Rigid Body Kinematics & Momentum 1

Michael E. Cholette
Housekeeping
• PST #1 posted
• Consultation Thursdays 12:00 – 13:00 (Zoom link on Blackboard)
• I’m moving some example to tutorial to ensure that we get all of the
content we need in time for the PST

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 Unit Schedule
Up on Blackboard as well
Associated Reading Assessment Due
Week Lecture Topic Tutorial Topic
(Ginsberg) (11:59:59 Sunday)
Unit Introduction, Basics: Vector Calculus, History,
1 No Tutorial All of Chapter 1
3D Particle Kinematics
2 3D Particle Kinematics & Relative Motion Vector and Particle Kinematics
Sections 2.2-2.4 & Chapter 3
3 No Lecture (Public Holiday) More Kinematics
4 Kinematics of Rigid Bodies Linear & Angular Momentum Chapter 4
5 Linear & Angular Momentum More Linear & Angular Momentum Chapter 5
6 Newton-Euler Equations of Motion #1
Newton-Euler Examples Sections 6.1-6.3
7 Newton-Euler Equations of Motion #2 Problem Solving Task #1
Virtual Work, Generalized Coordinates, and Newton-Euler Examples, Solutions
8 Sections 7.1-7.4
Kinematic Constraints of ODEs in MATLAB
9 Lagrange's Equations #1 Lagrange Examples Section 7.5
Semester Break
10 Lagrange's Equations #2 Lagrange Examples Section 7.5
Solution of Lagrange's Equations
11 Constrained Generalized Coodinates Section 8.1 & 8.2
(computer)
12 Gyroscopic Effects Gyroscopic Effects Examples Chapter 9 Problem Solving Task #2
13 Review Lecture No Tutorial
Examination
Final Exam
period
Lecture outline
• From last time: Relative Motion
• More Relative Motion & Examples
– Time derivatives of vectors described in moving reference frames
– Velocity and acceleration using a moving reference frame
– Examples
• Begin Kinematics of Rigid Bodies
– General Equations
– Euler Angles
– Interconnections and Linkages
– Rolling

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Simple rotations
Rotation Axis Rotation Matrix Visualization

1 0 0
𝑥-axis 𝑅𝑥 = 0 cos 𝜃𝑥 sin 𝜃𝑥
0 − sin 𝜃𝑥 cos 𝜃𝑥

cos 𝜃𝑦 0 − sin 𝜃𝑦
𝑦-axis 𝑅𝑦 = 0 1 0
sin 𝜃𝑦 0 cos 𝜃𝑦

cos 𝜃𝑧 sin 𝜃𝑧 0
𝑧-axis 𝑅𝑧 = − sin 𝜃𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑧 0
0 0 1

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Body-fixed vs. space-fixed
෠ and a frame subject to rotation 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ (with unit
Consider a fixed frame 𝑋𝑌𝑍 (with unit vectors 𝑖,Ƹ 𝑗,Ƹ 𝑘)
vectors 𝑖′,Ƹ 𝑗′,Ƹ 𝑘෠ ′ )

Body-fixed rotations Space-fixed rotations 6

Sequence of rotations
• Consider a sequence of 1,2, … , 𝑛 rotations described by rotation
matrices [𝑅1 ], 𝑅2 , … , [𝑅𝑛 ]
• The final rotation matrix that transforms the 𝑖,Ƹ 𝑗,Ƹ 𝑘෠ unit vectors (i.e.
those of the 𝑋𝑌𝑍) into 𝑖′Ƹ , 𝑗′Ƹ , 𝑘෠ ′ unit vectors (i.e. those of the 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧 ′ ) is
– For body-fixed rotations

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑛 … 𝑅2 𝑅1
– For space-fixed rotations

𝑅 = 𝑅1 … 𝑅𝑛−1 𝑅𝑛

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From last time: relative motion
Displacement using a moving coordinate system 𝑥𝑦𝑧

𝑇 𝑻 𝑻
Δ𝑟𝑃ҧ = Δ𝑟ҧ𝑂′ + 𝑅 𝑓 Δ𝑟𝑃ҧ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 𝑹 𝒇 − 𝑹 𝒐 𝒓ത 𝒐

Superposition of three effects:

1. Displacement of origin 𝑂′ of 𝑥𝑦𝑧
2. Effect of displacement relative to moving coordinate system 𝑥𝑦𝑧
3. Effect of rotation of the coordinate system from the original (𝒐) to the final (𝒇)
configuration

8
Velocity
Once again, let 𝑋𝑌𝑍 denote a fixed reference frame and 𝑥𝑦𝑧 denote a
moving one. It can be shown (after a bit of hullabaloo) that the velocity of
a point 𝑃 w.r.t. 𝑋𝑌𝑍 can be stated as

𝑣ҧ𝑃 = 𝑣ҧ 𝑂′ + 𝑣ҧ𝑃 𝑥𝑦𝑧 +𝜔

ഥ × 𝑟ҧ𝑃/𝑂′
where:
– 𝑣ҧ 𝑂′ is the velocity of the local reference frame origin
– 𝑣ҧ𝑃 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 𝑥ሶ 𝑃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦ሶ 𝑃 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧ሶ𝑃 𝑘෠ is the relative velocity seen by an observer moving
with 𝑥𝑦𝑧
–𝜔
ഥ is the rotation vector of the reference frame

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Time derivative of a vector
We can generalize some of the velocity observations to construct a
method for taking a derivative of a vector that’s described in a local
reference frame:

𝐴ሶ ҧ = 𝐴ሶ 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴ሶ 𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐴ሶ 𝑧 𝑘෠ + 𝜔
ഥ × 𝐴ҧ

𝜕𝐴ҧ
Or (abusing notation) letting ≜ 𝐴ሶ 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴ሶ 𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐴ሶ 𝑧 𝑘෠
𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝐴ҧ
𝐴ሶ ҧ = ഥ × 𝐴ҧ
+𝜔
𝜕𝑡
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Acceleration
𝑎ത𝑃 = 𝑎𝑂′ + 𝑎ത𝑃 𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 𝛼ത × 𝑟ҧ𝑃/𝑂′ + 𝜔
ഥ× 𝜔
ഥ × 𝑟ҧ𝑃/𝑂′ + 2𝜔
ഥ × 𝑣ҧ𝑃 𝑥𝑦𝑧

Looking at each term:

– 𝑎ത𝑂′ is the acceleration of the reference frame
– 𝑎ത𝑃 𝑥𝑦𝑧 is the acceleration relative to 𝑥𝑦𝑧
– 𝛼ത × 𝑟ҧ𝑃/𝑂′ due to the angular acceleration of 𝑥𝑦𝑧
–𝜔
ഥ× 𝜔
ഥ × 𝑟ҧ𝑃/𝑂′ is the centripetal acceleration
– 2𝜔
ഥ × 𝑣ҧ𝑃 𝑥𝑦𝑧 the Coriolis acceleration is due to two effects:
• The variation in the direction of the relative velocity due to 𝜔
ഥ
• The variation in the velocity term 𝜔ഥ × 𝑟ҧ𝑃/𝑂′ due to changing position relative to 𝑥𝑦𝑧

11
Example 3.1
The turntable rotates and angular speed
𝜔1 and the disk rotates at angular speed
𝜔2 relative to the turntable (both rates
are constant). Determine the velocity
and acceleration of point 𝐶 on the
perimeter of the disk using A coordinate
system attached to the turntable and:

(a) The velocity and acceleration

formulas
(b) Writing 𝑟𝐶/𝐴
ҧ and differentiating it

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Example 3.2 — In tutorial
Let 𝜔𝑥 , 𝜔𝑦 , and 𝜔𝑧 denote the pitch, roll, and yaw
rates (all non-constant), respectively, of a ship about
𝑥𝑦𝑧 axes that are attached to the ship with the
orientations shown. The origin of xyz coincides with
the center of mass 𝐺 of the ship. Consider an
elevator car whose path perpendicularly intersects
the centerline at a distance 𝐿 forward from the
center of mass. Let ℎ(𝑡) denote the height of the
car above the centerline. The velocity and
acceleration of the center of mass at this instant are
𝑣ҧ𝐺 and 𝑎ത𝐺 . Determine the corresponding velocity
and acceleration of the car.

13
Example 3.3 — In tutorial
The cooling fan consists of a shaft that
rotates about the vertical axis at angular
speed Ω as the blades rotate around the
shaft at angular rate 𝜙, where 𝜙 is the
angle of rotation of one of the blades from
the top-center position. Both rotation rates
are constant. Derive expressions for the
velocity of the blade tip 𝑃 in terms of
components relative to the body-fixed 𝑥𝑦𝑧
reference system.

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Important Kinematic Relationships
Position 𝑟ҧ 𝑃Τ𝑂
Motion of point
(defined in fixed
𝑋𝑌𝑍 frame) with Velocity 𝑣ҧ = 𝑟ሶ ҧ 𝑃Τ𝑂
respect to fixed
𝑋𝑌𝑍
Acceleration 𝑎ത = 𝑟ሷ ҧ𝑃Τ𝑂

Position 𝑟ҧ 𝑂′ Τ𝑂 + 𝑟ҧ 𝑃Τ𝑂′
Motion of point
General 𝜕𝐴
(defined in local 𝐴ሶ ҧ = ഥ × 𝐴ҧ
+𝜔
derivative 𝜕𝑡
𝑥𝑦𝑧 frame) with
respect to fixed Velocity 𝑣ҧ 𝑃 = 𝑣ҧ 𝑂′ + 𝑣ҧ𝑃 𝑥𝑦𝑧 +𝜔
ഥ × 𝑟ҧ 𝑃/𝑂′
𝑋𝑌𝑍
Acceleration 𝑎ത𝑃 = 𝑎ത𝑂′ + 𝑎ത𝑃 𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 𝛼ത × 𝑟ҧ 𝑃Τ𝑂′ + 𝜔
ഥ× 𝜔
ഥ × 𝑟ҧ𝑃Τ𝑂′ + 2𝜔
ഥ × 𝑣ҧ 𝑃 𝑥𝑦𝑧

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Kinematics of Rigid Bodies
Rigid Bodies
• Rigid ⟹ no change in shape during motion (no deformation)
• Concept is an idealization: all bodies will deform somewhat
• However, many bodes undergo very small changes in shape during
motion that can be neglected
• Also: can often decompose flexible body motion into rigid body motion
+ deformation

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Rigid Bodies

18
Rigid Bodies

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Rigid Bodies

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Rigid Bodies

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Rigid Bodies

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Rigid Bodies

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Rigid Bodies
• Key concept: distance separating
any pair of points on a rigid body
is constant
• Greatly simplifies kinematical
analysis
• For our analysis, fix 𝑥𝑦𝑧 to the
body (i.e. a body-fixed reference
frame)

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Rigid Bodies – displacement
No point can displace relative to 𝑂′
– Δ𝑟𝐴ҧ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 =0
– 𝑟𝐴ҧ 𝑓 = 𝑟𝐴ҧ 𝑜

Therefore, displacement is:

𝑇 𝑇
𝛥𝑟𝐴ҧ = 𝛥𝑟ҧ𝑂′ + 𝑅 𝑓 − 𝑅 𝑜 𝑟𝐴ҧ 𝑜

25
Rigid Bodies – velocity and acceleration
For velocity we have that
No relative terms!
𝑣𝐴ҧ = 𝑣ҧ 𝑂′ + 𝜔
ഥ × 𝑟𝐴/𝑂
ҧ ′
and acceleration
𝑎ത𝐴 = 𝑎ത𝑂′ + 𝛼ത × 𝑟𝐴/𝑂
ҧ ′ +𝜔
ഥ× 𝜔
ഥ × 𝑟𝐴/𝑂
ҧ ′

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Rigid Bodies
Nothing special about 𝑂′ so we can use any reference point 𝐴:

𝑇 𝑇
𝛥𝑟𝑃ҧ = 𝛥𝑟𝐴ҧ + 𝑅 𝑓 − 𝑅 𝑜 𝑟𝑃/𝐴
ҧ
=
𝑣ҧ𝑃 = 𝑣𝐴ҧ + 𝜔
ഥ × 𝑟𝑃/𝐴
ҧ

𝑎ത𝑃 = 𝑎ത𝐴 + 𝛼ത × 𝑟𝑃/𝐴

ҧ +𝜔
ഥ× 𝜔
ഥ × 𝑟𝑃/𝐴
ҧ

to relate displacement, velocity, and acceleration of two points on the

body, 𝑃 and 𝐴.

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Chasles’ Theorem
• Select an arbitrary reference point 𝐴
• Chasles’ Theorem states that:
The general motion of a rigid body is a superposition of a translation and a pure
rotation

• In translation:
– All points follow the movement of an arbitrary point 𝐴
– Any line between two points in the body has constant orientation
• In rotation, 𝐴 is at rest

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Eulerian Angles
• Eulerian Angles are a convention
that is used to describe the
rotation of a rigid body1
• Consist of a sequence of body-
fixed rotations:
1. Precession – rotation of 𝜓 about a
fixed 𝑍 axis
2. Nutation – rotation of 𝜃 about the
precessed 𝑦 axis
3. Spin – rotation of 𝜙 about the 1. Careful here: there are a few conventions for the sequence of rotations
nutated 𝑧 axis that differ depending on the application/textbook!

29
Eulerian Angles
Sequence:
– 𝑋𝑌𝑍 → 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧′, rotation of 𝜓 about 𝑍
– 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧′ → 𝑥 ′′ 𝑦 ′′ 𝑧′′, rotation of 𝜃 about 𝑦′
– 𝑥 ′′ 𝑦 ′′ 𝑧 ′′ → 𝑥𝑦𝑧, rotation of 𝜙 about 𝑧 ′′ = 𝑧

Thus, the transformation between the (fixed) 𝑋𝑌𝑍 and (final body-fixed)
frame 𝑥𝑦𝑧 is a body-fixed sequence of simple rotations:

𝑥 𝑋
𝑦 = 𝑅𝜙 𝑅𝜃 𝑅𝜓 𝑌
𝑧 𝑍

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Eulerian Angles
We can write angular velocity of the body in these angles:

෡ + 𝜃ሶ 𝑗′Ƹ + 𝜙ሶ 𝑘෠ ′′ = 𝜓ሶ 𝐾
ഥ = 𝜓ሶ 𝐾
𝜔 ෡ + 𝜃ሶ 𝑗Ƹ′ + 𝜙ሶ 𝑘෠

Putting 𝜔 ഥ = 𝜔𝑥
ഥ in vector notation 𝜔 𝜔𝑦 𝜔𝑧 𝑇 , we can write (in the
𝑥𝑦𝑧 frame)
0 0 0
𝜔
ഥ = 𝑅𝜙 𝑅𝜃 𝑅𝜓 0 + 𝑅𝜙 𝑅𝜃 𝜃ሶ + 0
𝜓ሶ 𝑋𝑌𝑍 0 ′ ′
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ′ 𝜙ሶ
𝑥𝑦𝑧
Rotates 𝑋𝑌𝑍 → 𝑥𝑦𝑧 Rotates 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧′ → 𝑥𝑦𝑧

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Eulerian Angles
Noting that (from simple rotations on equation sheet):

cos 𝜙 sin 𝜙 0 cos 𝜃 0 − sin 𝜃

𝑅𝜙 𝑅𝜃 = − sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 sin 𝜃 0 cos 𝜃
=
cos 𝜙 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 − cos 𝜙 sin 𝜃
= − sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃 0 cos 𝜃

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Eulerian Angles
and that

𝑅𝜙 𝑅𝜃 𝑅𝜓
cos 𝜙 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 − cos 𝜙 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜓 sin 𝜓 0
= − sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜓 cos 𝜓 0
sin 𝜃 0 cos 𝜃 0 0 1

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Eulerian Angles
Which yields (in the 𝑥𝑦𝑧 frame)

ሶ
𝜃sin ሶ
𝜙 −𝜓cos 𝜙 sin 𝜃
𝜔 ሶ
ഥ = 𝜃cos 𝜙 + 𝜓ሶ sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃
𝜙ሶ + 𝜓ሶ cos 𝜃 𝑥𝑦𝑧

And the acceleration can be found by taking the derivative of the above
(and it’s ugly!)

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Linkages & Common Kinematic Constraints
• Connections between bodies constrain their motion:
– Constraint equations – kinematical constraints
– Constraint forces (reactions) – impose enforce constraints
• We’ll have a look at some (common?) connections and the type of
kinematic constraints they impose

35
Joints – some examples
Ball and socket -- Free to rotate, no translation
Δ𝑟ҧ 1 = Δ𝑟ҧ 2
𝑣ҧ𝐵 1 = 𝑣ҧ𝐵 2
𝑎ത𝐵 1 = 𝑎ത𝐵 2

Pin joint – constrains rotation in addition to

the above
ഥ1 + 𝜙ሶ 𝑘෠1
ഥ2 = 𝜔
𝜔

𝛼ത 2 = 𝛼ത1 + 𝜙ሷ 𝑘෠1 + 𝜙ሶ 𝜔
ഥ1 × 𝑘෠1

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Joints – some examples

Slider constrains motion to be along the bar (here the 𝑥1 direction. The
distance from 𝐶 to the centreline is assumed to be small. Let 𝑢 be the
relative displacement w.r.t the bar-fixed 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1 . Constraints are thus
𝑣ҧ𝐶 = 𝑣ҧ𝐵 + 𝑢ሶ 𝑖1Ƹ
𝑎ത𝐶 = 𝑎ത𝐵 + 𝑢ሷ 𝑖1Ƹ + 2𝜔ഥ1 × 𝑢ሶ 𝑖1Ƹ

37
Rolling without slipping
• The special case of rolling without
slipping imposes an additional
constraint on the motion of the
body
• The velocities must match at the
contact point
• We’ll stick to analysis of round
bodies in this class
• For the general situation on the
right
𝑣ҧ𝑐1 = 𝑣ҧ𝑐2

38
Rolling without slipping
• The arc lengths must also be
equal
𝑠1 = 𝑠2
• Note that the acceleration of the
contact point is not generally
perpendicular to the contact
plane (only in planar case!)

39
Rolling – planar case
Planar case: simply relate the arc length and
distance as
𝑥 = 𝑅𝜃
So
𝑟𝐴/𝑂
ҧ = 𝑅 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑅 cos 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ
Which we can differentiate to obtain

𝑣𝐴ҧ = 𝑅 𝜃ሶ − 𝜃ሶ cos 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑅 𝜃ሶ sin 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ

𝑎ത𝐴 = 𝑅 𝜃ሷ − 𝜃ሷ cos 𝜃 + 𝜃ሶ 2 sin 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑅 𝜃ሷ sin 𝜃 + 𝜃ሶ 2 cos 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ

40
Rolling – planar case
Planar case: simply relate the arc length and
distance as
𝑥 = 𝑅𝜃
So
𝑟𝐴/𝑂
ҧ = 𝑅 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑅 cos 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ
Which we can differentiate to obtain

𝑣𝐴ҧ = 𝑅 𝜃ሶ − 𝜃ሶ cos 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑅 𝜃ሶ sin 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ

𝑎ത𝐴 = 𝑅 𝜃ሷ − 𝜃ሷ cos 𝜃 + 𝜃ሶ 2 sin 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑅 𝜃ሷ sin 𝜃 + 𝜃ሶ 2 cos 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ

41
Rolling – planar case
Planar case: simply relate the arc length and
distance as
𝑥 = 𝑅𝜃
So
𝑟𝐴/𝑂
ҧ = 𝑅 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑅 cos 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ
Which we can differentiate to obtain

𝑣𝐴ҧ = 𝑅 𝜃ሶ − 𝜃ሶ cos 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑅 𝜃ሶ sin 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ

𝑎ത𝐴 = 𝑅 𝜃ሷ − 𝜃ሷ cos 𝜃 + 𝜃ሶ 2 sin 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑅 𝜃ሷ sin 𝜃 + 𝜃ሶ 2 cos 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ

42
Rolling – planar case
Notice that evaluating

𝑣𝐴ҧ = 𝑅 𝜃ሶ − 𝜃ሶ cos 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑅 𝜃ሶ sin 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ

𝑎ത𝐴 = 𝑅 𝜃ሷ − 𝜃ሷ cos 𝜃 + 𝜃ሶ 2 sin 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑅 𝜃ሷ sin 𝜃 + 𝜃ሶ 2 cos 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ

at 𝜃 = 0 (i.e. the contact point) yields

2
𝑣
𝑣𝐴ҧ = 0 𝑎ത𝐴 = 𝑅 𝜃ሶ 2 = 𝑗Ƹ
𝑅
So the velocity of the point in contact with the ground is zero and the
acceleration is straight up in the planar case

43
Rolling
• Note that the previous analysis was for the planar case, not the general
spatial case
• For the spatial case, the acceleration need not be perpendicular to the
contact plane
• For the spatial case, this arc length approach becomes challenging
• We’ll use the more general notion that the velocity of the contact point
must be equal on both bodies
• The basic strategy: relate the velocity the centre to the contact point 𝐶
• We’ll show this by way of example

44
Example 4.1 — In tutorial
Consider a disk which is rolling
without slipping in steady
precession (i.e. 𝜓ሶ constant) with a
constant inclination angle 𝛽. Show
that the no-slip constraint implies
that the spin rate 𝜙ሶ is constant and
find an expression for the angular
velocity and acceleration in terms
of 𝜓 (and its derivatives), 𝛽, 𝜌, and
𝑅.

45
Linear & Angular Momentum
Where we’re headed
• Our goal for this unit is formulating the equations of motion (EQM)
• EQM describe the relationship between the forces acting on the body
and the body’s motion
• They allow us to solve the following problems:
1. Given the motion of a body, determine the forces acting on the body
2. Given the forces acting on a body, determine the motion of that body (position,
velocity, acceleration)

47
Where we’re headed
• So far, we’ve mostly focused on the geometric requirements of the
body’s motion (kinematics)
• Today, we start with kinetics, i.e. describing interplay of forces and
motion
• Two popular methods:
– Newton-Euler approach (Direct)
– Lagrange approach (Indirect, Energy-based)

48
Where we’re headed
• So far, we’ve mostly focused on the geometric requirements of the body’s
motion (kinematics)
• Today, we start with kinetics, i.e. describing interplay of forces and motion
• Two popular methods:
– Newton-Euler approach (Direct)

𝑑 𝑃ത Sum of forces = Time rate of

∑𝐹𝐺 = = 𝑚𝑎ത𝐺 change of linear momentum
𝑑𝑡

ഥ𝐴 Sum of moments = Time rate of

𝑑𝐻
∑𝑀𝐴 = change of angular momentum
𝑑𝑡 about 𝐴

49
Where we’re headed
• So far, we’ve mostly focused on the geometric requirements of the body’s
motion (kinematics)
• Now, we start with kinetics, i.e. describing interplay of forces and motion
• Two popular methods:
– Newton-Euler approach (Direct)

𝑑 𝑃ത RHS here is easily understood

∑𝐹𝐺 = = 𝑚𝑎ത𝐺 once kinematics are known.
𝑑𝑡

ഥ𝐴 Now: What is angular momentum? How can

𝑑𝐻
∑𝑀𝐴 = we compute it and its (time) derivative?
𝑑𝑡 What are the requirements of point 𝐴?

50
Linear and angular momentum
• Consider a system of particles (we’ll later use this to generalize to a rigid
body)

𝑧
𝐹ത𝑘

𝑥
𝐴
𝑦

51
Linear and angular momentum
• Consider a system of particles (we’ll later use this to generalize to a rigid
body) Interaction forces

𝑧 External forces
𝐹ത𝑘

𝑥
𝐴 Newton’s 3rd Law:
𝑦
ҧ = −𝑓𝑘,𝑗
𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
𝑟𝑗/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ = −𝑟𝑘/𝐴 ҧ
ҧ × 𝑓𝑘,𝑗

52
Linear and angular momentum
NSL for each particle:

ҧ = 𝑚𝑗 𝑎ത𝑗
𝐹ത𝑗 + 𝑓𝑗,𝑘
ҧ = 𝑚𝑘 𝑎ത𝑘
𝐹ത𝑘 + 𝑓𝑘,𝑗

ҧ = −𝑓𝑘,𝑗
ҧ
If we are interested in how the system of 𝑟𝑗/𝐴
𝑓𝑗,𝑘
ҧ = −𝑟𝑘/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
ҧ × 𝑓𝑘,𝑗
particles reacts to external forces, we add the
preceding to obtain

∑𝐹ത = 𝐹ത𝑗 + 𝐹ത𝑘 = 𝑚𝑗 𝑎ത𝑗 + 𝑚𝑘 𝑎ത𝑘

i.e. the internal forces cancel out!

53
Linear and angular momentum
A similar result for the moment of
momentum for each particle:

∑𝑀𝐴 = 𝑟𝑞/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑚𝑞 𝑎ത𝑞

where 𝑞 = 𝑗, 𝑘. Applying to each particle and ҧ = −𝑓𝑘,𝑗

𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
summing cancels out the internal moments 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ = −𝑟𝑘/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
ҧ × 𝑓𝑘,𝑗

∑𝑀ഥ𝐴 = 𝑟𝑗/𝐴
ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑗 + 𝑓𝑗,𝑘ҧ + 𝑟𝑘/𝐴 ҧ
ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑘 + 𝑓𝑘,𝑗
=
ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑗 + 𝑟𝑗/𝐴
= 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ + 𝑟𝑘/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑘 + 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ
ҧ × 𝑓𝑘,𝑗

54
Linear and angular momentum
A similar result for the moment of
momentum for each particle:

∑𝑀𝐴 = 𝑟𝑞/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑚𝑞 𝑎ത𝑞

where 𝑞 = 𝑗, 𝑘. Applying to each particle and ҧ = −𝑓𝑘,𝑗

𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
summing cancels out the internal moments 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ = −𝑟𝑘/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
ҧ × 𝑓𝑘,𝑗

∑𝑀ഥ𝐴 = 𝑟𝑗/𝐴
ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑗 + 𝑓𝑗,𝑘ҧ + 𝑟𝑘/𝐴 ҧ
ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑘 + 𝑓𝑘,𝑗
=
ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑗 + 𝑟𝑗/𝐴
= 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ + 𝑟𝑘/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑘 + 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ
ҧ × 𝑓𝑘,𝑗

55
Linear and angular momentum
A similar result for the moment of
momentum for each particle:

∑𝑀𝐴 = 𝑟𝑞/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑚𝑞 𝑎ത𝑞

where 𝑞 = 𝑗, 𝑘. Applying to each particle and ҧ = −𝑓𝑘,𝑗

𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
summing cancels out the internal moments 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ = −𝑟𝑘/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
ҧ × 𝑓𝑘,𝑗

∑𝑀ഥ𝐴 = 𝑟𝑗/𝐴
ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑗 + 𝑓𝑗,𝑘ҧ + 𝑟𝑘/𝐴 ҧ
ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑘 + 𝑓𝑘,𝑗
=
ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑗 + 𝑟𝑗/𝐴
= 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ + 𝑟𝑘/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑘 + 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ
ҧ × 𝑓𝑘,𝑗

56
Linear and angular momentum
A similar result for the moment of
momentum for each particle:

∑𝑀𝐴 = 𝑟𝑞/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑚𝑞 𝑎ത𝑞

where 𝑞 = 𝑗, 𝑘. Applying to each particle and ҧ = −𝑓𝑘,𝑗

𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
summing cancels out the internal moments 𝑟𝑗/𝐴 ҧ = −𝑟𝑘/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑓𝑗,𝑘 ҧ
ҧ × 𝑓𝑘,𝑗

ഥ𝐴 = 𝑟ҧ𝑗 × 𝐹ത𝑗 + 𝑟ҧ𝑘 × 𝐹ത𝑘 = 𝑟ҧ𝑗 × 𝑚𝑗 𝑎ത𝑗 + 𝑟𝑘/𝐴

∑𝑀 ҧ × 𝑚𝑘 𝑎ത𝑘
ൗ ൗ𝐴 ൗ
𝐴 𝐴

Therefore, only the external forces contribute the resultant force and the
resultant moment about 𝑨!

57
A system of particles
For a system of 𝑁 particles, we have that

𝑁 𝑁

∑𝐹ത = ෍ 𝐹ത𝑖 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑎ത𝑖

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
and
𝑁 𝑁
ഥ𝐴 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖/𝐴
∑𝑀 ҧ × 𝐹ത𝑖 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖/𝐴
ҧ × 𝑚𝑖 𝑎ത𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

58
A system of particles
Defining the centre of mass with respect to a global origin 𝑂
𝑁

𝑟𝐺/𝑂
ҧ = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖/𝑂
ҧ
𝑖=1

It can be shown that (for constant system mass)

∑𝐹ത = 𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑎ത𝐺

i.e. the sum of the external forces is equal to the total mass of the system
times the acceleration of the centre of mass of the particle system.

59
A system of particles
Let’s now consider the moment of momentum equation for this 𝑁 particle
system about a point 𝐴 (the origin of a translating reference frame). One
can show that
𝑑
ഥ𝐴 = 𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑟𝐺/𝐴
∑𝑀 ҧ × 𝑎ത𝐴 + ഥ𝐴
𝐻
𝑑𝑡
where
𝑁
ഥ𝐴 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖/𝐴
𝐻 ҧ × 𝑚𝑖 𝑣ҧ𝑖/𝐴
𝑖=1

is called the angular momentum about 𝐴

60
Rigid bodies
Let’s now use
𝑑
ഥ𝐴 = 𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑟𝐺/𝐴
∑𝑀 ҧ × 𝑎ത𝐴 + ഥ𝐴
𝐻
𝑑𝑡
to develop some basic equations for rigid bodies.
To simplify our analysis specify conditions for allowable 𝑨:
1. 𝐴 must have a fixed position relative to the body
2. 𝐴 can be either
– The centre of mass 𝐺 (𝑟𝐺/𝐴
ҧ = 0)
– A pivot point for a pure rotation (𝑎ത𝐴 = 0)

61
Rigid bodies—basic equations
When 𝑨 is allowable, we therefore have the simplified moment equation

𝑑
ഥ𝐴 =
∑𝑀 ഥ𝐴
𝐻
𝑑𝑡

Analogously, if we define 𝑝ҧ = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑣ҧ 𝑖 = 𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣ҧ 𝐺 we can write NSL
as
𝑑
∑𝐹ത = 𝑝ҧ
𝑑𝑡

62
Rigid bodies – Angular Momentum
Consider:
1) The rigid body to be composed of differential
elements 𝑑𝑚.
2) CS 𝑥𝑦𝑧 to be body-fixed, whose origin 𝐴 is allowable

The position of an element 𝑖 is thus

ҧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧𝑘෠
𝑟𝑖/𝐴
And the angular velocity of 𝑥𝑦𝑧 is
ഥ = 𝜔𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝜔𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝜔𝑧 𝑘෠
𝜔

63
Rigid bodies – Angular Momentum
Consider:
1) The rigid body to be composed of differential elements
𝑑𝑚.
2) CS 𝑥𝑦𝑧 to be body-fixed, whose origin 𝐴 is allowable

Show (in notes) that in this case we can write the angular
momentum as
ഥ𝐴 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝜔𝑥 − 𝐼𝑥𝑦 𝜔𝑦 − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝜔𝑧 𝑖Ƹ
𝐻
+ 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝜔𝑦 − 𝐼𝑦𝑥 𝜔𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦𝑧 𝜔𝑧 𝑗Ƹ
+ 𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝜔𝑧 − 𝐼𝑧𝑥 𝜔𝑥 − 𝐼𝑧𝑦 𝜔𝑦 𝑘෠

64
Rigid bodies – Angular Momentum
Consider:
1) The rigid body to be composed of differential elements
𝑑𝑚.
2) CS 𝑥𝑦𝑧 to be body-fixed, whose origin 𝐴 is allowable

… or using the inertia tensor

𝐻𝐴,𝑥 𝐼𝑥𝑥 −𝐼𝑥𝑦 −𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝜔𝑥

𝐻𝐴,𝑦 = −𝐼𝑦𝑥 𝐼𝑦𝑦 −𝐼𝑦𝑧 𝜔𝑦
𝐻𝐴,𝑧 −𝐼𝑧𝑥 −𝐼𝑧𝑦 𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝜔𝑧

65
Moments and products of inertia
The moments of inertia

𝐼𝑥𝑥 = න 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑚 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = න 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑚 𝐼𝑧𝑧 = න 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑚

𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

Describe the mass distribution with respect to an axis

The products of inertia

𝐼𝑥𝑦 = න 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑚 𝐼𝑥𝑧 = න 𝑥𝑧𝑑𝑚 𝐼𝑦𝑧 = න 𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑚

𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

Describe mass distribution w.r.t a plane

66
Moments and products of inertia
Two important facts about the products of inertia:
1. If two coordinate axes form a plane of symmetry for a body, then all
products of inertia involving the axis normal to that plane are zero.
2. If at least two (of the three) coordinate planes are planes of symmetry,
all products of inertia are zero.

In case 2, the axes are principal axes and the inertia tensor is diagonal:
𝐼𝑥𝑥 0 0
𝐼 = 0 𝐼𝑦𝑦 0
0 0 𝐼𝑧𝑧

67
Example 4.2 — try at home
• Consider the uniform cube with
side lengths 𝐿 on the right.
Compute the moments and
products of inertia.

68
Moments of inertia (Table)
• Table up on Blackboard under
Learning Resources -> Useful
Resources Pane
• Table assumes
– Centroidal origin of axes (use
parallel axis transformation to move
axis)
– Uniform density
• More on Blackboard!

69
Transformations
Parallel Axis Transformation: coordinate system translated from a
centroidal coordinate axis 𝑥𝑦𝑧 (where inertial properties are known) to
𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧′ for a body of mass 𝑚:

𝐼𝑥 ′ 𝑥 ′ = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝑚 𝑦𝐵2 + 𝑧𝐵2

𝐼𝑦′ 𝑦′ = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 + 𝑚 𝑥𝐵2 + 𝑧𝐵2

𝐼𝑧 ′ 𝑧 ′ = 𝐼𝑧𝑧 + 𝑚 𝑥𝐵2 + 𝑦𝐵2

70
Transformations
Parallel Axis Transformation: coordinate system translated from a
centroidal coordinate axis 𝑥𝑦𝑧 (where inertial properties are known) to
𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ 𝑧′ for a body of mass 𝑚:

𝐼𝑥 ′ 𝑦′ = 𝐼𝑥𝑦 + 𝑚𝑥𝐵 𝑦𝐵

𝐼𝑥 ′ 𝑧 ′ = 𝐼𝑥𝑧 + 𝑚𝑥𝐵 𝑧𝐵

𝐼𝑦′ 𝑧 ′ = 𝐼𝑦𝑧 + 𝑚𝑦𝐵 𝑧𝐵

71
Transformations
• Axis rotation transformation can also be used to align axes with principal
axes (see 5.2.3 and 5.2.4 in text)
• However, these transformations are less important for this unit and
discussion will be deferred to the text for now

72
 ഥ𝐴
Rate of change of 𝐻
Angular momentum used in several contexts, but our focus here is it’s use in

𝑑𝐻ഥ𝐴
ഥ𝐴 =
∑𝑀
𝑑𝑡
Thus we need to differentiate it with respect to time, i.e. we need to differentiate
ഥ𝐴 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝜔𝑥 − 𝐼𝑥𝑦 𝜔𝑦 − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝜔𝑧 𝑖Ƹ
𝐻
+ 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝜔𝑦 − 𝐼𝑦𝑥 𝜔𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦𝑧 𝜔𝑧 𝑗Ƹ
+ 𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝜔𝑧 − 𝐼𝑧𝑥 𝜔𝑥 − 𝐼𝑧𝑦 𝜔𝑦 𝑘෠

… which would be much easier to do if the moments and products of inertia were
constant.

73
 ഥ𝐴
Rate of change of 𝐻
Thus, we fix the coordinate system 𝑥𝑦𝑧 to the body and differentiate using
our vector derivative from earlier lectures:

𝜕 ഥ𝐴
𝐻
ഥሶ 𝐴 =
𝐻 +𝜔 ഥ𝐴
ഥ×𝐻
𝜕𝑡
where
𝜕𝐻ഥ𝐴
= 𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝜔ሶ 𝑥 − 𝐼𝑥𝑦 𝜔ሶ 𝑦 − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝜔ሶ 𝑧 𝑖Ƹ
𝜕𝑡
+ 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝜔ሶ 𝑦 − 𝐼𝑦𝑥 𝜔ሶ 𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦𝑧 𝜔ሶ 𝑧 𝑗Ƹ
+ 𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝜔ሶ 𝑧 − 𝐼𝑧𝑥 𝜔ሶ 𝑥 − 𝐼𝑧𝑦 𝜔ሶ 𝑦 𝑘෠

74
 ഥ𝐴
Rate of change of 𝐻
And it can be shown (see note on BB)
ഥሶ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑖Ƹ = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝜔ሶ 𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦𝑦 − 𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝜔𝑦 𝜔𝑧 − 𝐼𝑥𝑦 𝜔ሶ 𝑦 − 𝜔𝑧 𝜔𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦𝑧 𝜔𝑦2 − 𝜔𝑧2 − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝜔ሶ 𝑧 + 𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝑦
𝐻

ഥሶ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑗Ƹ = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝜔ሶ 𝑦 − 𝐼𝑧𝑧 − 𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝜔𝑧 𝜔𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦𝑧 𝜔ሶ 𝑧 − 𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝑦 − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝜔𝑧2 − 𝜔𝑥2 − 𝐼𝑥𝑦 𝜔ሶ 𝑥 + 𝜔𝑦 𝜔𝑧

𝐻

ഥሶ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑘෠ = 𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝜔ሶ 𝑧 − 𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝑦 − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝜔ሶ 𝑥 − 𝜔𝑦 𝜔𝑧 − 𝐼𝑦𝑥 𝜔𝑥2 − 𝜔𝑦2 − 𝐼𝑦𝑧 𝜔ሶ 𝑦 + 𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝑧

𝐻

ഥ𝐴 and differentiate using

Though we’ll occasionally use this general form, we’ll often write 𝐻
𝜕𝐻ഥ𝐴
𝐻ሶ
ഥ𝐴 = +𝜔 ഥ𝐴
ഥ×𝐻
𝜕𝑡
On a case-by-case basis.

75
Example 4.3
• The square plate seen at the right
is pinned at corner 𝐴 to the
vertical shaft, which rotates at
constant angular speed Ω. The
angle 𝜃 is an arbitrary function of
time. Determine 𝐻 ഥሶ 𝐴 .

76
Conclusions
• We can now express the linear and angular momentum of a rigid body
and differentiate them, allowing us to use the Newton-Euler (Direct)
approach:
𝑑𝑃ത
∑𝐹𝐺 = = 𝑚𝑎ത𝐺
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐻ഥ𝐴
∑𝑀𝐴 =
𝑑𝑡
• We must take a bit of care in defining 𝐴, typically using a fixed pivot or
the centre of mass
• Computing inertia properties necessary for 𝐻 ഥ𝐴 done with a combo of
symmetry, tables, and parallel axis transformations

77
Next Time: Newton-Euler Equations of
Motion
References
1) J. Ginsberg, Engineering Dynamics, no. v. 10. Cambridge University
Press, 2008.
2) J. H. Williams Jr., Fundamentals of Applied Dynamics. John Wiley &
Sons, 2006.

79