Disaster Management Notes

Disaster Management- Basic Terminology

Hazard and Disaster:

Hazard is a potential event- either a natural event (ex: earthquake) or a manmade event (ex:
chemical accident) that leads to loss to life, property or environment.

When Hazard (potential threat) becomes reality and causes widespread loss to humans,
environment, such event is called a disaster.

Vulnerability:

Based on differential setting of the people and place, the same hazard leads to differential
impact on various communities.

There are different kinds of vulnerabilities based on -

1. Socio-economic (Ex: Poor people are more vulnerable)

2. Physical (Ex: Poor design and Construction of Houses)

3. Geographical (Ex: Coastal areas are prone to Cyclones compared to interior areas)

4. Environmental (Ex: Global Warming)

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Risk:

When a vulnerable area is exposed to a hazard (potential event), that region is prone to huge
damages. This is known as risk.

The following is the risk triangle.

Risk is dependent on 3 variables:

1. Hazard

2. Vulnerability

3. Exposure

So, if we reduce either hazard or vulnerability we can reduce the risk.

In case of natural hazard, let’s say Cyclone, we cannot prevent the hazard itself. Only we can
reduce the vulnerability to the hazard.

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Preparedness:

Preparedness to face the hazard reduces the potential losses.

Preparedness is by the following agents:

1. Community – the first responder

2. Governments

3. Voluntary agencies

4. Private Agencies

Preparedness is through

1. Early Warning System

2. Capability training

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3. Emergency Shelters, etc

Mitigation:

Mitigation is lessening and reducing the impact of hazards and the related disasters.

The measures under mitigation are of two types:

1. Structural measures- Any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of

hazards.

2. Non structural measures- Any measure not involving physical construction. It involves use
of knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce the risk. These measures are in particular
through policies and laws, public awareness, training and education.

Disaster:
“Disaster is a physical event, phenomenon or a human activity that leads to serious
disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human,
material, economic and environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the
community or society to cope using its own resources.” – UNISDR (United Nations
International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction)
“A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to
hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity,
leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental
losses and impacts.” (Revised definition UNISDR 2016)

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Types of Disasters
Every Disaster is unique in terms of the local socio-environmental factors that control it. The
social response it generates and the way each social group negotiates with it.

Primarily disasters are caused by-

1. Natural hazards
2. Human-induced
3. Result from a combination of both.
In particular, human-induced factors can greatly increase the adverse impacts of a natural
disaster.
Natural Hazards Manmade Hazards:

Geological Hazards: Hydro-Meteorological 1. Chemical Hazards

Hazards: 2. Biological Hazards
1. Earthquakes 1. Floods 3. Radiation Hazard
2. Landslides 2. Urban Floods 4. Forest Fires
3. Tsunamis 3. Snow Avalanches 5. Oil spills
4. Cyclones 6. Stampedes
5. Cloudbursts
6. Heat waves
7. Droughts
8. Cold wave and frost

Disaster Management in India

India is vulnerable to large number of natural and manmade hazards. This vulnerability is due
to its geography, geology and demography.

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India’s Vulnerability Profile:

✓ More than 58.6 per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high
intensity;
✓ Over 40 million hectares (12%) of its land is prone to floods and river erosion;
✓ Close to 5,700 kms, out of the 7,516 kms long coastline is prone to cyclones and tsunamis;
✓ 68% of its cultivable area is vulnerable to droughts; and,
✓ Its hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches.

Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities related to -

✓ Changing demographics and socio-economic conditions,

✓ Unplanned urbanization, and development within high-risk zones,
✓ Environmental degradation,
✓ Climate change,
✓ Geological hazards,
✓ Epidemics and pandemics.

All these contribute to a situation where disasters seriously threaten India’s economy, its
population and sustainable development.

Let us understand the disaster management system in India.

Existing framework:

Earlier disaster management was focussing only on the rescue and rehabilitation. For this
purpose there were certain mechanisms established at the Central and State levels.

At the central level,

National Crisis Management Committee was established. This committee deals with the
coordination during the crisis or disasters.

Cabinet Committee on Security evaluated the threats from the National Security perspective.

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At the State level,

State Crisis Management Committee was established. This committee coordinates different
departments and district committees during disasters.

There were two types of funds proposed by the Finance Commissions operating at central
and State levels.

1. Calamity Response Fund (State level fund. The amount is recommended by the Finance
Commission. )

2. National Calamity Response Fund (Central level fund)

However, there were no established institutional structures to deal with the disasters
comprehensively.

High Powered Committee to deal with Disasters-

In 1999, GoI has established a High-Powered Committee (HPC) headed by J.C. Pant to
recommend the institutional mechanism to deal with disasters.

After of few months of appointing this Committee India has experienced a huge scale disaster-
Odisha Super Cyclone 1999.This has led to huge deaths numbering 10,000 and huge economic
losses.

By the time the HPC recommendations are considered, India has faced another crisis- Gujarat
Earthquake (Bhuj Earthquake, 2001). Here also India experienced huge number of deaths and
economic losses.

So, the Central Government has reconstituted the HPC and converted it to Working Group on
Disaster Management.

The final call in this is Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004) that wrecked havoc in the Indian Eastern
Coast. This event has exposed the weakness in the existing institutional structures to deal

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with disasters. Responsibility fixing became very difficult without the established institutional
Structures.

Government after discussing the Working Group report has quickly enacted the Disaster
Management Act, 2005.

This act has provided for institutional mechanism at centre, state and district level.

The Present system:

Disaster Management Act, 2005

This act defines disaster management as-

A continuous and integrated process of Planning, organising, coordinating and implementing

measures which are necessary or expedient for:

1. Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster.

2. Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences.
3. Capacity building including research and knowledge management.
4. Preparedness to deal with any disaster.
5. Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
6. Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster.
7. Evacuation, rescue and relief.
8. Rehabilitation and reconstruction.

According to the revised UNISDR(United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk
Reduction- Office of UN that deals with disaster risk reduction internationally) terminology
(2016),
✓ Disaster Management (DM) is “the organization, planning and application of measures
preparing for, responding to and recovering from disasters”.
✓ Disaster Risk Management (DRM) is “the application of disaster risk reduction policies
and strategies to prevent new disaster risk, reduce existing disaster risk and manage

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residual risk, contributing to the Pre Disaster Preparedness Mitigation: Prevention &
Risk Reduction Response Recovery Post Disaster strengthening of resilience and
reduction of disaster losses” (UNISDR 2016)

Disaster Management Cycle

Disaster Management Act 2005 describes disaster management in two phases of the cycle.
The typical disaster management cycle consists of two phases:
Phase1: The pre-disaster phase: It includes -
1. Prevention
2. Mitigation and
3. Preparedness
Phase2: The post-disaster phase: It includes -
1. Response (Rescue and Relief)
2. Recovery(Rehabilitation and Reconstruction )
A legal and institutional framework binds all these elements together. Before understanding
this framework let us understand- what is the meaning of each stage in this disaster
management cycle.

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Disaster event:

It is the real time event of hazard (potential event) that causes damage to the society or
community- socioeconomically, physically and environmentally.

The disaster event is of two types:

1. Slow onset disaster: These are disasters which are slow in its occurrence-like drought,
environmental degradation, etc. In these cases, the time factor to detect and respond is high.

2. Rapid onset disaster: These disasters occur suddenly like Earthquake, Tsunami, etc. In
these cases the time available to detect and respond is very less.

Post Disaster phase:

Response:

Whenever there is a disaster event it affects humans in different ways. People get stranded,
physical infrastructure gets affected, and communication network gets affected.

In this case, disaster response is needed. This includes- immediate rescue of the people,
providing immediate relief in the form of setting up relief camps, restoring communication
network, restoring infrastructure, etc.

Recovery:

Recovery phase involves implementation of different actions through which sustainable

redevelopment after the disaster is taken place.

It has two components in it.

1. Rehabilitation-

Rehabilitation is the process where measures are taken to make the society function
normally.

Rehabilitation is of two types.

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✓ Socio-Economic Rehabilitation- Under this process, physical infrastructure is rebuilt.

Livelihood opportunities are provided to the people.
✓ Psychological Rehabilitation- Psychological health care is provided to the people to
come of the disaster distress.

2. Reconstruction-

Reconstruction is the process where the communities are resilient to the disaster events
through better reconstruction of physical infrastructure such as replacement of roads,
buildings and other important infrastructure facilities.

Here long term development of infrastructure is given importance compared to the existing
infrastructure.

The difference between rehabilitation and reconstruction is- rehabilitation focuses on

building the existing structures or facilities; reconstruction focuses on making the new and
existing structures less vulnerable to disasters as compared to the pre existing structures.

Pre Disaster Phase:

1. Prevention:

Prevention is removing the risk of disasters through structural and non structural measures.
(Refer basic terminology to understand the meaning of structural and non structural).

However, preventing natural hazard risk is not possible because of the nature and scale of
these events.

Even for manmade hazards, we can’t prevent the risk because of the increasing uncertainty
and the rapid nature of some of the manmade events.

But we can reduce the risk of hazards. This reduction process is called mitigation.

2. Mitigation:

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Mitigation is lessening and reducing the impact of hazards and the related disasters.

Mitigation is a long term process. It focuses on

1. Reduction in the events of hazard

2. Reducing the potential threat to the elements at risk

The measures under mitigation are of two types:

1. Structural measures- Any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of

hazards.

Ex: Disaster resilient buildings and infrastructure, building dams, etc

2. Non structural measures- Any measure not involving physical construction. It involves use
of knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce the risk. These measures are in particular
through policies and laws, public awareness, training and education.

Ex: Vulnerability assessment of a particular area; Land use policies. etc

3. Preparedness:

It is a process under which individuals, communities and governments are ready to face the
hazard.

It is a short term process where measures are taken before the disaster event.

These include:

✓ Forecasting and warning systems for different disasters

✓ Emergency management plans
✓ Mock drills, training
✓ Community awareness and education

Institutional and Legal Framework under National Disaster Management Act, 2005

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Under this Act, at Central, State and District level various institutions are established.

Area Central Level State Level District Level

Planning and NDMA (National SDMA (State Disaster DDMA (District
Policy Making Disaster Management Management Disaster
Authority) Authority) Management
Authority)
Implementation NEC (National SEC (State Executive -
Executive Committee) Committee)
Funding NDRF (National SDRF (State Disaster
Disaster Response Response Force)- SEC
Fund)- NEC SDMA (State Disaster
NDMF (National Mitigation Fund)-
Disaster Mitigation SDMA
Fund)- NDMA
Personnel NDRF (National - -
Disaster Response
Force)
@ Central Level:

1. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

- Composition:

1. Chairperson- Prime Minister

2. Members- Not exceeding nine. (Nominated by PM)

3. Vice chairperson- (Designed by PM among the members).

- NDMA shall meet as and when necessary –Fixed by Chairman – time & place.

- Functions:

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1. Lay down policies on disaster management.

2. Approve the National plan.

3. Approve plans prepared by the Ministries or Departments of the Government.

4. Lay down guidelines for the purpose of integrating the measures for prevention of disaster
or the mitigation of its effects in their development plans & projects.

5. Coordinate the enforcement & implementation of the policy & plan for disaster
management.

6. Lay down policies & guidelines for the functioning of the National Institute of Disaster
Management.

2. Advisory Committee:

- To assist NDMA.

3. National Executive Committee:

-Composition:

1. Chairman- The Secretary to the GOI.

2. Secretaries to various Ministries and Departments.

Functions:

1. Act as the coordinating & monitoring body for Disaster Management.

2. Prepare the National plan to be approved by the National Authority.

3. Coordinate & Monitor the implementation of National policy.

4. Coordinate response in the event of any disaster.

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- NDMA shall provide guidelines for minimum standards of relief to be provided to persons
affected by disaster.

4. Role of Central Government:

Measures to be taken:

1. Coordinating of actions of the Ministries or Departments of the GoI, State Government,

NDMA, SDMA, NGOS, etc.

2. Ensuring the integration of measures for prevention & mitigation of disaster by Ministries
or Departments of GOI into their development plans & projects.

3. Ensure appropriate allocation of funds for prevention of disaster, mitigation, capacity-

building & preparedness by the Ministries or Departments of the GOI.

4. Deployment of naval, military & air forces, other armed forces of the Union or any other
civilian personnel.

5. Establish institutions for the research, training & developmental planning.

6. Coordination with the United Nations agencies, International organisations and

Government of Foreign Countries.

5. National Institute of Disaster Management:

- Central Government Constituted an institute for responsible for planning & promoting
training and research in the area of disaster management , documentation and development
of national level information base relating to disaster management policies, prevention
mechanisms& mitigation measures.

6. National Disaster Response Force:

- Purpose: Specialist response

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Specially trained force headed by a Director General Structured like para military forces for
rapid deployment.

Provide assistance to the relevant State Government/District Administration in the event of

an imminent hazard event or in its aftermath.

7. Finance:

1. National Disaster Response Fund- managed by: NEC. It is towards meeting the expenses
for emergency response, relief and rehabilitation in consultation with NDMA.

2. National Disaster Mitigation Fund- managed by NDMA. It is for projects exclusively for the
purpose of mitigation.

@ State level,

1. State Disaster management Authority:

Composition:

1. Chairperson- CM of the state. / Lt .Governor (UT).

2. Members- Not exceeding eight – nominated by Chairperson.

3. Chairperson of the State Executive Committee- CEO to SDMA.

Functions:

1. Lay down the state Disaster management policy.

2. Approve the State plan.

3. Approve the plans prepared by the departments of the Government of the state.

4. Lay down guidelines for the purpose of integrating the measures for prevention of disaster
or the mitigation of its effects in their development plans & projects.

5. Recommend provision of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures.

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6. Coordinate the enforcement & implementation of the State plan.

2. Advisory Committee:

- To assist SDMA.

3. Sate Executive Committee:

-Composition:

1. Chairman- The Chief Secretary to the state government

2. Secretaries to various Departments.

Functions:

1. Act as the coordinating & monitoring body for Disaster Management.

2. Prepare the Sate plan to be approved by the SDMA.

3. Coordinate & Monitor the implementation of Sate policy.

4. Coordinate response in the event of any disaster.

- SDMA shall provide guidelines for minimum standards of relief to be provided to persons
affected by disaster.

5. State Level Finance:

1.State Disaster Response Fund- managed by: SEC.

It is towards meeting the expenses for emergency response, relief and rehabilitation in
consultation with SDMA.

{Normal States: Central Contribution of SDRF- 75%, State Contribution- 25%

Special Category States: Central Contribution 90%, State Contribution – 10%}

2. State Disaster Mitigation Fund- managed by SDMA.

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It is for projects exclusively for the purpose of mitigation.

@ District Level,

1. District Disaster Management Authority:

Composition-

1. Chairperson- The Collector or DM or Deputy Commissioner.

2. Elected representative of the local authority is co – Chairperson.

[Tribal Areas (6th schedule) - Chief Executive of the District council of Autonomous District –
Co – Chairperson].

3. Chief Executive officer of DDMA- Appointed by State Government.

4. The Superintendent of Policy.

5. The Chief Medical Officer of the Disaster.

6. Not exceeding two other district level officers (by S.G).

Functions:

1. Prepare a disaster management plan including district response plan for the district.

2. Set up, maintain, review & upgrade the mechanism for early warning & dissemination of
proper information to public.

Key national –level decision-making bodies for disaster management

{Note: You need not mug up the info given in the below table. Just to have an idea on what is
the role of different bodies in Disaster management this table is given. }

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Name Composition Vital Role

1) Cabinet Prime Minister ➢ Evaluation from a national security
committee ,Minister of Defence, perspective, if an incident has potentially
on security (CCS) Minister of Finance, security implications.
Minister of Home ➢ Oversee all aspects of preparedness,
Affairs, and Minister mitigation and management of Chemical,
of External Affairs. Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN)
emergencies and of disasters with security
implications.
➢ Review risks of CBRN emergencies from
time to time, giving directions for measures
considered necessary for disaster
prevention, mitigation, preparedness and
effective response.
2) National Crisis Cabinet Secretary ➢ Oversee the Command, Control and
Management (Chairperson) Coordination of the disaster response.
Committee(NCMC) Secretaries of ➢ Give direction to the crisis Management
Ministers Group as deemed necessary
/Departments and ➢ Give direction for specific actions to face
agencies with specific crisis situations.
DM responsibilities

3) National Disaster Prime Minister ➢ Lay down policies, plans and guidelines
Management (Chairperson). for disaster management.
Authority(NDMA) Members (not ➢ Coordinate their enforcement and
exceeding nine, implementation throughout the country.
nominated by the
Chairperson)

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➢ Approve the NDMP and the DM plans of

the respective Ministries and Departments
of Government of India
➢ Lay down guidelines for disaster
management to be followed by the different
Central Ministries, Departments and the
state Governments.
4) National Union Home ➢ To assist the NDMA in the discharge of
Executive Secretary its functions.
Committee (NEC) (Chairperson) ➢ Preparation of the National Plan.
Secretaries to the GOI ➢ Coordinate and monitor the
in the Ministries/ implementation of the National Policy.
Departments of ➢ Monitor the implementation of the
Agriculture, Atomic National Plan and the plans prepared by the
Energy, Defence, Ministries or Departments of the
Drinking water and Government of India.
sanitation, ➢ Direct any department or agency of the
Environment, Forests Govt. to make available to the NDMA or
and climate change SDMAs such men, material or resources as
Finance are available with it for the purpose of
(Expenditure), Health emergency response, rescue and relief.
and Family welfare, ➢ Ensure compliance of the directions
Power, Rural issued by the Central Government.
Development, Science ➢ Coordinate response in the event of any
and Technology, threatening disaster situation or disaster.
Space ➢ Direct the relevant
Telecommunications, Ministries/Departments of the Gol, the State
Urban Development, Governments and the SDMAs regarding

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Water Resources, measures to be taken in response to any

River Development specific threatening disaster situation or
and Ganga disaster.
Rejuvenation, The ➢ Coordinate with relevant Central
Chief of the Ministries/Departments/Agencies which are
Integrated Defence expected to provide assistance to the
Staff of the chiefs of affected state as per Standard Operating
Staff Committee, ex Procedures (SOPs).
officio as members. ➢ Coordinate with the Armed Forces,
Secretaries in the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF), the
Ministry of External National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
Affairs, Earth and other uniformed services which
Sciences, Human comprise the Gol’s response to aid the State
Resources authorities.
Development, Mines, ➢ Coordinate with Civil Defence
shipping, Road volunteers, home guards and fire services,
Transport and through the relevant administrative
Highways and departments of the State Governments.
Secretary, NDMA are
special invitees to the
meetings of the NEC.
5)National Disaster Specially trained force ➢ Provide assistance to the relevant State
Response Force headed by a Director Government/District Administration in the
(NDRF) General Structured event of an imminent hazard event or in its
like para military aftermath.
forces for rapid
deployment.

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6) National Institute Union Home Minister, ➢ Human resource development and

of Disaster Vice Chairman, capacity building for disaster management
Management(NIDM NDMA, Members within the broad polices and guidelines laid
) including Secretaries down by the NDMA.
of various nodal ➢ Design, develop and implement training
Ministries and programmes.
Departments of ➢ Undertake research
Government of and ➢ Formulate and implement a
State Governments comprehensive human resource
and heads of national development plan.
levels scientific, ➢ Provide assistance in national policy
research and formulation, assist other research and
technical training institutes, State governments and
organizations, besides other organizations for successfully
eminent scholars, discharging their responsibilities
scientists and ➢ Develop educational materials for
practitioners. dissemination
➢ Promote awareness generation.

National and International Framework for Disaster Management

Year National level International level

Executive bodies like Central Crisis
Management Committee and State Crisis
Management Committees were there.
1994 1st World Conference on Disaster
Risk Reduction
Yokohoma Declaration:

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Recognised 1990-2000 as the Decade

of International Disaster Risk
Reduction
1999 High Powered Committee (HPC) was
constituted to recommend the
institutional mechanism for disaster
management
2001 After Bhuj Earthquake, HPC is
reconstituted as Working Group on
Disaster management
2005 Disaster Management Act, 2005 was 2nd World Conference on Disaster
enacted. Legal, institutional and financial Risk Reduction:
mechanisms were setup at the Central, Hyogo Framework Action Plan
State and District level.
2009 National Disaster management Policy,
2009
2015 3rd World Conference on Disaster
Risk Reduction:
Sendai Framework Action Plan
2016 1. National Disaster management Plan,
2016
2. 10- point action formula for Disaster
risk reduction
3. Asian Ministerial Conference on
Disaster Risk Reduction- New Delhi
Declaration
2018 National Disaster management Plan , 2018

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International Framework for Disaster Management

Despite substantial scientific and technological progress in the world loss of property and lives
due to disasters is increasing.

Development cannot be substantial unless disaster mitigation is built into the development
process.

So, countries under UN have resolved to reduce the risk of disasters in a series of World
Conferences on Disaster Risk Reduction.

The World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction is a series of United Nations conferences
focusing on disaster and climate risk management in the context of sustainable
development.

Till now 3 World Conferences were held.

1. 1st World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction- Yokohoma Declaration:

Recognised 1990-2000 as the Decade of International Disaster Risk Reduction

2. 2nd World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction- Hyogo Framework Action Plan

The Yokohoma framework has set three strategic goals and five priority action areas regarding
the integration of disaster risk reduction (DRR) into sustainable development policies,
capacity building and preparedness and vulnerability reduction.
Five Priority Actions under the Hyogo Framework:
1. Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong
institutional basis for implementation.
2. Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning.
3. Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience
at all levels.
4. Reduce the underlying risk factors.
5. Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.

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The three strategic goals of the Hyogo Framework for Action are:
(a) Goal 1: "The more effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable
development policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on
disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability reduction;"
(b) Goal 2: "The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities
at all levels, in particular at the community level, that can systematically contribute to building
resilience to hazards;"
(c) Goal 3: "The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and
implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes in the
reconstruction of affected communities."
3. 3rd World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction- Sendai Framework Action Plan

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 is a non-binding agreement,
which the signatory nations, including India, will attempt to comply with on a voluntary basis.

The Sendai Framework aims to achieve substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in
lives, livelihoods, and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural, and environmental
assets of persons, businesses, communities, and countries.

The four priorities for action under the Sendai Framework are:

1. Understanding disaster risk

2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk

3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience

4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better”
in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Sendai Framework’s Seven Global Targets-

1. Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower average per 100,000
global mortalities between 2020-2030 compared to 2005-2015;

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2. Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower the
average global figure per 100,000 between 2020-2030 compared to 2005-2015;
3. Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product by 2030;
4. Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic
services, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing their
resilience by 2030;
5. Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk
reduction strategies by 2020;
6. Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through adequate
and sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of the
framework by 2030;
7. Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems
and disaster risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.

Similarities and dissimilarities between Hyogo and Sendai frameworks-

Hyogo framework convention is extension of Yokohoma Convention and Sendai convention
is extension of Hyogo convention. So they have commonalities and dissimilarities.
Similarities in approaches between Hyogo and Sendai Action Plans:
1. Collaboration of people at local level.
2. Fostering partnerships with the technological and private sector to share good practices
and supportive mechanisms globally.
3. Reducing the global disaster mortality.
4. Multi-stakeholder and inclusive approach for natural hazards.
Dissimilarities between Hyogo and Sendai Action Plans:
Hyogo Framework Action Plan Sendai Framework Action Plan
Focused more on Disaster losses Focuses on disaster risk
Minimising the impact of losses Reduction in size of disasters

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Focused more on understanding the risk- Focus on means of implementation –‘the

‘the what’ how’
No specific targets 7 specific targets
Man made hazards are not focused Manmade hazards are also included
Hazards and Types

As already seen in the previous section, hazard is a potential threat. It can be due to natural
event or manmade event or both.

We will be studying each hazard in the following framework:

1. Definition of the Hazard

2. Reasons for the hazard
3. Impacts of the hazard
4. India’s vulnerability to that hazard (India’s Map)

5. Successful examples to mitigate the vulnerabilities

6. Existing challenges in the disaster management of that hazard

7. NDMA guidelines on Disaster Management

Natural Hazards

Natural Hazards are the events that cause huge scale loss to humans, economy and to the
environment and these are induced by the natural causes/nature’s forces.

India is vulnerable to different types of natural hazards such as:

1. Earthquake 6. Cyclones
2. Landslide and Snow Avalanches 7. Cloudbursts
3. Tsunamis 8. Droughts
4. Floods 9. Heat waves
5. Urban Floods 10. Cold wave and frost

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1. Earthquake

What is an earthquake?
The sudden release of energy in the form of seismic waves that results in ground shaking is
known as Earthquake.
This can be explained through Plate tectonic theory.
Plate tectonic theory:
The earth's crust is divided into seven major plates and numerous minor plates.
These plates move slowly and continuously over the earth's interior. This movement causes
3 types of boundaries:
1. Convergent boundary
2. Divergent boundary
3. Transverse boundary
These plate boundaries form the areas of stress.
At these boundaries accumulated stress gets released by slipping or rupturing. These zones
are known as 'faults'.
The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic (from the Greek 'seismos' meaning shock
or earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus (the point of origin of the shock waves)
in all directions.

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What are the reasons for occurrence of an Earthquake?

Natural Reasons Man made reasons
✓ Crustal strain as explained through faults ✓ Deep Mining
✓ Volcanoes ✓ Nuclear Tests
✓ Landslides ✓ Dam building that induces seismicity
✓ Collapse of caverns

What are the impacts of Earthquakes?

Socio- Economic Impacts Environmental Impacts
✓ Damage occurs to human life, settlement, buildings, ✓ Change in river course
structures and infrastructure, especially bridges, elevated due to earthquake
roads, railways, water towers, pipelines, electrical generating can alter the
facilities. ecosystem.
✓ Aftershocks of an earthquake can cause much greater ✓ Biodiversity loss due
damage to already weakened structures. to secondary hazards
induced by
Earthquake.

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✓ Secondary effects of Earthquakes include fires, dam failure

and landslides which may block water ways and also cause
flooding. [These are known as secondary hazards]
✓ Damage may occur to facilities using or manufacturing
dangerous materials resulting in possible chemical spills.
[Chemical accident is a man made hazard but it also can be
induced by events like Earthquakes]

What are the Earthquake risk zones in India?

The Bureau of Indian Standards has classified regions in India into four seismic zones on the
basis of historical seismic activity. These are zones II, III, IV and V.

Among these, Zone V is the most seismically active region and zone II is the least active.

Zone V: It includes entire north-eastern India, parts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, parts of North Bihar and Andaman & Nicobar
Islands.

Zone-IV: It includes the remaining parts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Delhi-
NCR region, Sikkim, northern parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, parts of Gujarat
and small portions of Maharashtra near the west coast and Rajasthan also fall in this zone.

Zone III: Regions under zone III are Goa, Kerala, Lakshadweep, and remaining parts of Uttar
Pradesh, Gujarat and West Bengal, parts of Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka.

Zone II: The remaining portion of the country falls under zone II.

Ministry of Earth Sciences is the nodal agency to deal with Earthquake disasters.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is the nodal agency for the monitoring of
seismic activity.

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The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the nodal agency for preparing earthquake-
resistant building codes and other safety codes.
Which regions of India are more prone to Earthquakes?
✓ The entire Himalayan belt is considered prone to great earthquakes of magnitude exceeding
8.0.
✓ In a relatively short span of about 50 years, four such earthquakes have occurred: 1897
Shillong (M8.7); 1905 Kangra (M8.0); 1934 Bihar-Nepal (M8.3); and 1950 Assam-Tibet
(M8.6).
✓ Due to the convergence boundary between Indian Plate and the Eurasian plate, the entire
Himalayan belt including North East is prone to Earthquakes.
✓ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also situated on an inter-plate boundary and
frequently experience damaging earthquakes.
Is Deccan peninsula a safer region to earthquakes?
✓ At one time regions of the country away from the Himalayas and other inter-plate
boundaries were considered to be relatively safe from damaging earthquakes.
✓ However, in the recent past, even these areas have experienced devastating earthquakes,
but of lower magnitude than the Himalayan earthquakes.
Is vulnerability to earthquakes is increasing?
The increase in earthquake risk is due to the increase in developmental activities driven by
1. Urbanization,
2. Economic development and
3. The globalization of India’s economy.
The increase in use of high-technology equipment and tools in manufacturing and service
industries has also made them susceptible to disruption due to relatively moderate ground
shaking. As a result, loss of human life is not the only determinant of earthquake risk any more.

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Earthquake Vulnerability Map of India:

Case Studies:
1. Koyna Earthquake: The Koyna earthquake in 1967 has occurred due to Reservoir Induced
Seismicity (RIS). This event has led to revision of the seismic zoning map, resulting in deletion
of the non-seismic zone (Zone 1) from the map. The areas surrounding Koyna were also re-
designated to Seismic Zone IV, indicating high hazard.
2. Killari Earthquake:
✓ The occurrence of the Killari earthquake (The earthquake struck at about 3.56 am on
September 30, 1993) in the intra-plate earthquake about 52 villages was destroyed, over
30,000 were injured and approximately 10,000 were killed. The earthquake left a huge

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hollow at Killari, which was also the epicenter, remains in place till date) in 1993 resulted
in further revision of the seismic zoning map.
✓ Under this the low hazard zone or Seismic Zone I was merged with Seismic Zone II, and
some parts of Deccan and Peninsular India were brought under Seismic Zone III consisting
of areas designated as moderate hazard zone areas.
✓ Recent research suggests that as understanding of the seismic hazard of these regions
increases, more areas assigned as low hazard may be re-designated to higher level of
seismic hazard, or vice-versa.
3. Bhuj Earthquake – 2001
✓ On 26th January, 2001, when all Indians were celebrating Republic day, the State of
Gujarat felt an earthquake in morning at 8.49 am a powerful Earthquake of magnitude
6.9 on Richter-Scale rocked the Western region of India.
✓ This earthquake was so devastating in its scale and suffering that the likes of it had not
been experienced in past 50 years. It caused extensive damage to life & property, about
14,000 people died and thousands of people were injured.
✓ This earthquake was spread up to 2250 km in circle. Twenty-one out of a total 25 districts
of the State were affected consisting of around 18 towns, 182 talukas and 7904 villages
which saw large-scale devastation.
✓ The affected areas even spread up to 300 km from the epicenter. In the Kutch district,
where the epicenter was, four major urban areas – Bhuj, Anjar, Bachau and Rapar
suffered near total destruction. The rural areas in the region were also very badly affected
with over 450 villages almost totally destroyed.
✓ In addition, wide spread damages also occurred in Rajkot, Jamnagar, Surendranagar,
Patan and Ahmedabad districts. Other urban areas such as Gandhidham, Morvi, Rajkot
and Jamnagar also suffered damages to major structures, infrastructure and industrial
facilities. In Ahmedabad, the commercial capital of Gujarat was also severely affected,
750 people died in the city and 130 multistory flats, houses were destroyed.

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✓ Gujarat earthquake reconstruction initiative is widely acclaimed world over for its unique
features and sustainability.
✓ Gujarat Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project- is a comprehensive multi
sectoral program aimed at rehabilitation of people through provisioning of housing,
social amenities, Infrastructure, livelihood opportunities based on sustainable economy
and ecology.
✓ So the mandate of the program goes beyond the immediate priorities of reconstruction,
and pursues broader socio economic issues that focus on the individual households and
community level development and empowerment.
4. Nepal Earthquake 2015: Pashupati Nath Temple- Resilience of Buildings

Handling Earthquake risk: Successful Example: Japan

✓ Every year Japan experiences around 2,000 earthquakes. This has created a society and
the Government that’s aware of the seismic threat.
✓ But Tokyo, despite being named the second-most exposed city in the world for natural
disasters, is well prepared.
✓ For one, Japan is a world leader in the number of quake-resistant structures. In
Tokyo, 87% of buildings are reportedly built to withstand earthquakes.
✓ Skyscrapers and high-rises must follow strict building codes, and often rest on Teflon that
allows the base of the buildings to slide ever-so-slightly during a tremor. Others are built
on rubber or inflated, fluid-filled bases that can absorb seismic shocks.
✓ Japan’s Skytree: Opened in 2012, it’s the tallest tower on the planet.
✓ In addition to steel-reinforced concrete poles that root it over 160 feet into the ground,
Skytree’s inner structures mimic the shape of ancient wooden pagodas, which are famous
for standing strong in the midst of quakes and storms.
✓ Tokyo’s Skytree holds the Guinness record for world’s tallest tower, and uses quake-
resistant engineering that’s borrowed from ancient Chinese pagodas.

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✓ For older buildings, Japanese companies are willing to invest, experiment, and innovate.
A Tokyo real estate company is toying with 300-ton, $51 million vibration-dampening
pendulums that allow skyscrapers to better sway in the face of intense shaking.

10 largest Earthquakes in India:

BIHAR
Magnitude: 8.1
Date: January 15, 1934
Toll: Over 30,000
This quake is considered to be one of the worst quakes in Indian history. The epicentre of the
earthquake was located in eastern Nepal. Extensive damage was caused to life and property.
The intensity of the earthquake was so strong that its effect was felt in Kolkata-650 km from
epicentre. Purnea, Munger, Muzaffarpur and Champaran were among the worst-affected
areas.
GUJARAT
Magnitude: 7.7
Date: January 26, 2001
Toll: Over 20,000
The earthquake occurred at 8:40 am and lasted for two minutes. Several towns and villages
were destroyed in the catastrophe. Being close to the epicentre, Bhuj was among the worst-
affected areas including Anjaar, Vondh and Bhachau. Several buildings were damaged or
destroyed in the quake. The famous Swaminarayan temple in the city of Bhuj was also
partially damaged.
MARASHTRA
Magnitude: 6.4
Date: September 30, 1993
Toll: Over 20,000

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The quake epicentre was at Killari village in Latur district. Osmanabad and Latur were the
worst affected areas. The destruction was massive with over 52 villages completely flattened.
ASSAM
Magnitude: 8.6
Date: August 15, 1950
Toll: Over 1,500
The epicentre was located at Rima in Tibet. The quake caused widespread destruction in both
Assam and Tibet. It was considered to be among the 10 largest earthquakes of 20th century.
UTTARKASHI
Magnitude 6.1
Date: October 20, 1991
Toll: Over 1000
The quake shook Uttarkashi, Chamoli and Tehri in Uttarakhand and caused extensive damage
to property. The tremors of the quake were felt up to Delhi.
Other Earthquakes-
1. Nepal Earthquake

Causes-

✓ On 25 April 2015 a 7.8 earthquake struck Nepal.

✓ The earthquake occurred on a convergent collision plate boundary between the
Indian and Eurasian plates.
✓ The focus was only eight kilometres deep and the epicentre was just 60 kilometres
north-west from the capital Kathmandu.
✓ 8,632 dead and 19,009 injured.
✓ It was the worst earthquake in Nepal in more than 80 years.

Structural strength of the Pashupathi Nath Temple made to withstand the earthquake
impact.

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Other buildings, in the city including many cultural and heritage buildings got damaged.

Reconstruction of most of the buildings are facing –

1. Funding Issues

2. Restoring the cultural sites.

2. Delhi Earthquake

Delhi is located within a distance of 200-400 km from different locations of the mbt.

An earthquake over 7.0 in the Shimla to Dehradoon/Pithoragarh (or western Nepal)

ranges will cause tall structures in Delhi to fall like a pack of cards.

And the number of multi-storeyed buildings in Delhi has risen sharply in the last three
decades or so. Several hundreds of buildings are at risk from surface waves in case of a
quake in the mbt.

The threat is compounded by fragile geological formations, total non-observance of

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) norms, poor quality control and, of course, the irregular
manner in which maps and structural designs are passed at the municipal level.

Way Forward-

Strengthen existing buildings. BIS codes specify various ways of doing this. There should
be legislations that make seismic strengthening compulsory. Limits should be set based
on the age of the building, and appropriate time limits should be set for execution of the
strengthening (not more than a year).

Secondly, all maps and designs for new constructions should strictly follow bis norms.
Further, completion certificates for high-rise buildings should be staggered. Part

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completion certificates, issued every two or three floors, could regulate construction
through the whole process.

And lastly, it is important to create awareness about earthquakes. This could help reduce
loss of human lives, if not property. The government could initiate training at various
levels: for 'vips'; decision-making level administrators; implementation level
administrative cadre; educational institutions; and the common person. The media must
also play a role in disaster mitigation. Information-based articles and programmes could
be far more constructive than covering post-quake carnage.

3. Kashmir Earthquake, 2005

Kashmir earthquake of 2005, disastrous earthquake that occurred on Oct. 8, 2005, in the
Pakistan-administered portion of the Kashmir region and the North-West Frontier
Province (NWFP) of Pakistan; it also affected adjacent parts of India and Afghanistan.

At least 79,000 people were killed and more than 32,000 buildings collapsed in Kashmir.

With additional fatalities and destruction reported in India and Afghanistan, making it
one of the most destructive earthquakes of contemporary times.

• Azad Kashmir, administered by Pakistan lies in the area of Eurasian and Indian
tectonic plates. One of the major reasons for such a destructive earthquake was
the unstable seismicity in that region.
• There were three aftershocks which were of magnitudes; 5.9, 5.8 and 6.4
• The major destruction took place in Pakistan where about 70 per cent of the
casualties were in Muzaffarabad
• There was a huge number of casualties. As reported, about 86,000 people were
NDMA Guidelines on maintaining Earthquakes in India:
NDMA has given 6 pillars to manage earthquakes in India.

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National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project-

✓ A National Earthquake Risk Mitigation (Preparatory phase) was approved as a Centrally
Sponsored Plan Scheme in 2013.
✓ The project is to be implemented by NDMA in coordination with the State
Governments/UT that lie in seismic zones IV & V in the country.
✓ It aims to increase awareness of the key stakeholders on the need for adoption of model
building bye-laws and earthquake resistant construction and planning standards.
National Building Code of India-
✓ The National Building Code of India (NBC), a comprehensive building Code, is a national
instrument providing guidelines for regulating the building construction activities across
the country.
✓ It is proposed and implemented by Bureau of Indian Standards.
✓ It serves as a Model Code for adoption by all agencies involved in building construction
works by the Public Works Departments, other government construction departments,
local bodies or private construction agencies.
Critical Existing Challenges for Earthquake Mitigation in India:

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✓ Inadequate enforcement of earthquake-resistant building codes and town planning bye-

laws;
✓ Absence of earthquake-resistant features in constructions in urban and rural areas.
✓ Lack of formal training among professionals in earthquake-resistant construction practices.
✓ Lack of adequate preparedness and poor response capacity of various stakeholder groups.
✓ Lack of awareness among various stakeholders about the seismic risk;
✓ Absence of systems of licensing of engineers and masons.

NDMA Mitigational Measures:

DRR(Disaster Risk DRR(Disaster Risk Reduction) -Non Capacity development
Reduction)- structural measures (Preparedness)
Structural measures
Social Housing ✓ Regulations and model Training
Schemes Codes for town planning, civil works Curriculum Development
and public infrastructure [Drop-Cover-Hold Method]
Strengthening and ✓ Structural safety audit of Lifeline Empowering Women,
seismic structures and Buildings marginalised communities ,
Retrofitting of ✓ Prioritization of lifeline Structures and persons with disabilities
prioritized lifeline and buildings for strengthening
structures and and seismic retrofitting
Buildings
Hazard resistant ✓ Licensing and certification of Awareness Generation
Construction professionals Mock Drills/Exercises
Vocational Training / Skill
Development
✓ Public Private Partnerships in Community- Based Disaster
implementation of Non structural Management
measures

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Floods

What is a flood?
Every water channel has a maximum capacity known as carrying capacity. When the water
holding capacity of the water body or water channel exceeds the carrying capacity, the water
starts overflowing.
This overflowing of water and silt is known as flood.
Floods are of different types:
1. Flash floods
2. River floods
3. Coastal floods
4. Urban floods

What are the reasons for floods?

Natural reasons Man made reasons
✓ Monsoon Rainfall: Eighty per cent of the ✓ Encroachment of flood plains and
precipitation takes place in the monsoon wetlands is leading to less buffer
months from June to September. During this area for the rain water to be
season, the rivers bring heavy sediment load absorbed.
from catchments. ✓ Improper handling of dams
✓ Inadequate carrying capacity of rivers is ✓ Lack of proper drainage system
responsible for causing floods, drainage ✓ Heavy siltation in the catchment
congestion and erosion of river-banks. areas due to
✓ Flash floods: Cyclones, cyclonic circulations and ❖ Deforestation
cloud bursts cause flash floods and lead to huge ❖ Mining
discharges of water. ❖ Over grazing
✓ Ice jams or landslides blocking streams also
cause floods.

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Words to know:
Wetland-A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is inundated by water, either permanently
or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail.
All the rivers, lakes, marshy lands, even the rice field are called the wetlands.
Flood plain- Flood plain is an adjacent zone to the main river channel. This area gets
inundated during the peak rainfall season.
Catchment area- It is an area from where particular water body receives water through
rainfall, glacial melt, etc.
Why flood related damages are increasing in the recent years?

It is due to many reasons including-

✓ Steep increase in population
✓ Rapid urbanization
✓ Growing developmental and economic activities in flood plains
✓ Encroachment of wetlands , which act as water buffers
✓ Global warming.
What are the impacts of floods?
Socio- Economic Impact Environmental Impact
✓ Structures like houses, bridges; roads etc. get damaged by ✓ Floods may also affect
the flood water. the soil characteristics.
✓ There is huge loss to life and livestock caused by drowning. The land may be
✓ Flooding may cause landslides in the Mountainous regions rendered infertile due to
[Land slide here is a secondary hazard] erosion of top layer or
✓ Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of may turn saline if sea
water (well, ground water, piped water supply) leads to water floods the area.
outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral infection, malaria
and many other infectious diseases.

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✓ Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land

getting inundated as a result there is a huge crop loss. This
results in shortage of food, and animal fodder.

Flood Forecasting and Warning in India: Real time discharge and rainfall data is the basic
requirements for the formulation of a flood forecast.

Most of the hydro-meteorological data are observed and collected by the field formations of
Central Water Commission. IMD supplies the daily rainfall data.
What is India’s vulnerability to floods?
Out of 40 million hectare of the flood prone area in the country, on an average, floods affect
an area of around 7.5 million hectare per year.
Floods in the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains are an annual feature. It is due to:
✓ Perennial Rivers in the region receiving heavy rainfall during monsoon.
✓ Young Rivers flowing through the Himalayas which are sedimentary mountains. This
leads to huge silt, which leads to the exceeding of the river carrying capacity.
✓ Meandering of rivers in the mid course.
✓ Flowing of the river in plain region leads to high siltation.

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Floods in the western India is due to:

✓ Less carrying capacity of the river
✓ Flash floods due to convection rainfall
Coastal floods are due to:
✓ Cyclones
✓ Strom surges
✓ River water stagnation near deltas
✓ Monsoon rainfall

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✓ Narrow channel of west flowing rivers in the western coast region

Cloudburst:
What is a Cloudburst?
A cloudburst is a sudden downpour within a radius of few kilometres. It usually lasts no
longer than few minutes. But it is capable of flooding the area. Rainfall from a cloudburst is
usually over 100 mm per hour.
How are cloudbursts formed?
✓ Monsoon clouds filled with water droplets move across the plains. Warm air currents
keep pushing the clouds up not allowing them to shed rain.
✓ More and more water droplets get collected and the clouds get bigger as they move up a
mountain or hill.
✓ The clouds soon stop moving since there is barely any wind up in the mountains.
✓ The warm air holding up the water drops in the clouds cools. The cloud bursts like a soggy
paper bag and the rain comes suddenly.
Cloudburst risks in India
As per the specific definition of IMD, Cloudburst is- If rainfall of about 10 cm or above per
hour is recorded over a place that is roughly 10 km x 10 km in area, it is classified as a
cloudburst event. This means 5 cm of rainfall in half an hour would also be classified as a
cloudburst.
India, in a normal year, gets about 116 cm of rain in the entire year i.e. every area in the
country, on an average, should expect to get only this amount during the course of the year.
Why cloudbursts intensity sis increasing in India?
The events of extreme precipitation have been on the rise in the last few decades due to
global warming.
Distribution Pattern of Cloudbursts:
✓ Cloudbursts do happen in plains as well, but there is a greater probability of them
occurring in mountainous zones; as it has to do with the terrain of the region. For
example- like steep hills favour the formation of these clouds.

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✓ Cloudbursts get counted only when they result in large scale destruction of life and
property, which happens mainly in mountainous regions.
Predictability about Cloudbursts
✓ There is no satisfactory technique for anticipating the occurrence of cloud bursts
because of their small scale.
✓ A very fine network of radars is required to be able to detect the likelihood of a cloud
burst about six hours in advance, sometimes even 12-14 hours in advance.
✓ This would be prohibitively expensive. Only the areas likely to receive heavy rainfall
can be identified on a short range scale.
✓ Much of the damage can be avoided by way of identifying the areas and the
meteorological situations that favour the occurrence of cloud bursts.
Measures taken to mitigate the impact of floods can be suggested for mitigating the
impact of cloudbursts also.

Case Studies:
Intense monsoon rainfall over Kerala, August 2018

Kerala was inundated. There were widespread floods and thousands of landslides. The
disaster killed over 480 people and affected nearly 5.4 million. A massive response operation
was mobilized by the government, civil society, private sector, and local fishermen. Over
260,000 were evacuated and more than 1.4 million were provided shelter in 3,200+ relief
camps.

At the request of the Government of India — the Government of Kerala, the World Bank, and
the Asian Development Bank conducted a Joint Rapid Disaster Needs Assessment to quantify
the damage and assess the long-term recovery needs. Considering the impact on housing,
infrastructure, utilities, livelihoods, health, environment, and cultural heritage — the
estimated recovery cost is about US$ 3.5 billion⁵, just for the priority sectors.

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This scale of damage from floods is not an outlier for India. The average annual loss from
floods in the country is estimated to be US$ 7.4 billion.

Gujarat Floods
Jammu Floods
Bihar Floods

NDMA Guidelines on managing Floods:

[Note: The below is the list of all measures suggested by the NDMA. For the exam purpose
remember only the important ones]
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) issued guidelines on management of
floods in 2008. The summary of the recommendations are as follows:
1. Embankments/flood walls/flood levees have to be constructed for prevention of flooding
after carrying out detailed hydrological and morphological studies regarding their favourable
and adverse effects.

2. The CWC and the state governments have to study the problem of rise in river beds in a
scientific manner and explore the techno-economic viability of desilting/dredging as a
remedial measure to mitigate the effects of rise in the river beds.

3. Appropriate channel improvement works have to be taken up to increase the velocity and/or
the area of flow and reduce the flood level in the river depending upon site-specific
conditions.

4. State governments should prohibit the blocking of the natural drainage channels and sluices
with an appropriate law and improve their capacity and construct new channels and sluices
to ensure flow of excess rainwater in the area.

5. State governments should study the feasibility of implementing the schemes for diverting
excess water to existing or new channels by bye-passing towns and cities to prevent flooding.

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 Disaster Management Notes

6. Watershed management measures such as afforestation, check dams, detention basins etc.,
have to be implemented in the catchment of rivers to prevent soil erosion, enhance water
conservation and minimise water and sediment runoff.

7. State governments should consider appropriate anti-erosion measures such as revetments,

slope pitching, permeable and impermeable spurs using conventional materials and/or geo-
synthetics for protection of towns, cities, and industrial areas, groups of thickly populated
villages, railway lines, roads and embankments from erosion by rivers in a time-bound
manner.

8. Sea walls/coastal protection works has to be planned and executed by the respective coastal
states/port authorities, keeping in view the complexity of sea behaviour and other
environmental aspects.

9. The state governments has to provide adequate number of raised platforms/flood shelters at
suitable locations in the flood plains with basic amenities such as drinking water, sanitation,
medical treatment, cooking, tents, lantern etc. for the people to take shelter during floods.

10. Basin-wise flood hazard mitigation models have to be developed.

11. A mechanism has to be developed wherein representatives of the CWC, IMD, NRSA and the
states interact with each other, exchange data on a real-time basis and formulate the flood
forecasts and warnings.

12. With co-operation from Nepal, Bhutan and the China, data has to be collected on real-time
basis.

13. The state governments have to enact and enforce appropriate laws for implementing flood
plain zoning regulations.

14. The reclamation of the existing wetlands/natural depressions has to be prohibited by state
governments and they must formulate an action plan for using them for flood moderation.

15. Training and capacity building measures have to be taken up for designated authorities
dealing with the disaster.

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16. A number of organizations, like NGOs, self-help groups, CBOs, youth organizations such as
NCC, NYKS, NSS etc., women’s groups, volunteer agencies, Civil Defence, Home Guards, etc.
must be encouraged to volunteer their services in the aftermath of any disaster.

17. The state governments have to utilise different types of media, especially print, radio,
television and Internet, to disseminate timely and accurate information.

18. A team comprising a social worker, a psychologist and a psychiatrist should provide
counselling to victims.

19. Measures should be taken to strengthen Ganga Flood Control Board and Brahmaputra Board.
Aapada Mitra Scheme
✓ The NDMA has approved a Centrally Sponsored Scheme nme Aapad Mitra Scheme.
✓ It is to focus on training community volunteers in disaster response in the 30 most
flood-prone districts of 25 states in India.
✓ It aims to train community volunteers with the skills that they would need to respond
to their community’s immediate needs and to undertake basic relief and rescue tasks
from emergency situations such as floods, flash floods, and urban flooding, when
emergency services are not readily available.

NDMA Mitigational measures to address floods are:

DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural Capacity development
measures
Flood control measures such as Regulation and Training
construction of embankments enforcement of laws,
and levees norms, regulations,
Guidelines , regulation of
Reservoirs

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Construction of engineered Regulations to promote Curriculum Development

structures in the flood plains and flood resilient buildings and
strengthening of structures to Infrastructure
withstand flood forces and
seepage.
Multi-purpose Flood Shelters Wetland conservation and Awareness Generation
restoration
Waterways and drainage Public Private Partnerships Mock Drills/Exercises
Systems for roads, highways, and
expressways
Enhancing the safety of dams and Catchment Area Vocational Training / Skill
reservoirs Treatment/Afforestation Development
Desilting/ dredging of rivers to Integrated Water Empowering Women,
improve flow; drainage Resources marginalised communities ,
Management (IWRM) for and persons with disabilities
flood proofing
Social Housing Schemes Dam safety mechanisms Community- Based Disaster
Management

Urban Floods
What is urban flood?
Flooding in urban areas can be caused by flash floods, or coastal floods, or river floods. But
there is a specific flood type that is called urban flooding.
In Urban areas there is little open soil that can be used for water storage and water percolation.

So, nearly all the rainwater needs to be transported to the surface water system or to the
sewage system.

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When there is a high intensity rainfall, the water starts inundates the city when the capacity of
drainage is less.

What are the reasons for urban floods?

Urban flooding is caused by the combination of meteorological, hydrological, and human
factors.
Natural Causes Man made Causes
✓ Heavy Rainfall associated with Urban Heat Islands.
✓ Land Use Change: Due to land-use changes, flooding
in urban areas can happen very rapidly with large
flow.
Ex: Chennai Floods of 2015- Flood plain areas are now
being used for development activities. And the low
lying areas are used for construction of buildings due
to paucity of land in urban areas. This has led to
flooding when there was a heavy rainfall.
✓ Limited capacity of storm water drainage system:
Storm water drainage systems in the past were
designed for rainfall intensity of 12 – 20 mm. But the
average rainfall in Indian cities far exceeds the
capacity of drainage system. The designed system
capacities do not work due to poor maintenance.
✓ Encroachment of wetlands is another big problem in
many cities and towns. Consequently the capacity of
the natural drains such as lakes, streams, etc has
decreased, resulting in flooding.
✓ Improper disposal of solid waste, including domestic,
commercial and industrial waste and dumping of

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construction debris into the drains also contributes

significantly to reducing their capacities.
✓ Developed Catchment areas: Rapid urbanisation
leads to developed catchments. These increase the
flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by
up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very
quickly due to faster flow times, sometimes in a
matter of minutes.

Word to know:
Urban Heat Island:
An urban heat island, or UHI, is a metropolitan area that's a lot warmer than the rural areas
surrounding it.

What are the impacts of urban floods?

✓ Inundation of some or large parts urban areas for several hours to many days.
✓ Temporary relocation of people, dispersal of animals,
✓ Damage to civic amenities,
✓ Deterioration of water quality
✓ Risk of epidemics due to water stagnation

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✓ Urban areas of major centres of economic activity. Urban floods can severely damage
the economic activity, which may take long time for reconstruction of the economy.
✓ Slums areas get disproportionately affected which may cause severe socio-economic
distress to those communities.
What areas to vulnerable to Urban Floods India?

In the past several years, there is an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India.

All major cities are prone to urban floods due to –

✓ Increased pollution and population density in the urban centres

✓ Impact of Global warming and climate change leading to unpredictable rainfall patterns
✓ Inadequate urban infrastructure in terms of sewage infrastructure, lack of proper solid
waste management, etc

Case Studies:
Floods in Hyderabad in 2000, Ahmadabad in 2001, Delhi in 2002 and 2003, Chennai in 2004,
Mumbai in 2005, Surat in 2006, Kolkata in 2007, Jamshedpur in 2008, Delhi in 2009, Guwahati
and Delhi in 2010, and Chennai in 2015.

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Existing Challenges:
✓ Less importance to comprehensive risk assessment of urban flooding. It includes
understanding, analysis and assessment of urban flood risks, before flood mitigation
measures are planned and implemented.
✓ Ignorance of mapping of different factors and risks in different cities and non-inclusion of
the same in development planning
✓ Unsatisfactory coordination among different institutions for experience sharing for the
purpose of public awareness and imparting professional training of disaster managers.
✓ Lack of information sharing,
✓ Disintegrated investment decisions, and
✓ Lack of consultation with stakeholders.

NDMA guidelines on management of urban flooding-

[Note: The below is the list of all measures suggested by the NDMA. For the exam purpose
remember only the important ones]
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued guidelines on management
of urban flooding in 2010.

1. Key guideline was to create a National Hydro-meteorological Network. The guidelines say
that for providing early warning, the Central Water Commission (CWC) should maximize the
real-time hydro-meteorological network to cover all the urban centers in dealing with urban
flooding. The requirement should consider all cities/ towns which are particularly located
on river banks, upstream and downstream of major and medium dams and island cities.
Based on that assessment, CWC will initiate the process to prepare a plan and
implementation strategy.
2. Use of Doppler Weather Radars to be expanded to cover all urban areas in the country.
3. Coordination mechanism to be established among all agencies for deriving maximum
benefit from the efforts of each individual organization.

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4. A dedicated high bandwidth communication channel is to be built, for ensuring smooth

underlying sensor web flow of all available information and products.
5. State-of-the-art automatic water level recorders must be installed throughout the drainage
network of the watershed, which may sometimes extend beyond the administrative
boundary of the ULB.
6. Technical Umbrella for urban Flood Forecasting and Warning to be established at national
and state level.
7. An inventory of the existing storm water drainage system to be prepared. The inventory
will be both watershed based and ward based.
8. Catchment to be the basis for planning and designing the storm water drainage systems in
all ULBs.
9. Contour mapping of urban areas to be prepared at 0.2 to 0.5 m contour interval for detailed
delineation of the watershed/ catchment for planning drainage systems.
10. Pre-monsoon desilting of all major drains to be completed by March 31 each year.
11. Suitable interventions in the drainage system like traps, communitors, trash racks can be
provided to reduce the amount of solid waste going into the storm sewers.
12. All future road and rail bridges in cities crossing drains to be designed such that they do not
block the flows resulting in backwater effect.
13. Inlets to be provided on the roads to drain water to the roadside drains and these has to be
designed based on current national and international practices.
14. Every building in an urban area must have rainwater harvesting as an integral component
of the building utility.
15. Concept of Rain Gardens to be incorporated in planning for public parks and on-site storm
water management for larger colonies and sites those are to be developed.
16. Low-lying areas in cities have to be reserved for parks and other low-impact human
activities.
17. Encroachments on the drain should attract penal action.

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18. Flood hazard assessment has to ascertain level of acceptable risk of flooding on the basis of
projected future scenarios of rainfall intensities and duration and land use changes.
19. Flood damage has to be according to the physical characteristics of the area such as land
use, topography, drainage area, outfall system and the capacity of the existing storm water
drainage system.
20. Ward level Information System has to be developed using high resolution satellite
images/aerial photos, integrated with socio-economic data covering natural resources and
infrastructure facilities on appropriate scale (1:1000) at community level.
21. States/UTs have to build partnerships with public/ private insurance companies and civil
society to sensitive communities about available schemes and also develop appropriate
micro-insurance schemes targeted at low-income groups.
22. The database of the National Urban Information System (NUIS) will be expanded to cover
infrastructure facilities at community level integrated with socio-economic data.
23. Urban Flooding has to be dealt as a separate disaster, de-linking it from riverine floods
which affect the rural areas.
24. Storm water drainage concerns will be made a part of all EIA norms.
25. Buildings have to be designated as Flood Shelters and all necessary arrangements have to
be ensured ahead of the flood season. Children, women, the aged and the differently-abled
persons has to be given special attention.
26. Post-floods, restoration of power, telecommunications, road and railway transport will get
top priority.
27. Media, corporate, NGOs has to be involved in awareness generation.

NDMA Mitigational measures:

DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural measures Capacity development

Strengthening, and Preparation of comprehensive Training
retrofitting of all lifeline Urban Storm Drainage Design
Manual (USDDM)

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structures and critical

infrastructure
Establishment of Preparation of Storm Water Curriculum Development
Emergency Drainage System Inventory
Operation Centres
Hazard resistant Operation and Maintenance of Awareness Generation
construction Drainage Systems

Urban land use Design Environmental Impact Mock Drills/Exercises

Assessment
Compliance of Techno-Legal Vocational Training / Skill
Regime Development
Constitution of Urban Flooding Empowering Women,
Cell for Integrated UFDM marginalised communities ,
and persons with disabilities
Public Private Partnerships Community- Based Disaster
Management

Landslide

What is a landslide?

Landslide is a process of down slope movement of rock, debris and /or earth under the
influence of gravity.

What are the reasons for landslides?

Natural Factors: Anthropogenic Factors:

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✓ Earthquake- Shocks and Vibrations ✓ Unplanned construction activities

✓ Heavy rainfall and snowfall leads to near the slopes
loosening of the soil layers. ✓ Building dams near the weak zones
✓ Deforestation
✓ Overgrazing

Similar Phenomenon-
Snow Avalanches
Avalanches are block of snow or ice descending from the mountain tops at a river like speedy
flow.
✓ They are extremely damaging and cause huge loss to life and property.
✓ In Himalaya, avalanches are common in Drass, Pir Panijal, Lahaul-Spiti and Badrinath
areas. As per Snow and Avalanche Study
✓ Establishment (SASE), of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO),
on an average, around 30 people are killed every year, due to this disaster in various
zones of the Himalayan range.
✓ Beside killing people, avalanches also damage the roads, properties, and settlements
falling in its way. Traffic blockage, structural damages of roads, and retaining wall
damages occur most frequently due to avalanches.
Snow avalanches occur in several stretches of the Himalayan range with the following areas
being more vulnerable:
✓ Western Himalaya – the snowy regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
✓ Uttarakhand, especially Tehri Garhwal and Chamoli districts
✓ Jammu and Kashmir – Higher reaches of Kashmir and Gurez valleys, Kargil and Ladakh
and along some of the major roads
✓ Himachal Pradesh – Chamba, Kullu-Spiti and Kinnaur
What are the impacts of landslides?

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✓ Lead to economic decline: Landslides results in destruction of property. If the landslide is

significant, it could drain the economy of the region or country.
✓ Destruction of infrastructure: Infrastructure such as roads, railways, leisure destinations,
buildings and communication systems gets affected by landslide.
✓ Loss of life: Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater risk of
death by landslides.
✓ Impacts river ecosystems: The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way into rivers
and block their natural flow. It may cause flood. Many river habitats like fish can die due to
interference of natural flow of water. Communities depending on the river water for
household activities and irrigation will suffer if flow of water is blocked.

What is India’s vulnerability to landslides?

Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 15 per cent of the land area of our
country—an area which exceeds 0.49 million km2.
Landslides of different types are frequent in geo-dynamically active domains in-
1. The Himalayan and Arakan-Yoma belt of the North-Eastern parts of the country
2. The relatively stable domains of the Meghalaya Plateau, Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills.
In all, 22 states and parts of the Union Territory of Pudducherry and Andaman & Nicobar Islands
are affected by this hazard.
The phenomenon of landslides is pronounced during the monsoon period.
Himalayas:
India has the highest mountain chain on earth, the Himalayas. These are formed due to collision
of Indian and Eurasian plate.
The northward movement of the Indian plate towards China causes continuous stress on the
rocks.
This renders the rock weak and prone to landslides and earthquakes.
Western Ghats:

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Landslides are also common in Western Ghats. Llandslides, characterized by a lateritic cap,
pose constant threat to the Western Ghats in the South, along the steep slopes of Konkan coast
besides Nilgiris.
In the Nilgiris, in 1978 alone, unprecedented rains in the region triggered about one hundred
landslides which caused severe damage to communication lines, tea gardens and other
cultivated crops.

North Eastern Region:

The Northeastern region is badly affected by landslides.
Landslides in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal as also those in Sikkim, Mizoram, Tripura,
Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh pose chronic problems, causing recurring
economic losses worth billions of rupees.

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Case Studies:
A GSI survey after the Malin landslide (2014) had identified around 20 villages which might
face landslides.
The villages are located around Dimbhe dam on Ghod river. Locals often complain of
increased occurrences of landslides since it was constructed.
It took just a few minutes for the tribal village of Malin in Ambegaon taluka of Pune district
to be wiped out from the face of the earth. The landslide which resulted in the death of over
150 people was the result of incessant rains coupled with geographical instability of the area.

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Two years down the line, residents of villages around Malin’s vicinity are scared of the same
fate befalling them. With landslides becoming increasingly common, some have even taken
to migrating to safer destinations during the monsoons.
Following the devastating landslide, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) had conducted a
detailed survey about the geological stability of the area. In its report, it had identified
around 20 villages and hamlets which might face threats of landslide.
These villages are located around the Dimbhe dam which was constructed on the Ghod river.
Experts have pointed out to the inherent dangers of the dam which seems to be silting at an
alarming rate. Local residents have often complained of increased occurrences of landslides
since the dam was constructed.

In past years, there have been some serious and fatal landslides in India. Here is a list of
worst landslides that you should know:
• Guwahati landslide, Assam: The landslide took place on September 18, 1948 due to heavy
rains. Over 500 people died in the landslide and according to the reports, the landslide buried
an entire village
• Darjeeling landslide, West Bengal: The landslide happened around October 4, 1968. The
landslide was triggered by floods and the 60 km long highway was cut in 91 parts. As per
reports, thousands of people died in the landslide
• Malpa landslide, Uttarakhand: Consecutives landslides occurred between August 11 and
August 17 in 1998 in the village of Malpa where over 380 people died as the entire village
washed away in the landslide. The landslide is one of the worst landslides in India
• Mumbai landslide, Maharashtra: The landslide was caused in July 2000. The landslide took
place in the suburbs of Mumbai due heavy rains which was followed by land erosion. As per
reports around 67 people died and the local trains were also stricken
• Amboori landslide, Kerala: The landslide was known as the worst landslide in Kerala's history.
The landslide occurred on November 9, 2001 due to heavy rains and around 40 people died in
the incident

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• Kedarnath landslide, Uttarakhand: The landslide took place on June 16, 2013 and was the
result of Uttarakhand floods. Over 5700 were reported dead and over 4,200 villages had been
affected by the floods and post-floods landslide
• Malin landslide, Maharashtra: The landslide occurred on July 30, 2014, in a village in Malin.
The landslide occurred due to heavy rainfall and around 151 people died and 100 people
went missing after the disaster.

Existing Challenges:
✓ Integrating landslide concerns in the development of disaster management plans at
different levels i.e., national, state, district, municipal/Panchayat.
✓ Switch-over from piecemeal remediation of landslides to simultaneous and holistic
implementation of control measures.
✓ Techno-legal regime for introduction of sound slope protection, planned urbanisation,
regulated land use and environment friendly land management practices.
✓ Zero tolerance against deliberate environmental violence and unhealthy construction
practices.
✓ Laws governing new constructions and alteration of existing land use on problematic slopes
and in landslide prone areas.
✓ Innovation in the management of multi-institutional and multi-disciplinary teams.
✓ Establishment of a disaster knowledge network and a mechanism for dissemination of
information at the national level, mechanism for international linkages, cooperation and
joint initiatives.
NDMA Guidelines for Landslide Disaster Management:

NDMA follows a 9 –step process to manage Landslides. These include the following major
elements to enhance the effectiveness of managing landslide hazard in the country:

1. Landslide Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk Assessment:

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This includes delineating areas prone to landslide hazards and status of landslide hazards in
different areas.

This is to assess the resources at risk due to these hazards as per the requirement of
communities and for planning and decision making purposes.

2. Multi-Hazard Conceptualisation:

Integrating landslide concerns into multi-hazard disaster management plans at different levels
for effective risk assessment, mitigation and response.

3. Landslide Remediation Practice:

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It includes encouraging implementation of successful landslide remediation and mitigation

technologies

This also includes monitoring of landslides and development of early warning systems.

4. Research and Development:

The study of landslide hazards is an area that requires active research. Unlike many other
violent acts of nature, landslide hazards can be mapped out. They can be predicted and
contained based on the research.

5. Knowledge Network and Management:

Establishing an effective system for gathering information on landslides, loss assessment

resulting from landslides and the effective dissemination of technical information and maps is
an essential component of disaster management process.

A web portal, India Disaster Knowledge Network (IDKN) is launched at National level.

6. Capacity Building and Training:

Developing institutional capacity and training for geoscientists, engineers, and planners are
necessary for effective management of landslide hazard.

7. Public Awareness and Education:

It requires effective communication of landslide hazard issues to the affected communities

through education, public awareness, posters, audio-visual aids, media campaigns, etc.

8. Emergency Preparedness and Response:

It covers the development of coordinated landslide rapid response capability involving

scientists, engineers, local authorities, National Disaster Response Force and paramilitary
forces. Rescue, relief and rehabilitation are covered in this component.

9. Regulation and Enforcement:

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Establishment of a techno-legal mechanism of landslide hazard assessment and mitigation with

provisions for enforcing compliance thereof are important.

NDMA Guidelines on Land slide Mitigation:

DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural measures Capacity development

Protection of Site selection for Human Training
Human settlements Settlements in Landslide and
Snow Avalanche Prone Areas
Protection of heritage Regulations and building codes Curriculum Development
Structures
Multi-Hazard shelters Licensing and certification Community- Based Disaster
Of professionals Management
Surface Drainage Control Public Private Partnerships Mock Drills/Exercises
Works
Building retaining walls; Insurance Vocational Training / Skill
increasing Vegetation cover Development
Regulation of Land Use Use of Drone Technology for Empowering Women,
Practices for development regular monitoring marginalised communities ,
activities persons with disabilities

Subhash Chandra Bose Aapda Prabandhan Puraskaar -

The Government of India instituted Subhash Chandra Bose Aapda Prabandhan Puraskaar to
recognise the excellent work done by the individuals and institutions in the field of disaster
management.

It is administered by National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA - created by the Ministry

of Home Affairs under the Disaster Management Act, 2005).

Award:

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✓ The awards are announced on the birth anniversary of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose on
23rd January every year.
✓ In addition to a certificate, these awards carry a cash award of Rs. 51 lakhs for an
Institution and Rs. 5 lakhs for an Individual.
✓ The Institution has to utilize the cash prize for Disaster Management related activities
only.

Eligibility:

✓ Only Indian nationals and Indian institutions can apply for the award.
✓ The nominated individual or institution should have worked in any area of disaster
management like Prevention, Mitigation, Preparedness, Rescue, Response, Relief,
Rehabilitation, Research, Innovation or early warning in India.

Cyclones

1. What is a cyclone?
Cyclone is a low pressure system which carries heavy winds and rains with it.
Cyclones are classified as:
(i) Extra tropical cyclones (also called temperate cyclones); and
(ii) Tropical cyclones.
Extra tropical cyclones occur in temperate zones and high latitude regions, though they are
known to originate in the Polar Regions.
Tropical Cyclones: Cyclones that develop in the regions between the Tropics of Capricorn and
Cancer are called tropical cyclones.
Tropical cyclones are large-scale weather systems developing over tropical or subtropical
waters.
2. What are the reasons for formation of cyclone?
The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:
(i) Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C;
(ii) Presence of the Coriolis force;

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(iii) Small variations in the vertical wind speed;

iv) A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation;
(v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.

Worldwide terminology:
Cyclones are given many names in different regions of the world – They are known as –
1. Typhoons in the China Sea and Pacific Ocean;
2. Hurricanes in the West Indian islands in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean;
3. Tornados in the Guinea lands of West Africa and southern USA.
4. Willy-willies in north-western Australia and
5. Tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
Indian Meteorological Department
The criteria below have been formulated by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD),
which classifies the low pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea on the basis
of capacity to damage, which is adopted by the WMO.
1. On the basis of speed
2. On the basis of extent of damage
On the basis of Wind Speed:

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Wind Speed in Knots

Type of Disturbances Wind Speed in Km/h
1 knot - 1.85 km per hour

Low Pressure Less than 31 Less than 17

Depression 31-49 17-27

Deep Depression 49-61 27-33

Cyclonic Storm 61-88 33-47

Severe Cyclonic Storm 88-117 47-63

Super Cyclone More than 221 More than 120

On the basis of extent of damage:

Cyclone Category Wind Speed in Km/h Damage Capacity

01 120-150 Minimal

02 150-180 Moderate

03 180-210 Extensive

04 210-250 Extreme

05 250 and above Catastrophic

What are the Reasons for increasing Vulnerability of Cyclones?

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What are the impacts of cyclones?

✓ Cyclones cause damage to the structures, viz. houses; lifeline infrastructure-power and
communication towers; hospitals; food storage facilities; roads, bridges and culverts;
crops etc.
✓ The most fatalities come from storm surges and the torrential rain flooding the lowland
areas of coastal territories.
Related topic:
Storm surges-
Storm surges (tidal waves) are defined as the rise in sea level above the normally predicted
astronomical tide. Major factors include:
✓ A fall in the atmospheric pressure over the sea surface
✓ Effect of the wind
✓ Influence of the sea bed
✓ A funnelling effect
✓ The angle and speed at which the storm approaches the coast
✓ The tides
The very high specific humidity condenses into exceptionally large raindrops and giant
cumulus clouds, resulting in high precipitation rates. When a cyclone makes landfall, rain
rapidly saturates the catchment areas and the rapid runoff may extensively flood the usual
water sources or create new ones.
4. What is Cyclone vulnerability in India?
✓ The Indian subcontinent is exposed to nearly 10 per cent of the world’s tropical cyclones
✓ India has a coastline of 7,516 km, of which 5,700 km are prone to cyclones of various
degrees.
✓ There are 13 coastal states and union territories (UTs) in the country, encompassing 84
coastal districts which are affected by tropical cyclones.

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✓ Four states (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal) and one UT
(Puducherry) on the east coast and one state (Gujarat) on the west coast are highly
vulnerable to cyclone disasters.

Nature of Tropical Cyclones in India:

✓ Cyclones occur frequently on both the coasts (the West coast - Arabian Sea; and the East
coast - Bay of Bengal).
✓ Out of all the cyclones that affect India, the majority of them have their initial genesis over
the Bay of Bengal and strike the East coast of India.
✓ On an average, five to six tropical cyclones form every year, of which two or three could be
severe.
✓ More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the ratio is
approximately 4:1.

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✓ An analysis of the frequency of cyclones on the East and West coasts of India between 1891
and 1990 shows that nearly 262 cyclones occurred (92 of these severe) in a 50 km wide strip
above the East coast. Less severe cyclonic activity has been noticed on the West coast,
where 33 cyclones occurred the same period, out of which 19 of were severe.
Why less severe cyclonic activity in the Western Coast?
There are certain factors that led to less intensity of cyclones in the western coast as
compared to high intensity and impact of cyclones in the eastern coast.
Factor of influence Western Coast Eastern Coast
Formation of Low- Comparatively less frequency Comparatively more frequency
pressure Zone because of more specific heat because of less specific heat
of the saline water. required to form the low-
pressure zone.
This is because more fresh
water that gets drained into the
Bay of Bengal due to east
flowing rivers.
Direction of Cyclone Western Coast experiences As the direction of Cyclones is
movement cyclone effect due to the re- from East to West all the
curving of cyclone. cyclones formed over Bay of
So only Gujarat State and parts Bengal impacts one or other
of Maharashtra gets affected state in the Eastern Coast.
through the cyclones formed
over Arabian Sea.
Alignment of the Coast Western Coast is narrow and is Eastern Coast is broader and is
planked by the continuous planked by the discontinuous
mountains of Western Ghats. Eastern Ghats. So, the cyclonic
These mountains act as a storm spreads to the interior
areas.

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barrier for the cyclonic storm

to spread to interior areas.
✓ Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November. Cyclones of
severe intensity and frequency in the North Indian Ocean are bi-modal in character, with
their primary peak in November and secondary peak in May.
✓ The disaster potential is particularly high during landfall in the North Indian Ocean (Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying destructive wind, storm surges and
torrential rainfall.
✓ Of these, storm surges cause the most damage as sea water inundates low lying areas of
coastal regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and embankments, destroys
vegetation and reduces soil fertility.
Case Studies:
Orissa super cyclone, 1999 –
A super cyclone hit the coast of the state of Orissa on October 29, 1999, with wind speed of
270-300 kmph, accompanied by torrential rains ranging from 400 mm to 867 mm
continuously for three days.
The turbulent sea surged up to 7 m high, with waves that rushed in and travelled up to 15-
20 km inland. The super cyclone caused extensive damage.
About ten thousand people were killed, while over 1.6 million houses were damaged. The
sectors of agriculture, livestock, village industries, infrastructure and environment were
badly devastated.
Success Story: Cyclone Phailin: Odisha
The Cyclone Phailin that hit Odisha coast is of same intensity as Super Cyclone of Odisha of
1999. The 1999 cyclone killed almost 10,000 people but the casualties due to Cyclone
Phailin’s are very less.
The following are the best management practices Odisha has taken up for this remarkable
result.

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Dedicated response force: Odisha has its own State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) unlike
other states. Better coordination between NDMA and SDRF provided for swift evacuation
and rescue.
Early Warning System: The impact of the cyclone was minimized because timely and
accurate information was disseminated quickly, which helped in conceiving an action plan
and implementing it. Strong Early Warning System is established at the Coastal districts.
Community Awareness:
Large scale community awareness programs were being conducted as part of preparedness.
Media and social media played important role in this awareness generation.
Recognising all these efforts UNSIDR has appreciated Odisha’s Zero Causality approach and
added it as global best practice.

Existing Challenges

✓ The failure to adequately respond to warnings stemming from lack of planning and
coordination at the national and local levels, as well as a lack of understanding by people of
their risks.
✓ Bare minimum the terminal-end equipment and communication back-up equipment
support.
✓ Lack of grass root level participation in disaster management to build up effective resilience
to disasters.
✓ Lack of a fully automated and state-of-the-art OC at NDMA and MHA with all terminal-end
facilities and communication connectivity both for routine activities and also during
disasters.
✓ The need for integration of networks set up by various agencies to establish various types
of networks in the country for disaster management.
✓ Failure of even well-engineered structures such as communication and transmission towers
past cyclones.

What are the NDMA guidelines to handle Cyclones?

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The National Guidelines for the Management of Cyclone have been formulated after a ‘nine
step’ process fully taking on board various Central Ministries and Departments and the States
and UTs.
National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project-
✓ It is funded by the World Bank and is extended to all 13 coastal States and UTs.
✓ The various activities under this project will include construction of cyclone shelters,
shelter belt/mangrove plantations, establishing last mile connectivity, improving link
roads etc.
✓ Once all the activities, as laid down in these guidelines are implemented, we will be
much better prepared to face the hazards of cyclones.

NDMA in its guidelines has identified 10 key areas of cyclone management:

1. Establishing a state-of-the-art cyclone early warning system (EWS) involving observations,
predictions, warnings and user friendly advisories.
2. Commissioning of the ‘National Disaster Communication Infrastructure’ (NDCI) to provide
dedicated and failsafe communications to the National, State and District Disaster
Management Authorities and officials concerned.
3. Expanding the warning dissemination outreach by introducing ‘Last Mile Connectivity’, this
will include providing public address system along the entire coast line, using VHF technology.
This will be done along with putting in place all other options currently in vogue internationally.
4. Implementing the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) in all the 13 coastal
states and UTs.
5. Taking up structural mitigation measures like improving structural lifeline infrastructure;
construction of multi-purpose cyclone shelters and cattle mounds, ensuring cyclone resistant
design standards in rural and urban housing schemes, building all-weather road links, bridges,
culverts and saline embankments etc.
6. Management of coastal zones to include mapping and delineation of coastal wetlands,

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patches of mangroves and shelterbelts and identification of potential zones for expanding bio-
shield spread based on remote sensing tools.
7. Setting up of an exclusive eco-system monitoring network to study the impact of climate
change.
8. Establishing a comprehensive ‘Cyclone Disaster Management Information System’ (CDMIS)
covering all phases of Disaster Management.
9. Setting up of a ‘National Cyclone Disaster Management Institute’ in one of the coastal states
to address all issues related to cyclone risks.
10. Commissioning of “Aircraft Probing of Cyclone (APC) facility” to fill the critical
observational data gaps and significantly reduce the margin of error in predicting cyclone track,
intensity and landfall.
NDMA Mitigational guidelines:
DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural Measures Capacity development
Multi-purpose Cyclone Laws Regulations Enforcement Training
Shelters building mechanisms
Land Use Control Techno-legal regimes Curriculum Development
Hazard resistant construction, Institutional arrangements codes Awareness Generation
Strengthening retrofitting of for disaster risk reduction Mock Drills/Exercises
all lifeline structures and compliance monitoring Vocational Training / Skill
critical infrastructure Development
Coastal Belt Planting Such as Public Private Partnerships Community- Based Disaster
Mangroves Management
Engineered Structures to Empowering Women,
withstand wind forces marginalised communities ,
persons with disabilities
Flood mitigation structures
Tsunami
What is a Tsunami?

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A tsunami is a series of waves with a long wavelength and period (time between crests). Time
between crests of the wave can vary from a few minutes to over an hour.
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbor' and nami
meaning 'waves'.

Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they actually have nothing to do with the tides.
What are the reasons for Tsunami?

The major reasons for Tsunami are occurrence of any of the following events in the sea/ocean.

Natural Reasons Manmade reasons

1. Earthquakes 1. Nuclear explosion under sea

2. Volcanoes

3. Landslides

4. Meteorite Impact

3. What are the impacts of Tsunami?

✓ Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source cause the majority of
damage.
✓ It is normally the flooding affect of the tsunami that causes major destruction to the human
settlements, roads and infrastructure thereby disrupting the normal functioning of the
society.
✓ Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major damage. As the waves withdraw towards the
ocean they sweep out the foundations of the buildings, the beaches get destroyed and the
houses carried out to sea.

Case study: Indian Ocean Tsunami

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As seen on Indian Ocean shores in December 2004, tsunami can cause massive death and
destruction. They are particularly dangerous close to their sources, where the first waves in
the tsunami train can arrive within a few to tens of minutes of the triggering event.
The earthquake and resulting tsunami in Indian Ocean on 24 December 2004 had devastating
effects on India.
Many people died and millions were displaced. The hardest hit areas were on Southern coast
and the Andaman and Nicobar Island.
Tsunamis have the potential of causing significant casualties, widespread property damage,
massive infrastructure loss and long-term negative economic impacts.
People caught in the path of a tsunami often have little chance of survival. People die from
drowning or debris crushing them.
The disaster invited attention of affected countries for setting up effective tsunami early
warning system and institutional mechanism for handling disasters.
The Government of India has put in place an Early Warning System for mitigation of such
oceanogenic disasters under the control of Indian National Center for Ocean Information
Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad.
A state-of-the-art early warning centre was established with the necessary computational
and communication infrastructure that enables reception of real-time data from sensors,
analysis of the data, generation and dissemination of tsunami advisories following a standard
operating procedure.
Seismic and sea-level data are continuously monitored in the Early Warning Centre using
custom-built software application that generates alarms/alerts in the warning centre
whenever a pre-set threshold is crossed.
Tsunami warnings/watches are then generated based on pre-set decision support rules and
disseminated to the concerned authorities for action, as per pre-decided standard operating
procedure.
The efficiency of this end-to-end system was proved during the large under-sea earthquake
of 8.4 M that occurred on September 12, 2007 in the Indian Ocean.

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What is India’s vulnerability to Tsunamis?

The east and west coasts of India and the island regions are likely to be affected by Tsunamis
generated mainly by subduction zone related earthquakes from the two potential source
regions, viz.,

1. The Andaman-Nicobar-Sumatra Island Arc and

2. The Makran subduction zone north of Arabian Sea.

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Tsunami Early Warning System:

The great Sumatra earthquake (Mw 9.3) of 26th December, 2004, was rated as the worlds
second largest recorded earthquake. This earthquake generated a devastating tsunami, which
caused unprecedented loss of life and damage to property in the Indian Ocean rim countries.
The tsunami was considered as one of the deadliest natural hazards in the history, killing over
230,000 people in fourteen countries. In India it claimed an estimated more than 10,000 lives.

The Ministry of Earth Sciences took up the responsibility of establishing the Indian Tsunami
Early Warning System (ITEWS).

The ITEWS was established in 2007 and is based at & operated by Indian National Center for
Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad. The ITEWS is an integrated effort of different
organizations including the Department of Space (DOS),

Department of Science and Technology (DST), the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), Survey of India (SOI) and National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).

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The ITEWS comprises a real-time network of seismic stations, Bottom Pressure Recorders
(BPR), tide gauges and 24 X 7 operational tsunami warning centre to detect tsunamigenic
earthquakes, to monitor tsunamis and to provide timely advisories to vulnerable community
by means of latest communication methods with back-end support of a pre-run scenario
database and Decision Support System (DSS).

The ITEWS has the responsibility to provide tsunami advisories to Indian Mainland and the
Island regions.

It is capable of issuing Tsunami bulletins in less than 10 minutes after any major earthquake in
the Indian Ocean thus leaving us with a response/lead time of about 10 to 20 minutes for near
source regions in the Andaman & Nicobar and a few hours in the case of mainland.

Acting as one of the Regional Tsunami Advisory service Providers (RTSPs) for the Indian Ocean
Region, ITEWS also provides tsunami advisories to the Indian Ocean rim countries.

The ITEWS disseminates tsunami bulletins to various stakeholders through multiple

dissemination modes simultaneously (Fax, Phone, Emails, GTS and SMS etc.).

Users can also register on the website for receiving earthquake alerts and tsunami bulletins
through emails and SMS.

What are the NDMA guidelines to address Tsunami risks?

The 2004 tsunami also prompted NDMA to formulate Tsunami Risk Management Guidelines
(2010) to outline inter-agency roles and responsibilities, tsunami risk preparedness, mitigation
and response.

1. Awareness generation, capacity building, education, training and research & development
for better tsunami risk management through multi stakeholder approach.

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2. Effective dissemination of tsunami alert and warning messages generated by INCOIS to the
concerned agencies and coastal vulnerable communities exposed to tsunamis in a
coordinated manner.
3. Structural Mitigation measures, on design and construction of new structures as well as
strategies for protecting lifeline and priority structures from Tsunamis along the seafront.
The Guidelines urge BIS to roll out the pending construction standards entitled ‘Criteria for
Tsunami-Resistant Design of Structures’.
4. Effective Integrated Coastal Management system according to the M. S. Swaminathan
Committee recommendations

In order to protect the coastal environment and the life and property of the people along
the coastal areas from natural hazards including tsunami, the M.S. Swaminathan
Committee Report has further recommended that:
✓ Mangrove wetlands should be regenerated.
✓ Coral reefs, grass beds, and coastal forests should be preserved and conserved for
both short-term and long-term ecological and livelihood benefits.
✓ Raising coastal plantations like casuarinas, saliconia, palm, bamboo, etc. will act as an
effective bio-shield and provide protection to the coastal communities.
✓ Geomorphologic features like sand dunes, beaches, coastal cliffs should be protected.
✓ Impact of natural hazards in the coastal and marine areas should be taken into
account while formulating coastal area management schemes.
5. It further recommends a robust techno-legal regime through efficient land use practices,
bio shields, and shelter belt plantation and mangrove regeneration with community
involvement.

Example: Tree plantation is a cost-effective long- lasting means of tsunami mitigation in

comparison to the artificial barriers. Some locations of Indian Ocean where Tsunami struck in
2004 remained almost intact because the existing coconut palms and mangroves trees
absorbed the tsunami’s energy. Similarly, the village of Naluvedapathy in Tamil Nadu region

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faced minimal damage and few deaths because of the forest of 80, 244 trees planted along the
shoreline in 2002.
6. A strong mechanism has been recommended for effective emergency response by involving
local police network, civil defence volunteers wherever available, home guards, State
Disaster Response Forces and National Disaster Response Force.

Existing Challenges to Tsunami Risk management in India:

✓ Lack of easily accessible tsunami documentation and paleo-tsunami studies for better
understanding of past tsunami events for improved risk assessment;
✓ Lack of high resolution near-shore bathymetric and topographic data will prove to be a
limiting factor for inundation models;
✓ Inadequate community awareness on tsunami risk and vulnerability.
✓ Lack of people's participation in strengthening disaster preparedness, mitigation and
emergency response in the coastal areas.
✓ Lack of documentation of traditional knowledge for tsunami risk management.
NDMA Mitigational measures to address Tsunami risk:
DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural Capacity development
Strengthening of lifeline structures Mainstreaming DM into Training
and high priority buildings Development Planning
Shelters from storm surges and Regulation and Curriculum Development
tsunamis enforcement of relevant
laws – Coastal Regulation
Zone Norms
Hazard resistant construction, Techno-Legal Regime Awareness Generation
Strengthening, and retrofitting of all
lifeline structures and critical
infrastructure

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Construction of submerged dykes Non-structural shore Mock Drills/Exercises;

(one or two rows along the stretch of Stabilization measures Community- Based
the coast) so as to decrease the And bio-shields Disaster Management
impact due to the incoming tsunami
and inland dykes to safeguard vital
installations
Periodical dredging of the inlets and Safety audits and Empowering Women,
associated water bodies so as to Evaluation of all lifeline marginalised sections,
absorb the influx during tsunami Structures and important and disabled people.
facilities
Construction of large scale submerged Public Private Vocational Training / Skill
sand barriers Partnerships Development
Protection of Geomorphic features Coastal Area
like Coastal cliffs, Sand dunes, etc Management Plans
Mangrove , wetland regeneration Proper implementation of
Indian Ocean Tsunami
Warning and Mitigation
system.
Protection of Coral reefs and Coastal
forests

Drought
What is drought?
There is no globally adopted operational definition for drought applicable to all contexts.
Drought results from long period of dry weather and insufficient precipitation, which causes
acute dry conditions.
The National Commission on Agriculture in India defines three types of droughts:

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1. Meteorological drought, defined as a situation when there is significant decrease from

normal precipitation over an area (i.e. more than 10 %)
2. Agricultural drought, signifying the situation when soil moisture and rainfall are
inadequate to support healthy crop growth
3. Hydrological drought resulting from prolonged meteorological drought manifested in
depletion of surface and sub-surface water resources, which could occur even when the
rainfall is normal, if there has been a substantial reduction in surface water holding
capacity

The IMD recognizes five drought situations:

1. ‘Drought Week’ when the weekly rainfall is less than half of the normal
2. ‘Agricultural Drought’ when four drought weeks occur consecutively during mid-June
to September
3. ‘Seasonal Drought’ when seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than the standard
deviation from the normal
4. ‘Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 20 percent of normal or more, and

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5. ‘Severe Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 25 to 40 percent of normal or

more
In the year 2016, (Only related to meteorological drought) with an aim to make the interface
more audience friendly and fill the communication with civil administration, the India
Meteorological Department (IMD) has changed the languages and also redefined many of its
terms.
The use of more realistic and precise term would ensure better understand the terms used in
weather forecasts.
Classification of seasonal rainfall:
The recent modification has changed the classification of seasonal rainfall.
IMD has introduced six new categories to replace the four old rainfall categories i.e, excess,
normal, deficient and scanty.
New categories are as follows:
1. Large excess: 60 per cent and above.
2. Excess: between 20 per cent and 59 per cent.
3. Normal: minus 19 per cent to plus 19 per cent;
4. Deficient: minus 20 per cent to minus 59 per cent.
5. Large deficient: below 60 per cent No Rain: 0 per cent.

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What are the reasons for drought?

Natural reasons:
✓ Geography and climate of a particular area impact the rainfall pattern.
Ex: Drought in arid and semi arid regions of the country.
✓ Elnino: It impacts the monsoon rainfall adversely in India.
✓ Low soil moisture holding capacity
✓ Absence of irrigation facilities

Man made reasons:

✓ Livestock without adequate fodder storage facilities leads to over grazing
✓ Poor water management
✓ Deforestation
✓ Water consuming cropping patterns
✓ Excessive ground water extraction
✓ Soil erosion
✓ Population growth and urbanization

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✓ Industrialization
✓ Global warming
What are the impacts of drought?
✓ Increasing severity of drought can lead to
✓ Livelihood crisis with crop losses
✓ Widespread unemployment
✓ Irrigated areas are affected much later than the rain-fed areas.
✓ Availability of drinking water diminishes,
✓ Reduction in energy production,
✓ Ground water depletion,
✓ Food shortage,
✓ Health reduction and loss of life,
✓ Increased poverty, reduced quality of life
✓ Migration.
Why vulnerability to droughts is increasing in India?
✓ High population is increasing the stress on water resources
✓ Water pollution is leading to non usability of water resources
✓ Global warming
What is India’s drought profile?
A third of the country is drought prone. It affects parts of Rajasthan (chronically), Gujarat,
Maharashtra, MP, UP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh.
Most of the drought-prone areas are found in arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid regions of the
country, which experience less than average annual rainfall.

Broadly, the drought-affected areas in India can be divided into two tracts.

Desert and Semi Arid regions:

The first tract comprising the desert and the semi-arid regions covers an area of 0.6 million sq.
km. It is rectangle shaped area whose one side extends from Ahmadabad to Kanpur and the

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other from Kanpur to Jullundur. In this region, rainfall is less than 750mm and at some places
it is even less than 400 mm.

East of Western Ghats:

The second tract comprises the regions east of the Western Ghats up to a distance of about
300 km from coast. Known as the rain shadow area of the Western Ghats, rainfall in this region
is less than 750mm and is highly erratic. This region is thickly populated and periodic droughts
cause considerable suffering and distress.

Besides these two tracts of scarcity, there are many pockets of drought in India. Some of these
are:

✓ Tirunelveli district, south of Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu

✓ Coimbatore area in Kerala
✓ Saurashtra and Kutch regions in Gujarat
✓ Mirzapur plateau and Palamu regions in Uttar Pradesh
✓ Purulia district of West Bengal
✓ Kalahandi region of Orissa.

Together, these scattered pockets occupy an area of 0.1 million sq. km. Drought is a recurrent
phenomenon in Andhra Pradesh where no district is entirely free of droughts.

Rajasthan is one of the most drought prone areas of India. Eleven districts of the state are in
arid regions including Jaisalmer as the driest district. No perennial river flows in Jaisalmer.
Groundwater level in the district is 125–250 ft deep and at some places 400 ft deep. The rainfall
in the district is extremely low at 164 mm. Out of 365 days of a year, on an average 355 days
are dry.

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Successful Case study:

The Solapur model under a Maharashtra government programme stands as a real example
that could be successfully emulated

Maharashtra, in western India, struggles periodically with severe droughts. In 2014, the state
government launched the Jalyukt Shivar programme (henceforth referred to as JYS and
roughly translated as “Water-filled fields”) as an ambitious attempt to permanently drought-
proof the state by 2019.

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JYS is a large-scale decentralized programme to conserve soil and water in the countryside.
Existing programmes for watershed development, agriculture, groundwater management
etc. were converged and made a priority for the district administration. Activities included
watershed interventions like bunds, trenches, digging percolation ponds, recharging wells,
tree plantation, desilting of water bodies and more. These interventions are not new and
were being carried out already, though in a more ad-hoc and less coordinated manner.

The District Collector has strictly enforced groundwater management rules like
prohibiting/regulating new bore wells near public water sources commandeering private
bore wells for community use during periods of water stress. He has also prevented the
powerful sugar lobby from misappropriating water for the sugarcane crop at critical times.
The DC has also worked on hard problems of the drinking water supply systems to the
villages. Many of the systems are defunct for a variety of reasons, and progress on new
systems was also slow. The DC has been able to correctly diagnose the reasons for non-
functioning schemes and solve them, and expedite the new schemes. The average number
of water sources per village jumped dramatically from 5.67 to 39.24 in a matter of a couple
of years.

The Solapur model stands as a real example that could be successfully emulated to address
drought.

Existing Challenges in Drought Management-

✓ Drought management encompasses three vital components namely,

o drought intensity assessment and monitoring;
o drought declaration and prioritization of areas for drought management and
o development and implementation of drought management strategies
✓ Each step in drought management lacks holistic approach to ensure effective end result.

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✓ Development of standard procedures for drought vulnerability assessment and generation

of vulnerability maps in each state needs to be done.
✓ Absence of Crisis Management Authority for drought to manage the various phases of
drought.
✓ Ineffective dissemination of credible and verified information on relevant aspects of
drought to the people and media.
✓ Ineffective monitoring and early warning system to provide accurate and timely
information on rainfall, crop sown area, data on soil moisture, stream flow, groundwater,
lake and reservoir storage.
✓ Half hearted attempts to detect drought conditions as early as possible in order to
implement District Agriculture Contingency Plans and the Crisis Management Plan.
✓ Lack of community participation.

What are the National Disaster Management Guidelines on Management of Drought?

The NDMA guidelines on management of drought are issued in 2010. The recommendations
are as follows:
1. Creation of Drought Monitoring Cells (DMCs) cells at state level with requisite staff.
2. Preparation of vulnerability maps for each state by the State DMCs.
3. Development of real-time drought related information by using information and
communication technology.
4. The watershed development approach would be taken up for drought management.
5. Integration of ground-based information with the space-based information for
comprehensive reporting.
6. Assessment of damage would include agricultural production, depletion of water resources,
livestock population, land degradation and deforestation as well as human health.
7. Revamping of Drought Management Information System of Department of Agriculture. 8. To
enable micro level analysis and forecasting, automatic weather station and rain-gauges to be
put in place.
9. Development of drought resistant crop varieties through large scale research.

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10. The mitigation measures to be taken would include cloud-seeding and conduct of pilot
studies in all categories of drought prone areas for suggesting long term mitigation measures.
11. Formulation of a cloud seeding policy.
12. Promoting crop diversification through sprinklers/Drip irrigation systems (micro irrigation
techniques).
13. Prompt provision of credit in the drought affected areas; and extension of marketing and
price support.
14. Afforestation with subabul, seemaruba, casurina, eucalyptus and bio diesel plantation like
Jatropha and pongomia.
15. Development of insurance products for different agro-climatic zones providing coverage
against drought. Crop insurance to be extended to post-harvest losses. Promotion of price
linked insurance products to avoid distress sales of farm produce. Use of satellite derived crop
condition images as surrogates to crop yield estimates for settling insurance claims.
16. Framing a realistic national training and capacity building programme for drought
management. Officers at PRIs and ULBs to be provided with required training.
17. Encouraging NGOs, PRIs and ULBs for generating awareness among farmers.
18. Updating the syllabi of graduate and under-graduate courses in agriculture to include
drought management.
19. Fodder, Cattle feed and mineral mixture to be supplied to all productive animals to prevent
distress sales of cattle.
20. Wherever necessary and feasible, the corporate sector should also be involved in
supporting drought risk management efforts as part of CSR.
NMDA Mitigational Measures:
DRR-Structural DRR-Non structural measures Capacity development
measures
Storage Facilities Mitigation Measures Training
Water Conservation Promote water conservation, Curriculum Development
Structures Awareness Generation

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harvesting, efficient irrigation,

Afforestation
Social Housing Providing – Agricultural credit Empowering Women,
Schemes especially Micro credit, marginalised communities , and
Agricultural inputs, Finance, differently-abled persons
marketing, and crop insurance
Irrigation Projects Reducing Climate Change impact Mock Drills/Exercises
River water linking Alternative livelihood planning Vocational Training / Skill
projects Development
Implementation of Food Security Drought Management plans
Act (Swaraj Abhiyan Case)
Afforestation Implementation of Social Security
schemes
Waste land Implementing measures to check
management migration(Ex; MGNREGA)

Heat Wave
What is heat wave?
A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum
temperature that occurs during the summer season.
What are the reasons for formation of heat wave?
Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend till
July.
The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions cause heat waves.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria for Heat Waves:
✓ Heat Wave need not be considered till maximum temperature of a station reaches
1. 40*C at least for Plains and
2. 30*C at least for Hilly regions

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✓ When normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40*C

1. Heat Wave Departure from normal is 5*C to 6*C
2. Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 7*C or more
✓ When normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40*C
1. Heat Wave Departure from normal is 4*C to 5*C
2. Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 6*C or more
✓ When actual maximum temperature remains 45*C or more irrespective of normal
maximum temperature, heat waves should be declared.

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Why the vulnerability to the heat waves is increasing?

✓ Global warming is resulting into delayed monsoons and droughts. These are increasing the
intensity of heat waves.
✓ El Nino effect
✓ Desertification and land degradation in North Western India is increasing. Due to this, Loo
effect in Northern India is intensifying.
✓ Rapid and unplanned urbanisation. This is causing Urban Heat Island effect.

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✓ Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly
increasingly frequent globally due to climate change.
What are the impacts of heat wave?
1. The health impacts: Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion
and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:
✓ Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by fever
below 39*C i.e.102*F.
✓ Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle
cramps and sweating.
✓ Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40*C i.e. 104*F or more along with delirium, seizures
or coma. This is a potential fatal condition.
2. Crop Losses: Crop loss due to high temperature results into food insecurity, livelihood issues,
etc
3. Effects on Nature
✓ Heat waves can lead to droughts with decrease in moisture in the air and soil.
Moisture in soil helps in cooling down the temperature by evaporation
✓ Wildfires in open areas or forests become frequent due to heat waves.
✓ Coral bleaching in oceans can rise
4. Effects on Infrastructure and Economy
✓ Heat waves tests the ability of infrastructure to withstand the pressure created by
increased energy demand.
✓ Electricity transmission line expands due to heat waves
✓ Transport services gets impacted
✓ Loss of labour efficiency
What are the areas in India vulnerable to heat waves?

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[Note: In the above map PoK is not represented because of non availability of data]

Existing Challenges in Heat Wave Management

✓ Lack of research using sub-district level data to provide separate indices for urban and rural
areas to enable more targeted geographical interventions.
✓ Narrow analysis of urban ward-level data to provide intra-city vulnerability patterns.
✓ Less active usage of available provisions of public messaging (radio, TV), mobile phone-
based text messages, automated phone calls and alerts.
✓ Lack of Public awareness like promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as staying
indoors and wearing comfortable clothes.
✓ Half-hearted attempts for popularization of simple design features such as shaded
windows, underground water storage tanks and insulating housing materials.
✓ Unavailability of provision of drinking water within housing premises and indoor toilets.
What are the NDMA guidelines to address Heat wave risk?

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In 2016, the National Disaster Management Agency prepared guidelines for state governments
to formulate action plans for the prevention and management of heat waves. It outlined four
key strategies:
1. Forecasting heat waves and enabling an early warning system;
2. Building capacity of healthcare professionals to deal with heat wave-related
emergencies;
3. Community outreach through various media; and
4. Inter-agency cooperation as well as engagement with other civil society organizations in
the region.
Mitigational measures:
DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural measures Capacity development
Storage Facilities Quality health care provisions- Training
timely provision of medicines
and medical personnel
Water Conservation Promote water conservation, Curriculum Development
Structures harvesting, efficient irrigation, Awareness Generation
Afforestation
Social Housing Schemes- Providing Agricultural credit, Empowering Women,
White layering of the roofs Agricultural inputs, marketing, marginalised communities , and
of the houses &crop insurance differently-abled persons
Reducing Climate Change Mock Drills/Exercises
impacts
Alternative livelihood planning Vocational Training / Skill
Development
Food security provisions Heat wave Action plans

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Cold Wave and Frost

What is a cold wave?
Cold wave and frost is a seasonal and localized hazard that occurs in parts of the country, which
experience severe winter.
IMD defines cold wave as:
Cold wave is a phenomenon where the rapid fall in temperature within 24 hours to a level
requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry, commerce, and social
activities.
a) When normal minimum temperature is equal to 10°C or more.
Cold Wave Departure from normal is -5°C to -6°C.
Severe Cold Wave Departure from normal is -7°C or less
b) When normal minimum temperature is less than 10°C.
Cold Wave Departure from normal is -4°C to -5°C.
Severe Cold Wave Departure from normal is -6°C or less.
When the temperature of a region is 0°C or less, Cold Wave should be declared irrespective of
normal minimum temperature of the station. However, this criterion is not applicable for those
stations whose normal minimum temperature is below 0°C.
What are the reasons for Cold Wave?
1. Local climatic conditions
2. Geographic and Topographic features of the place.
The conditions favourable for cold wave are:
i) Inflow of cold air mass from higher latitudes over the region.
ii) Foggy weather during the day which inhibits day warming of the region.
iii) Strong radiation cooling during the night under clear sky conditions.

Cold wave over India:

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✓ Cold waves over the country are generally experienced during December -February.
Rarely these may also occur in the northern parts of the country in the months of
November and March as well.
✓ The frequency of occurrence of cold waves is maximum over north-western parts of
India.
✓ It falls considerably towards the southern and eastern parts.
✓ Occurrence of cold wave is associated with the inflow of very cold air from extreme
north-western parts of the Indian-sub-continent or even beyond.

What are the impacts of cold wave?

✓ Cold wave can cause death and injury to human beings, livestock and wildlife.
✓ If a cold wave is accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable
to get the requisite food. They may die of hypothermia from prolonged exposure or
starvation.
✓ Prolonged frost conditions and cold wave can damage certain frost sensitive plants causing
crops loss. It might affect the food security of the region and the country.
✓ Cold waves associated with fog create problem for transportation- road, rail and flight.
What measures should be taken?

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Higher caloric intake is needed for all animals, including humans to withstand exposure to cold
and poor nutritional status can prove deadly in extreme cold conditions.
Cold Wave Hazard Mitigation-
✓ In case of cold wave/frost situation, States needs to initiate location specific measures as
outlined in District Crop Contingency Plans and in consultation with respective State
Agricultural Universities to minimise its impact.
✓ Farmers are to provide light irrigation as per need, immediately prune damaged tips of
branches or shoot, burn leave/waste material in the orchard to create smoke and manage
rejuvenation of damaged crops through pruning of dead material, application of extra doses
of fertilizer through foliar sprays.
✓ Plan for the potential to convert schools and other public buildings into shelters to keep
vulnerable citizens out of the cold.
✓ Remain aware of the effects that exposure to extreme cold has on children, the elderly, as
well as those already ill, and promote outreach and preparedness efforts.
✓ Insulate any water lines running along exterior walls so your water supply will be less likely
to freeze.
✓ Adequate preparedness of the community and local governments can prevent deaths due
to cold waves.
Existing Challenges in Cold Wave Hazard Management
✓ As Cold Wave/Frost is a localised disaster event, location specific mitigation plans should
be drawn up by the concerned State Governments instead of a National level plan.
✓ Lack of participation at community level like SHGs, PRIs.
✓ Lack of preparedness in advance.

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Man Made Hazards

Manmade hazards are those events that are induced by the humans either accidentally or
deliberately that cause huge scale looses to the humans, economy and to the environment.

India is vulnerable to different types of manmade hazards. They are:

1. Nuclear and Radiological emergency

2. Biological disasters

3. Chemical disasters

4. Oil spills

5. Stampedes

6. Forest fires

Nuclear and Radiological Hazard

What is the meaning of this hazard?
Any radiation incident resulting in or having a potential to result in exposure
and/or contamination of the workers or the public in excess of the respective permissible limits
can lead to a nuclear/radiological emergency.
What are the causes for this hazard?
✓ The growth in the application of nuclear science and technology in the fields of power
generation, medicine, industry, agriculture, research and defence has led to an increase in
the risk of occurrence of Nuclear and Radiological emergencies.
✓ Nuclear and Radiological Emergency can arise in a nuclear facility at plant level leading to
plant/ site or offsite emergency depending upon the extent of its impact on the
surroundings.
✓ It can also take place while using radiation sources, either at Hospitals, Industries,
Agriculture or Research Institutions due to loss or misplacement or due to faulty handling.

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✓ The other events that can lead to Nuclear or Radiological Emergency in the public domain
include, accident of a vehicle carrying radioactive/nuclear material, due of an orphan source
i.e. the source which is not under regulatory control or due to usage of radiation
source/radioactive material in malevolent activities.
✓ Nuclear emergencies can also arise due to factors beyond the control of the operating
agencies; e.g., human error, system failure, sabotage, earthquake, cyclone, flood, etc. Such
failures, even though of very low probability, may lead to an on-site or off-site emergency.
What are impacts of this hazard?
✓ Death, increased risk of cancer, cataract in eyes, hair loss
✓ Radiation Sickness: A person's risk of getting sick depends on how much radiation the body
absorbs. Radiation sickness is often fatal and can produce such symptoms as bleeding and
shedding of the lining on the gastrointestinal tract.
✓ Damage or destruction of agricultural products – animals and crops
✓ Degradation of environmental resources
✓ Devaluation or loss of use of public and private property
✓ Genetic changes can happen after the exposure to the radiation in the generations to come
by mutation
What is India’s vulnerability profile to this hazard?
✓ For improving the quality of life in society, India has embarked upon a large programme of
using nuclear energy for generation of electricity.
✓ As on date, India has 20 power reactors and three research reactors in operation along with
five power reactors under construction.
✓ It is also planned to explore setting up Thorium based reactors to meet its ever increasing
energy needs. The country is also at the verge of making operational the first 500MW
prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) after a prolonged experience of operation of FBTR
(Fast Breeder Test Reactor).
✓ Further, the country utilizes radioisotopes in a variety of applications in the non-power
sector, viz., in the field of industry, agriculture, medicine, research, etc.

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Case Studies: Sad memories of the use of nuclear weapons dropped on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, and the wide publicity given to the reactor accidents at Three Mile Island (TMI) in
USA and Chernobyl in erstwhile USSR, have strongly influenced the public perception of any
nuclear or radiological emergency to be most often linked, erroneously though, to only these
events.
What are the NDMA guidelines to mitigate the impact of this hazard?
Due to the inherent safety culture, the best safety practices and standards followed in these
applications and effective regulation by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, the radiation
dose to which the persons working in nuclear/radiation facilities are exposed to, is well within
the permissible limits and the risk of its impact on the public domain is very low.
Mobile Radiation Detection System (MRDS)
NDMA, as part of a pilot project on national level preparedness to cope with Radiological
Emergencies, has taken an initiative to equip police and NDRF personnel for management of
radiological emergencies in public domain.

Nuclear Hazard Mitigation Strategies-

There are four ways in which people are protected from identified radiation sources:
1. Limiting time. In occupational situations, dose is reduced by limiting exposure time.
2. Distance. The intensity of radiation decreases with distance from its source.
3. Shielding. Barriers of lead, concrete or water give good protection from high levels of
penetrating radiation such as gamma rays. Intensely radioactive materials are therefore
often stored or handled under water, or by remote control in rooms constructed of thick
concrete or lined with lead.
4. Containment. Highly radioactive materials are confined and kept out of the workplace and
environment.
Nuclear reactors operate within closed systems with multiple barriers which keep the
radioactive materials contained.

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✓ Promoting flexibility in management of emergencies, for efficient use of resources.

✓ Maintenance of full-time capability for immediate response
✓ Ensuring the responders, plans, facilities, and any necessary inter-organizational
coordination are sufficient to provide the desired protection.
✓ Appropriate steps and measures to be taken against occupational exposure and safety
measures for nuclear accidents.
Steps Taken by the Government:
✓ With increased emphasis on power generation through nuclear technology, the threat of
nuclear hazards has also increased. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has been
identified as the nodal agency in the country in respect of manmade radiological
emergencies in the public domain.
✓ Nuclear facilities in India have adopted internationally accepted guidelines for ensuring
safety to the public and environment.
✓ A crisis management system is also in place to take care of any nuclear hazard.
✓ Other types of emergency response plans in place within the facility to handle local
emergencies, response plans have also been drawn up for handling such emergencies in
the public domain, which are called as “offsite Emergencies”.
✓ These plans, drawn up separately in detail for each site - which are under the jurisdiction of
the local district administration, cover an area of about 16 km radius around the plant or
the offsite Emergency Planning Zone.

Biological Hazards
What is the meaning of this hazard?
Biological disaster is a phenomenon of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors.
It is caused due to the exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive
substances that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts, property damage,
loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

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Examples of biological disasters include outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or animal

contagion, insect or other animal plagues and infestation.
Biological disasters may be in the form of:-
Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population,
community, or region at the same time, examples being Cholera, Plague, Japanese Encephalitis
(JE)/Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES); or,
Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or even
worldwide of existing, emerging or reemerging diseases and pestilences, example being
Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu)
Case studies:
Avian influenza epidemic disease-2006
The outbreak of avian influenza among poultry was noticed in 2006 in India. In the poultries
located in Nandurbar and Jalgaon districts of Maharashtra and adjoining districts of Gujarat
and Madhya Pradesh this disease was observed in the poultries. Due to speedy action of
Government authorities and awareness among the people, this disease could be controlled.
Poultry farm owners culled the affected and nonaffected chicken in their poultry, as per
guideline of Health ministry, as a preventive measure.

Swine flu in 10 states - 2009-10

Swine flu disease spread in India through people coming from foreign countries. During May’
2009 to August’ 2010 period, 1833 death were reported in India. In August 2010 the World
Health Organization declared the swine flu pandemic officially. Highly affected states by
Swine flu disease were Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West
Bengal, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Goa and Uttar Pradesh. In Government laboratories,
influenza tests of 1,54,259 people were carried out. However people of India showed
resilience and as such in the last quarter of 2010, the epidemic was on the decline in the
country.
What are the causes for this hazard?

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✓ Poor sanitary conditions leading to contamination of food and water due to inadequate
disposal of human or animal carcasses in post disaster situations like floods and
earthquakes.
✓ Poor solid waste management may create epidemics like plague. Incidence of plague is
quite uncommon now but it can still occur claiming many human lives and disrupting
normal life as it did in Surat in 1994.
✓ Bio terrorism
What are impacts of this hazard?
✓ It can result into heavy mortalities in the short term
✓ Depletion of population in the long term with a corresponding drop in economic activity
✓ It leads to diversion of substantial resources of an economy to contain the disaster.
✓ Bio weapons of mass destruction.
Methods of Dissemination Used by Bio-terrorists
✓ Aerosols- biological agents are dispersed into the air forming a fine mist that may drift
for miles.
✓ Animals- fleas, mice, flies, mosquitoes and livestock
✓ Food and Water contamination- some pathogenic organisms and toxins may persist
in food and water supplies.
✓ Person to person- small pox, plague and the Lassa viruses.

What is India’s vulnerability profile to this hazard?

In India, the major sources of epidemics can be broadly categorized as follows:
✓ Water-borne diseases like cholera (and forms of gastroenteritis), typhoid, Hepatitis A,
Hepatitis B etc. – major epidemics of such diseases have been recorded in the past and
continue to occur;
✓ Vector-borne (often mosquito-borne) epidemics like dengue fever, chikungunya fever,
Japanese encephalitis, malaria, kala-azar etc., which usually occur in certain regions of
the country;

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✓ Person to person transmission of diseases e.g. AIDS and other venereal diseases; and
Air-borne diseases like influenza and measles that can also be transmitted through
fomites (used clothes etc.).
In addition to the above, there are certain types of emerging infectious diseases such as
epidemic of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), which had occurred in China or the
recent outbreak of avian flu in poultry in certain parts of the country and which has the
potential of being transmitted to human beings.
Epidemics due to the Dengue virus have occurred in many metropolitan cities of India and
outbreak of various other types of viral diseases is also a recurring phenomena.
Trends Favouring Biological Disaster
✓ Low cost and wide spread availability
✓ More efficient in terms of coverage per kilogram of payload
✓ Advances in biotechnology has made production easy
✓ Used agents are largely natural pathogens to simulate existing diseases
✓ Have unmatched destructive potential
✓ Lethal biological agents can be produced easily and cheaply
✓ The lag time between infection and appearance of symptoms are longer than with
chemical exposure.
What are the existing challenges to address this hazard?
The essential challenges posed by natural and artificial outbreaks of disease (bioterrorism)
include:
✓ The development of mechanisms for prompt detection of incipient outbreaks
✓ Mobilisation of investigational and therapeutic countermeasures
✓ International collaboration as epidemics do not respect national borders
✓ No plan for prevention of post-disaster epidemics
✓ Yet to be devised an integrated disease surveillance system
✓ Absence of standard risk and vulnerability assessment plans.

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✓ Lack of indicators and field-tested variables for various locations vulnerable to acts of
biological terrorism.
✓ Non-availability of risk-zonation maps, especially for computing the trans-frontier
spread.
✓ No comprehensive studies have been performed to assess the linkages between various
global attacks and enhanced risk potential in the Indian context.
✓ A multi-dimensional information network and flow of information on various biological
agents amongst stakeholders is lacking.
✓ Detailing the role of the emergency functionaries, vis-à-vis the intelligence gathering
agencies is also grossly inadequate.
✓ Lack of capability for collection of samples and proper dispatch to laboratories.
✓ Inadequate facilities for early detection and characterisation of biological agents at an
incident site.
What are the NDMA guidelines to mitigate the impact of this hazard?
Prevention and Mitigation Measures-
✓ The general population should be educated and made aware of the threats and risks
associated with it.
✓ Only cooked food and boiled/chlorinated/filtered water should be consumed.
✓ Insects and rodent control measures must be initiated immediately.
✓ Clinical isolation of suspected and confirmed cases is essential.
✓ A network of laboratories should be established for proper laboratory diagnosis.
✓ Existing diseases surveillance system as well as vector control measures have to be
pursued more rigorously.
✓ Mass immunisation programs in suspected areas have to be followed more rigorously.
✓ More focus should be given on the research of the vaccines which are not available.
Steps Required for Biological Disaster Management
✓ Legal framework - The Epidemic Diseases Act was enacted in 1897 and needs to be
repealed. This Act does not provide any power to the centre to intervene in biological

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emergencies. It has to be substituted by an Act which takes care of the prevailing and
foreseeable public health needs including emergencies such as BT attacks and use of
biological weapons by an adversary, cross-border issues, and international spread of
diseases
✓ Operational framework - At the national level, there is no policy on biological disasters. The
existing contingency plan of MoH&FW is about 10 years old and needs extensive revision.
All components related to public health, namely apex institutions, field epidemiology,
surveillance, teaching, training, research, etc., need to be strengthened.
✓ Command, control and coordination - One of the lessons learned during the plague
outbreak in Surat in 1994 and avian influenza in 2006 is the need to strengthen coordination
with other sectors like animal health, home department, communication, media, etc., on a
continuous basis for the management of outbreaks of this nature
✓ Augmentation in human resource - There is a shortage of medical and paramedical staff at
the district and sub-district levels. There is also an acute shortage of public health
specialists, epidemiologists, clinical microbiologists and virologists. There have been limited
efforts in the past to establish teaching/training institutions for these purposes.
✓ Basic infrastructural setup – Bio-safety laboratories for prompt diagnosis, network of sub
centres, PHCs and CHCs, dispensaries with stockpile of essential vaccines and medicines
need to be expanded to handle epidemic.

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