narrow tube or capillary due to the forces of adhesion and
cohesion.

To perform the capillary rise method, a narrow glass tube, typically made of glass
or quartz, is partially filled with the liquid whose surface tension is to be
measured. The diameter of the tube is carefully measured, and the height of the
liquid column within the tube is observed. The liquid will rise up the tube until the
forces of adhesion and cohesion between the liquid and the tube are balanced by
the force of gravity.

The height of the liquid column within the tube is related to the surface tension of
the liquid according to the equation:

γ = 2ρgh/d

where γ is the surface tension of the liquid, ρ is the density of the liquid, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, h is the height of the liquid column, and d is the
diameter of the tube.

By measuring the diameter of the tube and the height of the liquid column, the
surface tension of the liquid can be calculated. Multiple measurements can be
taken and averaged to improve the accuracy of the measurement.
It is important to note that the capillary rise method assumes that the liquid wets
the walls of the tube completely, and that there are no other factors influencing
the rise of the liquid, such as gravity, temperature, or impurities in the liquid.

In addition to the capillary rise method, there are other experimental techniques
that can be used to measure surface tension, such as the drop weight method and
the maximum bubble pressure method. These methods rely on different physical
principles, and may be more or less suitable depending on the properties of the
liquid being studied and the experimental setup.

Surface tension is an instinct property of liquids that influences a wide range of

phenomena, such as the formation of bubbles, the behavior of surfactants, and
the stability of emulsions. Accurate measurements of surface tension are
therefore important for understanding and predicting these phenomena, and for
developing applications in fields such as materials science, biotechnology, and
pharmaceuticals.

Stalagmometer method
The Stalagmometer method is a commonly used experimental technique for
measuring the surface tension of a liquid. The method is based on the principle
that the rate of flow of a liquid through a narrow orifice is related to the surface
tension of the liquid.

To perform the Stalagmometer method, a Stalagmometer apparatus is used,

which consists of a vertical glass tube with a fine, tapered capillary at the bottom.
The tube is partially filled with the liquid whose surface tension is to be measured,
and the time required for a drop of liquid to fall from the capillary is measured.
The volume of the drop is calculated from the dimensions of the capillary, and the
surface tension is then determined from the equation:
γ = 2ρgh/v

where γ is the surface tension of the liquid, ρ is the density of the liquid, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, h is the height of the drop, and v is the volume of the
drop.

Multiple measurements are typically taken and averaged to improve the accuracy
of the measurement. It is important to note that the Stalagmometer method
assumes that the liquid wets the walls of the capillary completely, and that there
are no other factors influencing the flow of the liquid, such as gravity or
temperature.

The Stalagmometer method is particularly useful for measuring the surface

tension of viscous or non-wetting liquids, which may not wet the walls of a
capillary completely. The method is also relatively simple and inexpensive,
requiring only a few pieces of equipment and basic measurements.

In addition to the Stalagmometer method, there are other experimental

techniques that can be used to measure surface tension, such as the capillary rise
method and the drop weight method. These methods rely on different physical
principles, and may be more or less appropriate depending on the properties of
the liquid being studied and the experimental setup.

Accurate measurements of surface tension are important for understanding and

predicting a wide range of phenomena, such as the behavior of surfactants, the
stability of emulsions, and the formation of bubbles. Surface tension also plays an
important role in various industrial processes, such as inkjet printing, coating, and
froth flotation.
Maximum Bubble Method
The maximum bubble pressure method is a common experimental technique
used to measure the surface tension of a liquid. The method is based on the
principle that the pressure inside a bubble is related to the surface tension of the
liquid.

To perform the maximum bubble pressure method, a bubble of known volume is

introduced into the liquid whose surface tension is to be measured. The pressure
inside the bubble is then increased until the bubble reaches its maximum size, at
which point the pressure inside the bubble is equal to the pressure of the liquid
outside the bubble. The surface tension of the liquid is then calculated from the
equation:

γ = (4P_bV_b)/(πd)
where γ is the surface tension of the liquid, P_b is the maximum pressure inside
the bubble, V_b is the volume of the bubble, and d is the diameter of the capillary
used to introduce the bubble into the liquid.

Multiple measurements are typically taken and averaged to improve the accuracy
of the measurement. It is important to note that the maximum bubble pressure
method assumes that the bubble is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the
surrounding liquid, and that there are no other factors influencing the size or
pressure of the bubble, such as gravity, temperature, or impurities in the liquid.

The maximum bubble pressure method is particularly useful for measuring the
surface tension of volatile or reactive liquids, which may not be suitable for other
experimental techniques such as the capillary rise method or the Stalagmometer
method. The method is also relatively simple and inexpensive, requiring only a
few pieces of equipment and basic measurements.

In addition to the maximum bubble pressure method, there are other

experimental techniques that can be used to measure surface tension, such as the
capillary rise method and the Stalagmometer method. These methods rely on
different physical principles, and may be more or less appropriate depending on
the properties of the liquid being studied and the experimental setup.
Dynamic Methods

The dynamic method is a commonly used experimental technique for measuring

the surface tension of a liquid. The method is based on the principle that the force
required to move a solid or liquid surface through a liquid is related to the surface
tension of the liquid.

To perform the dynamic method, a probe is introduced into the liquid whose
surface tension is to be measured. The probe can take different forms, such as a
flat plate or a thin wire, and is typically attached to a force transducer that
measures the force required to move the probe through the liquid.

The probe is then moved through the liquid at a constant speed, and the force
required to maintain this speed is recorded. The surface tension of the liquid is
then calculated from the equation:

γ = F/2l

where γ is the surface tension of the liquid, F is the force required to move the
probe through the liquid, and l is the length of the probe in contact with the
liquid.

Multiple measurements are typically taken and averaged to improve the accuracy
of the measurement. It is important to note that the dynamic method assumes
that the probe is wetted completely by the liquid, and that there are no other
factors influencing the force required to move the probe, such as viscosity or
temperature.

The dynamic method is particularly useful for measuring the surface tension of
non-ideal liquids, such as non-Newtonian or non-wetting liquids, which may not
be suitable for other experimental techniques such as the capillary rise method or
the maximum bubble pressure method. The method is also relatively simple and
inexpensive, requiring only a few pieces of equipment and basic measurements.

In addition to the dynamic method, there are other experimental techniques that
can be used to measure surface tension, such as the capillary rise method and the
Stalagmometer method. These methods rely on different physical principles, and
may be more or less appropriate depending on the properties of the liquid being
studied and the experimental setup.

Accurate measurements of surface tension are important for understanding and

predicting a wide range of phenomena, such as the behavior of surfactants, the
stability of emulsions, and the formation of bubbles. Surface tension also plays an
important role in various industrial processes, such as inkjet printing, coating, and
froth flotation.
Part II
Effect Of Temperature

The surface tension of a liquid is affected by various factors, including

temperature. Generally, the surface tension of a liquid decreases with an increase
in temperature. This is due to the fact that as temperature increases, the thermal
energy of the molecules in the liquid increases, causing the molecules to move
more rapidly and overcome the intermolecular forces that contribute to surface
tension.

One of the consequences of the effect of temperature on surface tension is that it

can have a significant impact on the behavior of liquids in different situations. For
example, when a liquid is heated, its surface tension decreases, making it easier
for the liquid to wet a solid surface. This is why, for example, it is easier to clean a
greasy pan with hot water than with cold water.

The effect of temperature on surface tension can also play an important role in
many industrial processes. For example, in the manufacturing of plastics, the
surface tension of the liquid polymer is carefully controlled to ensure that it
adheres properly to the substrate. This can be achieved by carefully controlling
the temperature of the polymer during processing.

Another example of the effect of temperature on surface tension can be seen in

the behavior of soap bubbles. When soap bubbles are formed at low
temperatures, they tend to be smaller and more stable due to the higher surface
tension of the liquid. However, as the temperature increases, the surface tension
decreases, making the bubbles larger and more prone to bursting.

In addition to these practical applications, the effect of temperature on surface

tension is also of interest to researchers in fields such as materials science,
chemistry, and physics. By understanding the relationship between temperature
and surface tension, scientists can gain insights into the behavior of liquids at the
molecular level and develop new materials with tailored properties.

In conclusion, the effect of temperature on surface tension is an important

consideration in many areas of science and technology. While the general trend is
for surface tension to decrease with an increase in temperature, there are many
factors that can influence this relationship, and researchers continue to explore
new ways to understand and control the surface properties of liquids.