Introduction
In the context of childhood development, growth is defined as an irreversible constant
increase in size, and development is defined as growth in psychomotor capacity.
Psychomotor development is progress in mental and motor skill activity. The process of
growing and developing begins on the cellular level even before conception in the womb and
continues throughout life until death. Both processes are highly dependent on genetic,
nutritional, and environmental factors. Evaluation of growth and development is a crucial
element in the physical examination of a patient. A piece of good working knowledge and
the skills to evaluate growth and development are necessary for any patient's diagnostic
workup. The early recognition of growth or developmental failure helps for effective
intervention in managing a patient's problem.
Growth may be defined as a quantitative increase in size or mass. Measurements of height in
centimeters or weight in kilograms indicate how much growth has taken place in a child.
Development is defined as a progression of changes, either quantitative or qualitative, that
lead from an undifferentiated or immature state to a highly organized, specialized, and mature
state. Physical maturation is measured by functional capacity; for example, the maturation of
bipedal walking results from changes with age in the skeletal, muscular, and motor skills of
the infant and child.
The scientific community divides human growth into stages according to age and assesses
psychomotor development as a human develops motor skills and reaches cognitive
milestones. Most human stages of growth and development occur in infancy, childhood and
adolescence.
Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development
I. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
In the early 1990s, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed a group, a Task
Force on Psychology in Education, to conduct further studies in both psychology and
education. The purpose of this group was to conduct studies that could further enhance the
current understanding of educators on the nature of the learners about the teaching and
learning process. The end goal was to improve the existing school practices so that learning
becomes more meaningful to all kinds of learners. The 14 Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles are categorized as follows: (1) cognitive and metacognitive factors; (2)
motivational and affective; (3) developmental and social; and (4) individual difference
factors. All these principles influence the teaching and learning process (APA, 1997).
A. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
Cognitive factors refer to the mental processes the learners undergo as they process
information. The way learners think about their thinking as they engage in mental tasks is the
concern of the metacognitive factors.
1. Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most
effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information
and experience.
2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking
and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including
culture, technology, and instructional practices.
B. Motivational and Affective Factors
Motivational and emotional influences on learning the rich internal world of thoughts,
beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner's
quality of thinking and information processing. Take a look for its principles.
1. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is learned is
influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
2. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and
natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests,
and providing for personal choice and control.
3. Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
C. Developmental and Social Factors
These factors contribute to the mind's growth by systematically rewarding learners for their
efforts. Emotional, intellectual, and physical development are all considered developmental
components in the conception of maturity. This component contributes to a dynamic
interaction between a person and their surroundings.
1. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when
differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains is taken into account.
2. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication with others.
D. Individual Differences Factors
Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function
of prior experience and heredity. Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities
and talents.
1. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
2. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners'
linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.
3. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner as well as learning progress are integral parts of the learning
process.
II. Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
It is the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the lifespan. This
change can be growth – refers to positive changes that lead to maturity, that is, increase in
the physical aspects of body’s structures and improvement of their functions or decline/decay
- refers to negative changes that lead to deterioration and degeneration.
There are two approaches of human development namely traditional and lifespan
development. Traditional approach believes that individuals will show extensive change
from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age. Life-
span approach. Believes that even in adulthood, development change takes place as it does
during childhood. Based on Paul Baltes’ concepts of life-span development, he named five
important characteristics of development. These are lifelong, multidimensional, contextual
and multidirectional.
III. The Stages of Development and Development Tasks
A. There are 8 human development stages narrowed down by Santrock.
1. Prenatal period (conception to birth) occurs and development begins. All of the major
structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern.
Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth
defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns. Prenatal period involves
tremendous growth - from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and
behavioral activities.
2. Infancy and toddlerhood (birth to 2 years) stage is a time of extreme dependence on
adults. Many psychological activities are just beginning – language, symbolic
thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood (3 to 5 years old) is also referred to as the preschool years consisting
of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. The child is
busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is
beginning to learn the workings of the physical world.
4. Late childhood (6 to 12 years old) comprises middle childhood and much of what
children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades
of school. Children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family
through interaction with friends and fellow students. This is also considered as gang
stage or troublesome age. The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic
are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture.
5. Adolescence (13 to 18 years old) is a period of dramatic physical change marked by
an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also
a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and
to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. This is the transitional
stage from childhood to adulthood. It can be a time of both disorientation and
discovery.
6. Early adulthood (19 to 29 years old) is a time of physiological peak but are most at
risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing
on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn
the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. It is a time of establishing personal and
economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with
someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing child.
7. Middle adulthood (30 to 60 years old) is a period in which aging, that began earlier,
becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their peak of
productivity in love and work. It is a time of expanding personal and social
involvement and responsibility, assisting the next generation in becoming competent
and mature individuals and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
8. Late Adulthood (61 years and above) is sometimes subdivided into two or three
categories such as the “young old” and “old old” or the “young old”, “old old”, and
“oldest old”. A better way to appreciate this diversity of people is to go beyond
chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like
the gentleman pictured above who is in very good health for his age and continues to
have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to
most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more
physical challenge and disease than others of the same age). It is a time for adjustment
to decreasing strength and health, life reviews, retirement and adjustment to new
social roles.
B. There are only 6 stages given by Havinghurst equipped with corresponding
developmental tasks.
1. The stage of infancy and early childhood (0-5 years old) tasks are learning to walk,
to take solid foods, learning to talk, learning to control the elimination of body wastes,
learning sex differences and sex modesty, acquiring concepts and language to
describe social and physical reality, readiness for reading, earning to distinguish right
from wrong and developing a conscience.
2. Late childhood (6-12 years old) tasks are learning physical skills necessary for
ordinary games, building a wholesome attitude toward oneself, learning to get along
with agemates, learning an appropriate sex role, developing fundamental skills in
reading writing and calculating, developing concepts necessary for everyday living,
developing conscience, morality and a scale of values and developing acceptable
attitudes toward society.
3. Adolescence (13 to 18 years old) tasks are achieving mature relations with both sexes
and a masculine or feminine social role, accepting one’s physique, achieving
emotional independence of adults, preparing for marriage or family life and for an
economic career, acquiring values and an ethical system to guide behavior and
desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
4. Early adulthood (19 to 29 years old) tasks are selecting a mate, learning to live with
a partner, starting a family, rearing children, managing a home, starting an occupation
and assuming civic responsibility.
5. Middle adulthood (30 to 60 years old) tasks are helping teenage children to become
happy and responsible adults, achieving adult social and civic responsibility,
satisfactory career achievement, developing adult leisure time activities and adjusting
to aging parent.
6. Later maturity (61 years and above) tasks are adjusting to decreasing strength and
health, adjusting to retirement and reduces income, adjusting to death of spouse,
establishing of relations with one’s own age group, meeting social and civic
obligations and establishing satisfactory living quarters.
IV. Issues on Human Development
1. Nature and Nurture
The nature-nurture issue involves the debate about whether development is primarily
influenced by nature or by nurture (Goodnow, 2010; Kagan, 2010). Nature refers to an
organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences.
2. Continuity and Discontinuity
The continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on the extent to which development involves
gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
3. Early and Later Experience
The early-later experience issue focuses on the degree to which early experiences (especially
in infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of the child’s development.
Development of the Learners at Various Stages
I. Prenatal Period
A. The stages of prenatal development are divided into three (3) periods.
1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception) – this includes the creation of the
zygote, continued cell division and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
The blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that develops during later into the embryo. The
trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period,
later provides nutrition and support for the embryo.
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) – in this stage, the name of the mass
cells, zygote, become embryo. The following development takes place:
a. Cell differentiation
i. embryo’s endoderm – inner layer of cells, develops into the digestive
and respiratory systems
ii. embryo’s ectoderm – the outermost layer which becomes the nervous
system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair)
iii. embryo’s mesoderm – the middle layer which becomes the
circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems.
b. Life-support systems for the embryo develop
i. Placenta – consist of disk-shape group of tissues in which small blood
vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join
ii. Umbilical cord – contains two arteries and one vein that connects the
baby to the placenta
iii. Amnion – is a bag or an envelope that contains clear fluid in which the
developing embryo floats
c. Organs appear (organogenesis – process of organ formation)
3. Fetal Period (2 months to 7 months after conception) – growth and development
continue dramatically during this period. The details of the developmental process
are as follows:
a. 3 months after conception – fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1
ounce; fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs, opens and closes its
mouth, and moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be
distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands and lower limbs; the
genitals can now be identified as male or female.
b. 4 months after conception – fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7
ounces; growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts; prenatal reflexes are
stronger; mother feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
c. 5 months after conception – fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close to a
pound; structures of the skin (fingernail, toenails) have formed; fetus is more
active.
d. 6 months after conception – fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and
half pound; eyes and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer of head covers
the head; grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur
e. 7 months after conception – fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
f. 8 and 9 months after conception – fetus grows longer and gains substantial
weight, about 4 pounds
B. Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth)
defects. A teratogen is that which cause birth effects. It comes from Greek word “tera”
which means “monster”. Below are the clusters of hazards to prenatal development:
1. Prescription and nonprescription drugs – one of the examples of prescriptive
drugs are Antibiotic because it can be harmful.
2. Psychoactive drugs – these include nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such
as marijuana, cocaine and heroin. Heavy drinking by pregnant women results
to the so-called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of
abnormalities that appear in children of mothers who drink alcohol, heavily
during pregnancy.
3. Environmental hazards – these include radiation in jobsites and X-rays,
environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure to heat in
saunas and bath tubs.
4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German measles), syphilis, genital
herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age (too early or too late,
beyond 30)
II. Infancy and Toddlerhood
Cephalocaudal sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top, beginning
with the head and Proximodistal Patterns sequence in which growth starts at the center of the
body and moves toward the extremities
In the first year, most newborns lose 5 to 7 percent of their body weight adjusting to feeding.
They double their birth weight by the age of 4 months and nearly triple it by their first
birthday. Infants grow about 1 inch per month during the first year
At 2 years of age, children weigh approximately 26 to 32 pounds. Gaining a quarter to half a
pound per month. Attain about one-fifth of their adult weight. And at 2 years, the average
child is 32 to 35 inches tall, nearly half of their eventual adult height.
In the brain, cerebral cortex covers the forebrain like a wrinkled cap. Two halves, or
hemispheres, based on ridges and valleys in the cortex. Four main areas, lobes, in each
hemisphere, the frontal lobes, occipital lobes, temporal lobes, parietal lobes. Lateralization
is the specialization of function in one hemisphere or the other.
During of sleeping time for typical newborn, infants sleep 16 to 17 hours a day.
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a condition that occurs when infants stop breathing,
usually during the night, and die suddenly without an apparent cause. SIDS is the highest
cause of infant death in the United States and is highest at 2 to 4 months of age.
SIDS decreases when infants sleep on their backs. More common in low-birth-weight infants
and who are passively exposed to cigarette smoke are at higher risk. More frequent in infants
who sleep in soft bedding. Less likely in infants who use a pacifier when they go to sleep.
Benefits of breast feeding for infants are appropriate weight gain, lowered risk of childhood
obesity, fewer allergies, prevention or reduction of diarrhea, respiratory infections, bacterial
and urinary tract infections, and otitis media, denser bones in childhood and adulthood,
reduced childhood cancer and reduced incidence of breast cancer in mothers and their female
offspring and lower incidence of SIDS.
The mother should not breast feed if she is infected with AIDS or any other infectious disease
that can be transmitted through her milk, if she has active tuberculosis and if she is taking
any drug that may not be safe for the infant.
Dynamic systems theory states that infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting,
which are coupled together. When infants are motivated to do something, they might create
a new motor behavior. Mastering a motor skill requires the infant’s active efforts to
coordinate several components of the skill. Mastering a new skill, the infant is motivated by
a new challenge, partially accomplishes the task. “Fine tunes” movements to make them
smoother and more effective. “Tuning” is achieved through repeated cycles of action and
perception of the consequences of that action.
Smell and taste for newborns can differentiate among odors. Sensitivity to taste might be
present even before birth. At only 2 hours of age, babies made different facial expressions
when they tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions.
Key milestones in language development of babies through sounds and gestures during the
first year. Crying can signal distress, but there are different types of cries that signal different
things. Cooing about 1 to 2 months, gurgling sounds that are made in the back of the throat
and usually express pleasure during interaction with the caregiver. Babbling in the middle of
the first year, strings of consonant-vowel combinations, such as “ba, ba, ba, ba”. Infants start
using gestures, such as showing and pointing, at about 8 to 12 months of age.
Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such
as seeing and hearing) with physical actions. 2-year-olds can produce complex sensorimotor
patterns and use primitive symbols. Object permanence is the understanding of objects that
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Watch an infant’s
reaction when an interesting object disappears. If the infant searches for the object, it is
inferred that the baby knows it continues to exist.
Infants can learn through operant conditioning. Attention is the focusing of mental resources
on select information and improves cognitive processing on many tasks. Joint attention
involves individuals focusing on the same object or event and involves: the ability to track
another’s behavior, one person directing another’s attention, reciprocal interaction.
III. Early Childhood (The Preschooler)
A. Big Ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers
There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers. The preschoolers’
physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills.
Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age. Proper nutrition
and the right amount of sleep are very important for the preschoolers. Caregivers and
teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development of preschoolers.
Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classroom can thrive well with the
appropriate adaptations made in the classroom, materials and activities.
B. Gross and Fine Motor Development
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles. Theses
gross motor skills are categorized into three:
1. Locomotor skills – involve going from one place to another like walking, running,
climbing, skipping, hopping, creeping, galloping and dodging.
2. Non-locomotor skills – those where the child stays in place like bending, stretching,
turning and swaying
3. Manipulative skills – involve projecting and receiving objects, like throwing, striking,
bouncing, catching and dribbling.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in the arm,
hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included here are picking, squeezing,
pounding and opening things, holding and using a writing implement. It also involves self-
help skills like using the spoon and fork when eating, buttoning, zipping, combing and
brushing.
C. Brain Connections in the Preschool Years
Because of the fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain development of young
children has been great interest to the field of early childhood. The human brain contains
some 50 billion neurons at birth. By age of 2, children have developed half of the brain cell
connections that will be made during one’s lifetime. Around 6 years of age the brain develops
for more sophisticated thinking patterns. Brain research has also pointed out the crucial role
of the environment. Experts have shown specific areas of brain activity that respond to
environmental stimulation. The brain forms specific connections (synapses) that are different
for each person. The quality of these connections depends on the quality of stimulation and
exposure provided by the environment.
D. Big Ideas about Preschoolers’ Cognitive Development
Preschoolers engage in symbolic and intuitive thinking. Brain connections are made when
preschoolers interact with the environment. Preschoolers’ language development occurs in
four areas: phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. Vygotsky believed that language
and social interaction are very important to cognitive development. Preschoolers’ cognitive
development is marked by the emergence of a theory of mind.
E. Big Ideas about Preschoolers’ Socioemotional Development
The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler. A healthy self-concept is needed
for preschoolers to interact with others. Environmental factors influence gender identity in
younger children. Preschooler’s social development is shown through the stage of play. The
care-giving styles of parents and teachers affect the preschoolers’ socioemotional
development. Preschoolers are interested in building friendships.
1. Parten’s Six Stages of Play
i. Unoccupied play – this type of play builds the foundation for the other five
stages of play. This stage allows children to practice manipulating materials,
mastering their self-control and learning about how the world works.
ii. Solitary play – this type of play occurs when children entertain themselves
without any other social involvement. When children engage in solitary play,
they are able to explore freely, master new personal skills like new motor or
cognitive skills, and prepare themselves to play with others.
iii. Onlooker play – when the child watches others at play but does not engage in
it. The child may engage in forms of social interaction, such as conversation
about the play, without actually joining in the activity. This type of activity is
also more common in younger children.
iv. Parallel play – this occurs when children play next to each other, but are not
really interacting together. Think of this stage like a warm up exercise –
children work side by side on the same activity, practicing skills and learning
new methods to engage together.
v. Associative play – this type of play signifies a shift in the child. It allows
children to begin practicing what they have observed through onlooker and
parallel play.
vi. Cooperative play – this type of play categorized by cooperative efforts
between players. It is often involving a lot of conflict. It is sometimes difficult
for young children to share, take turns and negotiate control in these types of
play scenarios.
2. Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect socio-emotional development of the children. Caregivers refer to
both parents and teachers and even other adults that care for the child. Baumrind gave a
model that describes the different types of caregiving styles. Responsiveness refers to
caregiver behaviors that pertain to expression of affection and communication. It refers to
how warm, caring and respectful the adult is to the child. Demandingness refers to the level
of control and expectations. This involves disciplines and confrontation strategies:
authoritative – high demandingness / high responsiveness; authoritarian – high
demandingness / low responsiveness; permissiveness – low demandingness / high
responsiveness; negligent – low demandingness / low responsiveness.
IV. Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler)
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. Physical development
involves having good muscle control and coordination, developing eye-hand coordination,
having good personal hygiene, being aware of good safety habits. Primary school age
children get fatigued more easily because of physical and mental exertions both at home and
in school. Hence, activities should be alternated between strenuous one and relaxing or quiet
activities.
Concrete operation is the third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It spans
from age 7 to approximately 11 years old. During this time, children have better
understanding of their thinking skills. children to think logically about concrete events,
particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical
concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at problem solving.
Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in this stge.
Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations where long, patient work is demanded
of them, while inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of failure when
they cannot finish or master their school work. In this stage, children, will most likely, have
begun going to school. School experiences become the priority, with children so busy doing
school work. The encouragement of parents and caring educators helps to build a child’s
sense of self-esteem, confidence and ability to interact positively in the world.
V. Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler)
Intermediate schoolers have more control over their bodies than they have when they were
in primary school. They become more active and have greater liberty to choose the hobbies
or sports that they want to get involved in.
This may also be the stage when puberty may begin. Puberty is the period in which the body
undergoes physical changes and becomes capable of sexual reproduction. The factors of
physical development during this stage are early puberty, height, weight and muscle
development, motor skills and physical insecurities.
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can now utilize
more effectively as compared to their thinking skills during the primary years. Their school
work is now more complicated, reading texts have become longer, problem solving has
become an everyday part of their lives.
The factors of cognitive development during this stage are reading, attention, creativity and
impact of media.
Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children’s emotional intelligence
(EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others to guide and
motivate behavior. Emotional Intelligence has four main areas: developing emotional self-
awareness, managing emotions (self-control), reading emotions (perspective taking) and
handling emotions (resolve problems).
The factors of socioemotional development during this stage are building friendships (peers),
family and school.
VI. Adolescence (The High School Learners)
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive ad socioemotional
changes. The period of adolescence begins with the biological changes of puberty. The
specific ages for this period vary from person to person but early adolescence characterized
by puberty may come to the ages of 11 and 12, middle adolescence may meet identity issues
within the ages of 14 and 16, and late adolescence marks the transition into adulthood ages
17 and 20.
Physical development involves physical appearance, rapid rate of growth (next to the speed
of growth of the fetus in the uterus) known as growth spurts, resultant feeling of awkwardness
and unfamiliarity with bodily changes and alterations in sleeping habits and parent-
adolescent relationship possibly accompanying puberty.
Cognitive development involves decrease in egocentric thoughts, Piaget’s formal operational
thinker, Siegler’s information processing skills, metacognition, overachievement and
underachievement.
Emotions are commonly known as human feelings that are manifested by varied conscious
or unconscious moods. Positive emotion like interest and joy motivates the individual to
continue his/ her behavior. Negative emotion may cause withdrawal from what may be
perceived as bad or dangerous.
Conclusion
Human growth and development have a broad knowledge. Understanding the stages of
development from infant to adulthood what the teacher and also a parent must know.
Therefore, I conclude that development does not just involve the biological and physical
aspects of growth, but also the cognitive and social aspects associated with development
throughout life. By better understanding how and why people change and grow, we can then
apply this knowledge to helping people live up to their full potential. The knowledge of
human growth and development helps teachers to provide appropriate help for students with
developmental problems. By understanding the different stages that a student's life goes
through, educators can more efficiently develop each learner to achieve their full potential.
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