Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

Review Questions
13.1 Define direct time study.
Answer: Direct time study is the direct and continuous observation of a task using a
stopwatch or other timekeeping device to record the time taken to accomplish the task.
While observing and recording the time, the worker’s performance level is rated. These
data are then used to compute a standard time for the task, by adding an allowance for
personal time, fatigue, and delays.
13.2 Identify the five steps in the direct time study procedure.
Answer: The five steps are as follows: (1) Define and document the standard method. (2)
Divide the task into work elements. (3) Time the work elements to obtain the observed
time for the task. (4) Rate the worker’s pace to determine the normalized time. Steps 3 and
4 are accomplished simultaneously. (5) Apply allowances to compute the standard time.
13.3 Why is it so important to define and document the standard method as precisely and
thoroughly as possible?
Answer: The reasons given in the text (paraphrased) are as follows: (1) to provide work
instructions for future batches, (2) to distinguish if the worker has made methods
improvements which might justify retiming the task and setting a new standard, (3) as a
reference document to settle disputes and complaints by the worker, and (4) to provide data
for a standard data system that might be implemented at some future time.
13.4 What is the snapback timing method when using a stopwatch during direct time study?
Answer: In the snapback timing method, the watch is started at the beginning of every
work element by snapping it back to zero at the end of the previous element. The reader
must note and record the final time for that element as the watch is being zeroed.
13.5 What is the continuous timing method when using a stopwatch during direct time study?
Answer: In the continuous timing method, the watch is zeroed at the beginning of the first
cycle and allowed to run continuously throughout the duration of the study. The analyst
records the running time on the stopwatch at the end of each respective element. Some
analysts adapt the continuous method by zeroing at the beginning of each work cycle, so
that the starting time of any given work cycle is always zero.
13.6 Why is performance rating a necessary step in direct time study?
Answer: Performance rating is necessary when the worker is performing the task during
the time study at a pace that is different from the organization’s definition of standard or
100% performance. Performance rating converts the observed time into the normal time,
which is the time that would be required at 100% performance.
13.7 Why is an allowance added to the normal time to compute the standard time?

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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

Answer: The allowance is added to the normal time in order to account for various reasons
why the worker may lose time during the shift. The main reasons for an allowance are
personal time, fatigue, and unavoidable delays (PFD).
13.8 What are some of the causes of variability in the observed work element times that occur
from cycle to cycle?
Answer: The reasons include (1) variations in hand and body motions, (2) variations in the
placement and location of parts and tools used in the cycle, (3) variations in the quality of
the starting work units, (4) mistakes by operator (e.g., accidentally dropping the workpart),
(5) errors in timing the work elements by the analyst, and (6) variations in worker pace.
13.9 Why is the student t distribution rather than the normal distribution used in the calculation
of the number of work cycles to be timed?
Answer: The student t distribution is used in the calculation because the sample size in
direct time study is usually smaller than 30, and so the distribution of observed time values
is more accurately represented by the student t distribution.
13.10 What is the difference between elemental performance rating and overall performance
rating?
Answer: In elemental performance rating, the analyst rates the performance of the worker
for each work element. In overall performance rating, the analyst rates the performance of
the worker for the entire work cycle.
13.11 What are the characteristics of a well-implemented performance rating system?
Answer: The characteristics include the following: (1) Consistency among tasks. The
performance rating system should provide consistent ratings from one task to another. (2)
Consistency among analysts. The performance rating for a task should not depend on
which time study analyst does the rating. (3) The rating system should be easy to explain
by the analyst and simple to understand by the worker. (4) The rating system should be
based on a well-defined concept of standard performance. (5) Machine-paced elements
should be rated at 100%. (6) The performance rating should be recorded during the
observation of the task, not afterward. (7) At the end of the time study observation session,
the analyst should inform the worker of the performance rating that was observed.
13.12 What are the advantages of electronic stopwatches compared to mechanical stopwatches?
Answer: The advantages include (1) the digital display is easier to read than the graduated
mechanical dial, (2) reading errors are less frequent, (3) lighter weight and generally less
susceptible to damage when dropped, (4) more accurate and precise, (5) some electronic
watches can be switched back and forth between different time scales, (6) they can be used
for either in the continuous timing mode or the snapback mode, and (7) electronic
stopwatches are less expensive than mechanical stopwatches.
Problems

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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

Note: Some of the problems in this set require the use of parameters and equations that are
defined in Chapter 2.
Determining Standard Times for Pure Manual Tasks
13.1 The observed average time in a direct time study was 2.40 min for a repetitive work cycle.
The worker’s performance was rated at 110% on all cycles. The personal time, fatigue, and
delay allowance for this work is 12%. Determine (a) the normal time and (b) the standard
time for the cycle.
Solution: Normal time Tn = 2.40(1.10) = 2.64 min
Standard time Tstd = 2.64(1 + 0.12) = 2.957 min
13.2 The observed element times and performance ratings collected in a direct time study are
indicated in the table below. The snapback timing method was used. The personal time,
fatigue, and delay allowance in the plant is 14%. All elements are regular elements in the
work cycle. Determine (a) the normal time and (b) the standard time for the cycle.
Work element a b c d
Observed time (min) 0.22 0.41 0.30 0.37
Performance rating 90% 120% 100% 90%

Solution: Observed time Tobs = 0.22 + 0.41 + 0.30 + 0.37 = 1.30 min
Normal time Tn = 0.22(0.90) + 0.41(1.20) + 0.30(1.0) + 0.37(0.90) = 1.323 min
Standard time Tstd = 1.323(1 + 0.14) = 1.508 min
13.3 The standard time is to be established for a manual work cycle by direct time study. The
observed time for the cycle averaged 4.80 min. The worker’s performance was rated at
90% on all cycles observed. After eight cycles, the worker must exchange parts containers,
which took 1.60 min, rated at 120%. The PFD allowance for this class of work is 15%.
Determine (a) the normal time and (b) the standard time for the cycle. (c) If the worker
produces 123 work units during an 8-hour shift, what is the worker’s efficiency?
Solution: (a) Normal time Tn = 4.80(0.90) + 1.60(1.20)/8 = 4.32 + 0.24 = 4.56 min
(b) Standard time Tstd = 4.56(1 + 0.15) = 5.244 min
(c) Standard hours Hstd = 123(5.244) = 645.0 min = 10.75 hr
Worker efficiency Ew = 10.75/8.0 = 1.344 = 134.4%
13.4 The snapback timing method was used to obtain the average times and performance ratings
for work elements in a manual repetitive task. See table below. All elements are
worker-controlled. All elements were performance rated at 80%. Element e is an irregular
element performed every five cycles. A 15% allowance for personal time, fatigue, and
delays is applied to the cycle. Determine (a) the normal time and (b) the standard time for
this cycle. If the worker’s performance during actual production is 120% on all manual
elements for seven actual hours worked on an eight-hour shift, (c) how many units will be
produced and (d) what is the worker’s efficiency?
Work element a b c d e
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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s
Observed time (min) 0.32 0.85 0.48 0.55 1.50

Solution: (a) Normal time Tn = (0.32 + 0.85 + 0.48 + 0.55 + 1.50/5)(0.80)

Tn = 2.50(0.80) = 2.00 min
(b) Tstd = 2.00(1.15) = 2.30 min
(c) Given Pw = 120% for 7.0 hr on an 8-hour shift
Tc = Tn/Pw = 2.00/1.20 = 1.667 min
Q = 7(60)/1.667 = 252 pc
(d) Hstd = 252(2.30)/60 = 9.66 hr and Ew = 9.66/8.0 = 1.208 = 120.8%
Comment: The values of worker performance Pw and worker efficiency Ew are so close
because the 7.0-hour actually work time is very consistent with the PFD allowance factor
of 15%.

13.5 The continuous timing method is used to direct time study a manual task cycle consisting
of four elements: a, b, c, and d. Two parts are produced each cycle. Element d is an
irregular element performed once every six cycles. All elements were performance rated at
90%. The PFD allowance is 11%. Determine (a) the normalized time for the cycle and (b)
the standard time per part. (c) If the worker completes 844 parts in an 8-hour shift during
which she works 7 hours and 10 min, what is the worker’s efficiency?
Element a b c d
Observed time (min) 0.35 0.60 0.86 1.46

Solution: (a) Tn = (0.86 + 0.60/6)(0.90) = 0.864 min per cycle

(b) With two parts per cycle, the standard time per part is:
Tstd = 0.864(1 + 0.11)/2 = 0.4795 = 0.48 min
(c) Hstd = 844(0.48)/60 = 6.752 hr
Ew = 6.752/8.0 = 0.844 = 84.4%
13.6 The readings in the table below were taken by the snapback timing method of direct time
study to produce a certain subassembly. The task was performance rated at 85%. In
addition to the above regular elements, an irregular element must be included in the
standard: each rack holds 20 mechanism plates and has universal wheels for easy
movement. After completing 20 subassemblies, the operator must move the rack (which
now holds the subassemblies) to the aisle and then move a new empty rack into position at
the workstation. This irregular element was timed at 2.90 min and the operator was
performance rated at 80%. The PFD allowance is 15%. Determine (a) the normalized time
for the cycle, (b) the standard time, and (c) the number of parts produced by the operator, if
he/she works at standard performance for a total of 6 hours and 57 min during the shift.
Element and description Observed
time (min)
1. Pick up mechanism plate from rack and place in fixture. 0.42
2. Assemble motor and fasteners to front side of plate. 0.28

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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s
3. Move to other side of plate. 0.11
4. Assemble two brackets to plate. 0.56
5. Assemble hub mechanism to brackets. 0.33
6. Remove plate from fixture and place in rack. 0.40

Solution: (a) For regular cycle Tobs = 0.42 + 0.28 + 0.11 + 0.56 + 0.33 + 0.40 = 2.10 min
For irregular element Tobs = 2.90/20 = 0.145 min prorated per cycle
Normal time Tn = 2.10(0.85) + 0.145(0.80) = 1.785 + 0.116 = 1.901 min
(b) Standard time Tstd = 1.901(1 + 0.15) = 2.186 min
(c) For actual hours worked = 6 hr, 57 min = 6.95 hr
Q = 6.95(60)/1.901 = 219.4 pc rounded down to 219 pc
13.7 The time and performance rating values in the table below were obtained using the
snapback timing method on the work elements in a certain manual repetitive task. All
elements are worker-controlled. All elements were performance rated at 85%. Element e is
an irregular element performed every five cycles. A 15% PFD allowance is applied to the
cycle. Determine (a) the normal time and (b) the standard time for this cycle. If the
worker’s performance during actual production is 125% on all manual elements for seven
actual hours worked on an eight-hour shift, (c) how many units will be produced and (d)
what is the worker’s efficiency?
Work element a b c d e
Observed time (min) 0.61 0.42 0.76 0.55 1.10

Solution: (a) Tn = (0.61 + 0.42 + 0.76 + 0.55 + 1.10/5)(0.85) = 2.176 min

(b) Tstd = 2.176(1 + 0.15) = 2.502 min
(c) Worker performance Pw = 125% for 7.0 hr actually worked in an 8-hour shift
Tc = Tn/Pw = 2.176/1.25 = 1.741 min
Q = 7(60)/1.741 = 241.2 rounded down to 241 pc
(d) Hstd = 241(2.502)/60 = 10.05 hr, and Ew = 10.05/8.0 = 1.256 = 125.6%
Determining Standard Times for Worker-Machine Tasks
13.8 The snapback timing method was used to obtain average times for work elements in one
work cycle. The times are given in the table below. Element d is a machinecontrolled
element and the time is constant. Elements a, b, c, e, and f are operatorcontrolled and were
performance rated at 80%; however, elements e and f are performed during the
machinecontrolled element d. The machine allowance is zero (no extra time is added to the
machine cycle), and the PFD allowance is 14%. Determine (a) the normal time for the
cycle and (b) the standard time for the cycle.
Element a b c d e f
Observed time (min) 0.24 0.30 0.17 0.76 0.26 0.14

Solution: (a) For elements a, b, and c, Tobs = 0.24 + 0.30 + 0.17 = 0.71 min
For elements e and f, Tobs = 0.26 + 0.14 = 0.40 min
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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

Tn = Tnw + Max{Tnwi(PR), Tm} = 0.71(0.80) + Max{0.40(0.80), 0.76}

Tn = 0.568 + Max{0.32, 0.76} = 1.328 min
(b) Tstd = 0.568(1 + 0.14) + Max{0.32(1 + 0.14), 0.76} = 0.648 + 0.76 = 1.408 min
13.9 The continuous timing method in direct time study was used to obtain the element times
for a worker-machine task as indicated in the table below. Element c is a
machinecontrolled element and the time is constant. Elements a, b, d, e, and f are
operatorcontrolled and external to the machine cycle, and were performance rated at 80%.
If the machine allowance is 25%, and the worker allowance for personal time, fatigue, and
delays is 15%, determine (a) the normal time and (b) standard time for the cycle. (c) If the
worker completed 360 work units working 7.2 hours on an 8-hour shift, what was the
worker’s efficiency?
Element a b c d e f
Observed time (min) 0.18 0.30 0.88 1.12 1.55 1.80

Solution: (a) Observed times must be determined for each element: Te(a) = 0.18 min, Te(b)
= 0.12 min, Te(c) = 0.58 min, Te(d) = 0.24 min, Te(e) = 0.43 min, and Te(f) = 0.25 min
For elements a, b, d, e, and f, Tnw = (0.18 + 0.12 + 0.24 + 0.43 + 0.25)(0.80) = 0.976 min
For the cycle, Tn = 0.976 + 0.58 = 1.556 min
(b) Tstd = 0.976(1 + 0.15) + 0.58(1 + 0.25) = 1.122 + 0.725 = 1.847 min
(c) Hstd = 360(1.847)/60 = 11.08 hr and Ew = 11.08/8.0 = 1.385 = 138.5%
13.10 A worker-machine cycle is direct time studied using the continuous timing method. One
part is produced each cycle. The cycle consists of five elements: a, b, c, d, and e. Elements
a, c, d, and e are manual elements, external to machine element b. Every 16 cycles the
worker must replace the parts container, which was observed to take 2.0 min during the
time study. All worker elements were performance rated at 80%. The PFD allowance is
16%, and the machine allowance = 20%. Determine (a) the normalized time for the cycle,
(b) the standard time per part. (c) If the worker completes 220 parts in an 8-hour during
which he works 7 hours and 12 min, what is the worker’s efficiency?
Element Description Cumulative observed
time (min)
a Worker loads machine and starts automatic cycle. 0.25
b Machine automatic cycle 1.50
c Worker unloads machine. 1.75
d Worker files part to size. 2.30
e Worker deposits part in container. 2.40

Solution: (a) Observed times must be determined for each element: Te(a) = 0.25 min, Te(b)
= 1.25 min, Te(c) = 0.25 min, Te(d) = 0.55 min, and Te(e) = 0.10 min
For elements a, c, d, and e, Tnw = (0.25 + 0.25 + 0.55 + 0.10 + 2.0/16)(0.80) = 1.02 min
For the cycle, Tn = 1.02 + 1.25 = 2.27 min
(b) Tstd = 1.02(1 + 0.16) + 1.25(1 + 0.20) = 1.183 + 1.50 = 2.683 min
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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

(c) Hstd = 220(2.683)/60 = 9.84 hr and Ew = 9.84/8.0 = 1.230 = 123%

13.11 In the preceding problem, a recommendation has been submitted for elements d and e to be
performed as internal elements (accomplished simultaneously) with machine element b.
The worker would file the part from the previous cycle and deposit it in the container while
the current part is being processed in the machine automatic cycle. Performance rating and
allowances are the same as in the previous problem. Determine (a) the normal time for the
cycle, (b) the standard time per part. (c) If the worker’s efficiency is 115% and he works a
total of 7 hours and 12 min during an 8-hour shift, how many parts will be produced?
Solution: (a) Observed times must be determined for each element: Te(a) = 0.25 min, Te(b)
= 1.25 min, Te(c) = 0.25 min, Te(d) = 0.55 min, and Te(e) = 0.10 min
For elements a, c, and irregular element, Tnw = (0.25 + 0.25 + 2.0/16)(0.80) = 0.50 min
For the cycle, Tn = 0.50 + Max{(0.55 + 0.10)(0.80), 1.25} = 0.50 + 1.25 = 1.75 min
(b) Tstd = 0.50(1 + 0.16) + 1.25(1 + 0.20) = 0.58 + 1.50 = 2.08 min
(c) Worker efficiency Ew = 115% for 7.2 hr of an 8-hour shift
Q = 1.15(8)60)/2.08) = 265.4 rounded to 265 pc
13.12 The snapback method was used to time study a worker-machine cycle consisting of three
elements: a, b, and c. Elements a and b are worker-controlled and were performance rated
at 100% during the time study. Element c is machine-controlled. Elements b and c are
performed simultaneously. The PFD allowance = 12% and the machine allowance = 10%.
One work piece is produced each cycle. Determine (a) the normal time and (b) standard
time for the cycle. (c) If the worker works 7 hours and 10 min during an 8-hour shift, and
his performance level is 135%, how many pieces are completed?
Element a b c
Observed time (min) 1.25 0.90 0.80

Solution: (a) Tn = 1.25(1.00) + Max{0.90(1.00), 0.80} = 2.15 min

(b) Tstd = 1.25(1 + 0.12) + Max{0.90(1 + 0.12), 0.80(1 + 0.10)}
Tstd = 1.40 + 1.008 = 2.408 min
(c) Worker performance Pw = 135% for 7 hr, 10 min (430 min) of an 8-hour shift
Tc = 1.25/1.35 + Max{0.90/1.35, 0.80} = 0.926 + 0.80 = 1.726 min
Q = 430/1.726 = 249.1 rounded to 249 pc
13.13 The snapback timing method in direct time study was used to obtain the times for a
worker-machine task. The recorded times are listed in the table below. Element c is a
machinecontrolled element and the time is constant. Elements a, b, and d are
operatorcontrolled and were performance rated at 90%. Elements a and b are external to
machine-controlled element c. Element d is internal to the machine element. The machine
allowance is zero, and the PFD allowance is 13%. Determine (a) the normal time and (b)
the standard time for the cycle. The worker’s actual time spent working during an 8-hour
shift was 7.08 hours, and he produced 420 units of output during this time. Determine (c)

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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

the worker’s performance during the operator-controlled portions of the cycle and (d) the
worker’s efficiency during this shift.
Element a b c d
Observed time (min) 0.34 0.25 0.68 0.45

Solution: (a) For elements a and b, Tnw = (0.34 + 0.25)(0.90) = 0.531 min
For the cycle, Tn = 0.531 + Max{0.45(0.90), 0.68} = 1.211 min
(b) Tstd = 0.531(1 + 0.13) + Max{0.45(0.90)(1 + 0.13), 0.68(1 + 0)} = 1.28 min
(c) Produced 420 units in 7.08 hr of an 8-hour shift
Machine time = 420(0.68) = 285.6 min
Operator time = 7.08(60) – 285.6 = 424.8 – 285.6 = 139.2 min
Operator cycle time = 139.2/420 = 0.3314 min/cycle
Pw = Tnw/0.3314 = 0.531/0.3314 = 1.602 = 160.2%
Alternative method: Operator time at Pw = 100% = 420(0.531) = 223 min
Pw = 223/139.2 = 1.602 = 160.2%
(d) Hstd = 420(1.28)/60 = 8.96 hr, and Ew = 8.96/8.0 = 1.12 = 112%
13.14 The following table lists the average work element times obtained in a direct time study
using the snapback timing method. Elements a and b are operatorcontrolled. Element c is a
machinecontrolled element and its time is constant. Element d is a workercontrolled
irregular element performed every five cycles. Elements a, b and d were performance rated
at 80%. The worker is idle during element c, and the machine is idle during elements a, b,
and d. One product unit is produced each cycle. To compute the standard, no machine
allowance is applied to element c, and a 15% PFD allowance is applied to elements a, b,
and d. (a) Determine the standard time for this cycle. (b) If the worker produces 220 units
on an 8hour shift during which 7.5 hours were actually worked, what was the worker's
efficiency. (c) For the 220 units in (b), what was the worker’s performance during the
operatorpaced portion of the cycle?
Element a b c d
Observed time (min) 0.60 0.45 1.50 0.75

Solution: (a) For elements a, b, and d, Tnw = (0.60 + 0.45 + 0.75/5)(0.80) = 0.96 min
For the cycle, Tn = 0.96 + 1.50 = 2.46 min
Tstd = 0.96(1 + 0.15) + 1.50 = 1.104 + 1.50 = 2.604 min
(b) Hstd = 220(2.604)/60 = 9.548 hr and Ew = 9.548/8.0 = 1.194 = 119.4%
(c) Machine time = 220(1.50)/60 = 5.50 hr
Operator time = 7.5 – 5.5 = 2.0 hr = 120 min
Normal time = 220(0.96) = 211.2 min
Pw = 211.2/120 = 1.76 = 176%
13.15 The continuous timing method in direct time study was used to obtain the times for a
worker-machine task as indicated in the table below. Element c is a machinecontrolled
element and the time is constant. Elements a, b, d, e, and f are operatorcontrolled and were
8
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

performance rated at 95%; they are all external elements performed in sequence with
machine element c. The machine allowance is 30%, and the PFD allowance is 15%.
Determine (a) the normal time and (b) standard time for the cycle. (c) If the operator works
at 100% of standard performance in production and one part is produced each cycle, how
many parts are produced if the total time worked during an 8-hour day is 7.25 hours? (d)
For the number of parts computed in (c), what is the worker’s efficiency for this shift?
Element a b c d e f
Observed time (min) 0.22 0.40 1.08 1.29 1.75 2.10

Solution: (a) Observed times must be determined for each element: Te(a) = 0.22 min, Te(b)
= 0.18 min, Te(c) = 0.68 min, Te(d) = 0.21 min, Te(e) = 0.46 min, and Te(f) = 0.35 min
For elements a, b, d, e, and f, Tnw = (0.22 + 0.18 + 0.21 + 0.46 + 0.35)(0.95) = 1.349 min
For the cycle, Tn = 1.349 + 0.68 = 2.029 min
(b) Tstd = 1.349(1 + 0.15) + 0.68(1 + 0.30) = 1.551 + 0.884 = 2.435 min
(c) Worker performance Pw = 100% for 7.25 hr worked during an 8-hour shift
Tc = 1.349/1.00 + 0.68 = 1.349 + 0.68 = 2.029 min
Q = 7.25(60)/2.029 = 214.4 rounded to 214 pc
(d) Hstd = 214(2.435)/60 = 8.685 hr, and Ew = 8.685/8.0 = 1.086 = 108.6%
Comment: The reason why the worker’s efficiency is well above 100% even though his
pace is only 100% is because of the 30% machine allowance that is used to compute the
standard time.
13.16 The snapback timing method was used to obtain average time and performance rating
values for the work elements in a certain repetitive task. The values are given in the table
below. Elements a, b, and c are workercontrolled. Element d is a machinecontrolled
element and its time is the same each cycle (N.A. means performance rating is not
applicable). Element c is performed while the machine is performing its cycle (element d).
Element e is a workercontrolled irregular element performed every six cycles. The machine
is idle during elements a, b, and e. Four product units are produced each cycle. The
machine allowance is zero, and a 15% PFD allowance is applied to the manual portion of
the cycle. Determine (a) the normal time and (b) the standard time for this cycle. If the
worker’s performance during actual production is 140% on all manual elements for seven
actual hours worked on an eight-hour shift, (c) how many units will be produced and (d)
what is the worker’s efficiency?
Work element a b c d e
Observed time (min) 0.65 0.50 0.50 0.55 1.14
Performance rating 90% 100% 120% N.A. 80%

Solution: (a) Tnw(a, b) = 0.65(0.90) + 0.50(1.00) = 1.085 min. We must compare worker
element c with machine element d. These elements are performed simultaneously. Tn(c) =
0.50(1.20) = 0.60 min vs. Machine element Tm(d) = 0.55 min. The worker element c
dominates. Therefore, the normal time is determined as the sum of the normal times for
elements a, b, c, and e.
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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

Tn = 1.085 + 0.60 + 1.14(0.80)/6 = 1.085 + 0.60 + 0.152 = 1.837 min per cycle
(b) Tstd = (1.085 + 0.152)(1 + 0.15) + Max{0.60(1 + 0.15), 0.55(1 + 0)}
Tstd = 1.237(1.15) + 0.60(1.15) = 1.443 + 0.69 = 2.113 min per cycle
(c) Worker performance Pw = 140% for 7.0 hr of an 8-hour shift
For elements a, b, and e, Tc = 1.237/1.40 = 0.884 min per cycle
We must again compare elements c and d to determine which one dominates the cycle at
the worker pace of 140%. Tc(c) = 0.60/1.40 = 0.429 min vs. Tm(d) = 0.55 min. The cycle
time is determined by machine element d.
Tc = 0.884 + 0.55 = 1.434 min per cycle
Number of cycles = 7.0(60)/1.434 = 292.9 rounded to 293 cycles
Q = 293(4 pc/cycle) = 1172 pc
(d) Worker efficiency Ew = 293(2.113/60)/8.0 = 10.32/8.0 = 1.290 = 129%
13.17 The continuous timing method was used to obtain the times for a worker-machine task.
Only one cycle was timed. The observed time data are recorded in the table below.
Elements a, b, c, and e are worker-controlled elements. Element d is machine controlled.
Elements a, b, and e are external to the machine-controlled element, while element c is
internal. There are no irregular elements. All worker-controlled elements were
performance rated at 80%. The PFD allowance is 15% and the machine allowance is 20%.
Determine (a) the normal time and (b) standard time for the cycle. (c) If worker efficiency
= 100%, how many units will be produced in one 9-hour shift? (d) If the actual time
worked during the shift was 7.56 hours, and the worker performance = 120%, how many
units would be produced?
Worker element (min) a (0.65) b (1.80) c (4.25) e (5.45)
Machine element (min) d (4.00)

Solution: Observed times must be determined for each element: Te(a) = 0.65 min, Te(b) =
1.15 min, Te(c) = 2.45 min, Te(d) = 2.20 min, and Te(e) = 1.20 min
Compare normal time of worker element c with machine element d.
For element c, Tn = 2.45(0.80) = 1.96 min
For element d, Tm = 2.20 min. Element d dominates.
For the cycle, Tn = (0.65 + 1.15 + 1.20)(0.80) + 2.20 = 2.40 + 2.20 = 4.60 min
(b) Tstd = 2.40(1 + 0.15) + 2.20(1 + 0.20) = 2.76 + 2.64 = 5.40 min
(c) Worker efficiency Ew = 100% for a 9-hour shift
Q = 9(60)/5.4 = 100 pc
(d) Worker performance Pw = 120% for 7.56 hr
Tc = 2.40/1.20 + 2.20 = 4.20 min
Q = 7.56(60)/4.20 = 108 pc
13.18 The continuous stopwatch timing method was used to obtain the observed times for a
worker-machine task. Only one cycle was timed. The data are recorded in the table below.
The times listed indicate the stopwatch reading at the end of the element. Elements a, b,
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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

and d are worker-controlled elements. Element c is machine controlled. Elements a and d

are external to the machine-controlled element, while element b is internal. Every four
cycles, there is an irregular worker element that takes 1.32 min rated at 100% performance.
For determining the standard time, the PFD allowance is 15% and the machine allowance
is 30%. Determine (a) the normal time and (b) standard time for the cycle. (c) If worker
efficiency = 100%, how many units will be produced in one 8-hour shift? (d) If the actual
time worked during the shift was 6.86 hours, and the worker performance = 125%, how
many units would be produced?

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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s
Worker Description of worker Time Perform. Machine Description of machine Time
element element (min) rating element element (min)
a Acquire workpart from 1.24 100% (idle)
tray, cut to size, and load
into machine
b Enter machine settings 4.24 120% c Automatic cycle 4.54
for next cycle controlled by machine
settings entered in
previous cycle
d Unload machine and 5.09 80% (idle)
place part on conveyor

Solution: Observed times must be determined for each element: Te(a) = 1.24 min, Te(b) =
3.00 min, Te(c) = 3.30 min, and Te(d) = 0.55 min
Compare normal time of worker element b with machine element c
For element b, Tn = 3.00(1.20) = 3.60 min
For element c, Tm = 3.30 min. Element b dominates
For the cycle, Tn = 1.24(1.00) + 3.60 + 0.55(0.80) + 1.32(1.00)/4
Tn = 1.24 + 3.60 + 0.44 + 0.33 = 5.61 min
(b) Tstd = (1.24 + 0.44 + 0.33)(1 + 0.15) + Max{3.60(1 + 0.15), 3.30(1 + 1.30)}
Tstd = 2.31 + Max{4.14, 4.29} = 2.31 + 4.29 = 6.60 min
(c) Worker efficiency Ew = 100% for an 8-hour shift
Q = 8(60)/6.60 = 72.7 rounded to 73 pc
(d) Worker performance Pw = 125% for 6.86 hr
Compare worker element b at 125% and machine element c:
For element b, Tc(b) = 3.60/1.25 = 2.88 min
For element c, Tm(c) = 3.30 min. Element c dominates
Tc = (1.24 + 0.44 + 0.33)/1.25 + 3.30 = 1.61 + 3.30 = 4.91 min
Q = 6.86(60)/4.91 = 83 9 rounded to 84 pc

13.19 The snapback timing method in direct time study was used to obtain the times for a
worker-machine task. The recorded times are listed in the table below. Element d is a
machinecontrolled element and the time is constant. Elements a, b, c, e, and f are
operatorcontrolled and were performance rated at 90%. Element f is an irregular element,
performed every five cycles. The operator-controlled elements are all external to machine
-controlled element d. The machine allowance is zero, and the PFD allowance is 13%.
Determine (a) the normalized time for the cycle and (b) the standard time for the cycle. The
worker’s actual time spent working during an 8-hour shift was 7.08 hours, and he produced
400 units of output during this time. Determine (c) the worker’s performance during the
operator-controlled portions of the cycle and (d) the worker’s efficiency during this shift.
Element a b c d e f
Observed time (min) 0.14 0.25 0.18 0.45 0.20 0.62

Solution: (a) Tn = (0.14 + 0.25 + 0.18 + 0.20 + 0.62/5)(0.90) + 0.45

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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
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© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

Tn = = 0.805 + 0.45 = 1.255 min

(b) Tstd = 0.805(1 + 0.13) + 0.45(1 + 0) = 0.91 + 0.45 = 1.36 min
(c) Given Q = 400 pc during 7.08 hr of an 8-hour shift
Machine time during shift = 400(0.45) = 180 min
Worker time during shift = 7.08(60) – 180 = 244.8 min
Cycle time for worker portion of cycle Tc = 244.8/400 = 0.612 min
Pw = 0.805/0.612 = 1.315 = 131.5%
(d) Worker efficiency Ew = 400(1.36/60)/8.0 = 1.133 = 113.3%
13.20 For a worker-machine task, the continuous timing method was used to obtain the times
indicated in the table below. Element c is a machinecontrolled element and the time is
constant. Elements a, b, d, and e are operatorcontrolled and were performance rated at
100%; however, element d is performed simultaneously with element c. The machine
allowance is 16%, and the PFD allowance is 16%. Determine (a) the normal time and (b)
standard time for the cycle. (c) If the operator works at 140% of standard performance in
production and two parts are produced each cycle, how many parts are produced if the total
time worked during an 8-hour day is 7.4 hours? (d) For the number of parts computed in
(c), what is the worker’s efficiency for this shift?
Element a b c d e
Observed time (min) 0.30 0.65 1.65 1.90 2.50

Solution: (a) Observed times must be determined for each element: Te(a) = 0.30 min, Te(b)
= 0.35 min, Te(c) = 1.00 min, Te(d) = 1.90 – 0.65 = 1.25 min, and Te(e) = 0.60 min
Because worker element d is significantly longer than machine element c, the normal time
for the cycle is the sum of the normal times of elements a, b, d, and e.
Tn = (0.30 + 0.35 + 1.25 + 0.60)(1.00) = 2.5 min
(b) Tstd = 2.5(1 + 0.16) = 2.90 min for the cycle
(c) Worker performance Pw = 140% for 7.4 hr worked during an 8-hour shift. We must
check to determine whether worker element d performed at 140% performance is less than
the machine element c. Cycle time for worker element d is Tc(d) = 1.25/1.40 = 0.893 min,
which is less than Tm(c) = 1.00 min. Therefore, the overall cycle time is determined as
worker elements a, b, and e plus machine element c.
Tc(a, b, e) = 0.30 + 0.35 + 0.60 = 1.25 min
For the work cycle, Tc = 1.25/1.40 + 1.00 = 1.893 min for two parts per cycle
Number of cycles = (7.4)(60)/1.893 = 234.6 rounded to 235 cycles
Number of parts Q = 2(235) = 470 pc
(d) Hstd = 235(2.90)/60 = 11.36 hr, and Ew = 11.36/8.0 = 1.420 = 142%
13.21 For a certain repetitive task, the snapback timing method was used to obtain the average
work element times and performance ratings listed in the table below. Elements a, b, and c
are workercontrolled. Element d is a machinecontrolled element and its time is the same
each cycle (N.A. means performance rating is not applicable). Element c is performed
13
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

while the machine is performing its cycle (element d). Element e is a workercontrolled
irregular element performed every five cycles. The machine is idle during elements a, b,
and e. One part is produced each cycle. The machine allowance is 15%, and a 15% PFD
allowance is applied to the manual portion of the cycle. Determine (a) the normal time and
(b) the standard time for this cycle. If the worker’s performance during actual production is
130% on all manual elements for 7.3 actual hours worked on an eight hour shift, (c) how
many units will be produced and (d) what is the worker’s efficiency?
Work element a b c d e
Observed time (min) 0.47 0.58 0.70 0.75 2.10
Performance rating 90% 80% 110% N.A. 85%

Solution: Compare manual element c with machine element d

For element c, Tn(c) = 0.70(1.10) = 0.77 min
For element d, Tm(d) = 0.75 min. Element c dominates.
Tn = 0.47(0.90) + 0.58(0.80) + 0.77 + 2.10(0.85)/5
Tn = 0.423 + 0.464 + 0.77 + 0.357 = 2.014 min
(b) Tstd = (0.423 + 0.464 + 0.357)(1 + 0.15) + Max{0.77(1 + 0.15), 0.75(1 + 0.15}
Tstd = 1.244(1.15) + 0.8855 = 2.316 min
(c) Worker performance Pw = 130% during 7.3 hr actual working during an 8-hour shift
Compare worker element c at 130% with machine element d.
For element c, Tc(c) = 0.77/1.30 = 0.592 min
For element d, Tm(d) = 0.75 min. Element d dominates.
For the cycle, Tc = 1.244/1.30 + 0.75 = 1.707 min
Q = 7.3(60)/1.707 = 256.6 rounded to 257 pc
(d) Ew = 257(2.316/60)/8.0 = 1.240 = 124%
13.22 The work element times for a repetitive work cycle are listed in the table below, as
determined in a direct time study using the snapback timing method. Elements a and b are
operatorcontrolled. Element c is a machinecontrolled element and its time is constant.
Element d is a workercontrolled irregular element performed every ten cycles. Elements a
and b were performance rated at 90%, and element d was performance rated at 75%. The
worker is idle during element c, and the machine is idle during elements a, b, and d. One
product unit is produced each cycle. No special allowance is added to the machine cycle
time (element c), but a 15% allowance factor is applied to the total cycle time. (a)
Determine the standard time for this cycle. If the worker produced 190 units on an 8hour
shift during which 7 hours are actually worked, (b) what was the worker's efficiency, and
(c) what was his performance during the operatorpaced portion of the cycle?
Work element a b c d
Observed time (min) 0.75 0.30 1.62 1.05

Solution: (a) Tn = (0.75 + 0.30)(0.90) + 1.62 + 1.05(0.75)/10 = 2.644 min

Tstd = 2.644(1 + 0.15) = 3.04 min
(b) Quantity produced Q = 190 pc in 7.0 hr of actual working during 8-hour shift
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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

Ew = 190(3.04/60)/8.0 = 1.203 = 120.3%

(c) Machine time during shift = 190(1.62) = 307.8 min
Work time during shift = 420 – 307.8 = 112.2 min
Actual worker-paced cycle time per unit 112.2/190 = 0.591 min
Normal time for worker portion of cycle Tnw = 2.644 – 1.62 = 1.024 min
Worker performance during worker-paced portion of shift = 1.024/0.591 = 1.733 = 173.3%
Number of Cycles
13.23 Seven cycles have been observed during a direct time study. The mean for the largest
element time = 0.85 min, and the corresponding sample standard deviation s = 0.15 min,
which was also the largest. If the analyst wants to be 95% confident that the mean of the
sample was within ±10% of the true mean, how many more observations should be taken?
Solution: For dof= 6 degrees of freedom and α = 0.05, t = 2.447
n = (2.447 x 0.15)/(0.10 x 0.85)2 = 4.3182 = 18.65 rounded to 19 total observations
We need 19 – 7 = 12 more observations.
13.24 A total of 9 cycles have been observed during a time study. The mean for the largest
element time = 0.80 min, and the corresponding sample standard deviation s = 0.15 min,
which was also the largest. If the analyst wants to be 95% confident that the mean of the
sample was within ±0.10 min of the true mean, how many more observations should be
taken?
Solution: For dof= 8 degrees of freedom and α = 0.05, t = 2.306
Given that = 0.10 min
n = (2.306 x 0.15)/(0.10)2 = 3.4592 = 11.96 rounded to 12 total observations
We need 12 – 9 = 3 more observations.
13.25 A total of 6 cycles have been observed in a direct time study. The mean for the largest
element time = 0.82 min, and the corresponding sample standard deviation s = 0.11 min,
which was also the largest. If the analyst wants to be 95% confident that the mean of the
sample was within ±0.10 min of the true mean, how many more observations should be
taken?
Solution: For dof= 5 degrees of freedom and α = 0.05, t = 2.571
Given that = 0.10 min
n = (2.571 x 0.11)/(0.10)2 = 2.8282 = 7.998 rounded to 8 total observations
We need 8 – 6 = 2 more observations.
13.26 Ten cycles have been observed during a direct time study. The mean time for the longest
element was 0.65 min, and the standard deviation calculated on the same data was 0.10
min. If the analyst wants to be 95% confident that the mean of the sample was within ±8%
of the true mean, how many more observations should be taken?
Solution: For dof= 9 degrees of freedom and α = 0.05, t = 2.262
n = (2.262 x 0.10)/(0.08 x 0.65)2 = 4.352 = 18.9 rounded to 19 total observations

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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

We need 19 – 10 = 9 more observations.

13.27 Six cycles have been observed during direct time study. The mean time for the longest
element was 0.82 min, and the standard deviation calculated on the same data was 0.13
min. If the analyst wants to be 90% confident that the mean of the sample was within ±0.06
min of the true mean, how many more observations should be taken?
Solution: For dof= 5 degrees of freedom and α = 0.10, t = 2.015
Given that = 0.06 min
n = (2.015 x 0.13)/(0.06)2 = 4.3662 = 19.06 rounded to 20 total observations
We need 20 – 6 = 14 more observations.
13.28 Six cycles have been observed during a direct time study. The mean for the largest element
time = 1.00 min, and the corresponding sample standard deviation s = 0.10 min. (a) Based
on these data, what is the 90% confidence interval on the 1.0 min element time? (b) If the
analyst wants to be 90% confident that the mean of the sample was within ±10% of the true
mean, how many more observations should be taken?
Solution: (a) For dof= 5 degrees of freedom and α = 0.10, t = 2.015
Given that = 0.10 min
Confidence interval CI = 1.0 ± 2.015(0.10)/60.5 = 1.0 ± 0.08226
The range is 0.9177 to 1.0823
(b) Same confidence level and dof, so t = 2.015
n = (2.015 x 0.10)/(0.10 x 1.0)2 = 2.0152 = 4.06 rounded to 5 total observations
We already have 6 observations, so no more observations of the cycle are required.
13.29 A total of 9 cycles have been observed during a direct time study. The mean for the largest
element time = 1.30 min, and the corresponding sample standard deviation s = 0.20 min.
(a) Based on these data, what is the 95% confidence interval on the 1.30 min element time?
(b) If the analyst wants to be 98% confident that the mean of the sample was within ±5%
of the true mean, how many more observations should be taken?
Solution: (a) For dof= 8 degrees of freedom and α = 0.05, t = 2.306
Given that = 0.20 min
Confidence interval CI = 1.30 ± 2.306(0.20)/90.5 = 1.30 ± 0.154
The range is 1.146 to 1.454
(b) For dof= 8 degrees of freedom and α = 0.02, t = 2.896
n = (2.896 x 0.20)/(0.05 x 1.30)2 = 8.912 = 79.4 rounded to 80 total observations
We need 80 – 9 = 71 more observations.
Performance Rating
13.30 One of the traditional definitions of standard performance is a person walking at 3.0 miles
per hour. Given this, what is the performance rating of a longdistance runner who breaks
the four-minute mile?

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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch13-Direct Time Study-s

Solution: Given the standard performance of 3.0 miles/hr, the standard time to complete
1.0 mile = 60/3.0 = 20 min. The performance of a runner who completes a mile in 4.0 min
Pw = 20/4 = 5.00 = 500%
Alternative solution: The runner’s speed = 1 mi/4 min = 0.25 mi/min x 60 = 15 mi/hr
Compared to standard performance of 3.0 mi/hr, Pw = 15/3 = 5.00 = 500%
Comment: Although this performance level is much greater than we would ever expect of
a worker performing a task, two facts stand out: (1) The 500% performance only lasts for
4.0 minutes. No runner could maintain such a pace for an entire 8-hour period. (2) A
runner who is able to run a 4-minute mile is a very unusual person - many standard
deviations from the average person in terms of running ability.
13.31 In 1982, the winner of the Boston Marathon was A. Salazar, whose time was 2 hours, 23
min and 3.2 sec. The marathon race covers 26 miles and 385 yards. Given that one of the
traditional definitions of standard performance is a person walking at 3.0 miles per hour,
what was Salazar’s performance rating in the race.
Solution: The time of 2 hours, 23 min and 3.2 sec = 2.3842 hr
The distance of 26 miles, 385 yards = 26.2188 mi
Salazar’s average speed v = 26.2188/2.3842 = 10.997 mi/hr
Compared to standard performance of 3.0 mi/hr, Pw = 10.997/3.0 = 3.666 = 366.6%

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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

Review Questions
16.1 Define work sampling.
Answer: Work sampling is a statistical technique for determining the proportions of time
spent by subjects (e.g., workers, machines) in various defined categories of activity (e.g.,
setting up a machine, producing parts, idle).
16.2 What are the characteristics of work situations for which work sampling is most suited?
Answer: The characteristics given in the text are (1) there is enough time available to
perform the study because of the substantial period of time required to complete a work
sampling study, (2) multiple subjects are feasible, (3) long cycle times of the jobs covered,
and (4) the work is not highly repetitive; instead, the jobs usually consist of various tasks
rather than a single repetitive task.
16.3 What are some of the common applications of work sampling?
Answer: The common applications listed in the text are determining (1) how the time of a
machine is allocated among setup, production, downtime, and other activities, (2) how
workers spend their time among various categories of activity (or non-activity), (3)
allowances for time standards, (4) average unit time per work unit, if work units are
processed in the work activity, and (5) time standards.
16.4 What is a biased estimate in work sampling?
Answer: A biased estimate is one that differs from the true value, either because the
estimating method is somehow flawed or the variable being estimated is influenced by the
act of observing it. In work sampling, this can occur if the subject workers know that the
work sampling observer is about to observe them, and they alter their work activity to
make themselves look productive.
16.5 On what kinds of jobs or tasks is work sampling an appropriate technique for setting time
standards?
Answer: Work sampling is most appropriate for setting time standards on indirect labor
activities, clerical office work, and similar work situations in which the units of work may
be common, but there is inherent variability in the tasks required to process them.
16.6 What is meant by the term sampling stratification?
Answer: Sampling stratification means that the total number of observations is divided
into a specified number of time periods (e.g., days, half-days, hours) so that there are an
equal number of samples taken in each period. Stratification means that instead of
randomizing the observation times throughout the entire period of the study, we make a
certain number of observation rounds each day.
16.7 What are some of the advantages of work sampling? Name three.
Answer: Advantages given in the text are the following: (1) Activities that are impractical
or too costly to measure by continuous observation can be measured using work sampling.
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Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

(2) Multiple subjects can be included in a single work sampling study. (3) It usually
requires less time and lower cost to perform a work sampling study than to acquire the
same information through direct continuous observation. (4) In work sampling,
observations are taken over a long period of time, thus reducing the risk of short-time
aberrations in the work routine of the subjects. (5) Training requirements to perform a
work sampling study are generally less than for direct time study or predetermined motion
time systems. (6) Performing a work sampling study tends to be less tiresome and tedious
on the observer than continuous observation. (7) Being a subject in a work sampling study
tends to be less awkward than direct observation, since the observations are made quickly
at random times rather than over a long continuous period.
16.8 What are some of the disadvantages and limitations of work sampling? Name three.
Answer: Disadvantages and limitations given in the text are the following: (1) For setting
time standards, work sampling is not as accurate as other work measurement techniques,
such as DTS and PMTS. (2) Work sampling is usually not practical for studying a single
subject. (3) If the subjects in a work sampling study are separated geographically by
significant distances, the observer may spend too much time walking between them. In
addition, it may allow workers at the beginning of the observer’s tour to alert workers at
the end of the tour that the observer is coming, with the possible risk that they would adjust
their activities and bias the results of the study. (4) Work sampling provides less detailed
information about the work elements of a task than direct time study or predetermined time
systems. (5) Since work sampling is usually performed on multiple subjects, it tends to
average their activities; thus, differences in each individual’s activities may be missed by
the study. (6) Because work sampling is based on statistical theory, workers and their
supervisors may not understand the technique as readily as they understand direct time
study. (7) A work sampling study does not normally include detailed documentation of the
methods used by the workers. (8) As in so many fields of study, the behavior of the subject
may be influenced by the act of observing him or her. If this occurs in work sampling, the
results of the study can become biased, perhaps leading to incorrect conclusions and
inappropriate recommendations.
Problems
16.1 For the data in Example 16.1, determine a 90% confidence interval for the proportion of
time spent running production, category (2).

Solution: = = 0.0219
For 90% confidence interval, = 1.65
– = 0.60 – 1.65(0.0219) = 0.60 – 0.0361 = 0.5639
+ = 0.60 + 1.65(0.0219) = 0.60 + 0.0361 = 0.6361

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Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

16.2 The allowance factor for personal time, fatigue, and delay (PF&D) is to be determined in
the machine shop area. If it is estimated that the proportion of time per day is spent in these
three categories (personal time, fatigue, and delay are grouped together to obtain one
proportion) is 0.12, determine how many observations would be required to be 95%
confident that the estimated proportion is within ±0.02 of the true proportion?

Solution: For 95% confidence interval, = 1.96; and interval value c = 0.02
2 2
n = (1.96) (0.12)(0.88)/(0.02) = 1014.2 rounded to 1015 observations
16.3 This problem uses the context and data from Examples 16.1 and 16.3 in the text. After
taking 684 observations (as computed in Example 16.3), the observed proportion was
found to be = 0.15 (as in Example 16.1), instead of 0.20 as the foreman had originally
estimated. Recompute the number of observations required for this new proportion, and if
the value is less than 684, determine (a) the new confidence level that is obtained from 684
observations and (b) the new value of c, the half-width of the confidence interval at the
original confidence level of 95%.

Solution: For = 0.15, n = (0.15)(0.85)/(0.0153)2 = 545 observations. Since this is fewer

than the original 684 observations obtained in Example 16.3 for = 0.20, then either (a)
the confidence level is higher for the original half-width value of c = 0.03, or (b) the
half-width value of c is less than the original value at the confidence level of 95%.

(a) For = 0.15, = = 0.01365

We know that c = . Given the c = 0.03 and = 0.01365, we can compute that
= 0.03/0.01365 = 2.20. The corresponding confidence level in the normal probability
distribution is 97.2%.
(b) At the original confidence level of 95%, = 1.96. Given this value and =
0.01365, we compute the new value of c to be 1.96(0.01365) = 0.0268. Thus, at the 95%
confidence level we can state that the true value of p is within ±0.0268 of 0.15.
16.4 The foreman in the welding department wanted to know what value of allowance to use for
a particular section of the shop. A work sampling study was authorized. Only two activity
categories were considered: (1) welding and other productive work, and (2) personal time,
rest breaks, and delays. Over a fourweek period (40 hours/week), 125 observations were
made at random times. Each observation captured the category of activity of each of eight
welders in the shop section of interest. Results indicated that category 2 constituted 33% of
the total observations. (a) Define the limits of a 96% confidence interval for activity 2. (b)
If a total of 725 work units were produced during the 4 weeks, and all category 1 activity
was devoted to producing these units, what was the average time spent on each unit?
Solution: With 8 welders and 125 observations of each welder, the total number of
observations n = 125(8) = 1000 observations.
3
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

For the 96% confidence level, = 2.05.

= = 0.01487
– = 0.33 – 2.05(0.01487) = 0.33 – 0.0305 = 0.2995
+ = 0.33 + 2.05(0.01487) = 0.33 + 0.0305 = 0.3605
(b) Given Q = 725 work units
= 1 – 0.33 = 0.67
Total time TT = (4 weeks)(40 hr/week)(8 welders) = 1280 hr
Tc = 0.67(1280)/725 = 1.183 hr/work unit
16.5 A work sampling study was performed during a three-hour final exam to determine the
proportion of time that students spend using a calculator. There were 70 students taking the
exam. A total of five observations were taken of each student at random times during the
three hours. Of the total observations taken, 77 of the observations found the students using
their calculators. (a) Form a 90% confidence interval on the proportion of time students
spend using their calculators during an exam. (b) How many observations must be taken
for the analyst to be 95% confident that the estimate of proportion of time a student uses a
calculator is within ±3% of the true proportion?

Solution: (a) For the 90% confidence level, = 1.65

Total number of observations n = 5(70) = 350 observations
= 77/350 = 0.22

= = 0.02214
– = 0.22 – 1.65(0.02214) = 0.22 – 0.0365 = 0.1835
+ = 0.22 + 1.65(0.02214) = 0.22 + 0.0365 = 0.2565

(b) For the 95% confidence level, = 1.96

We know that c = . Given c = 0.03, we can compute that = 0.03/1.96 =
0.0153. Thus, n = 0.22(0.78)/(0.0153)2 = 732.5 rounded to 733 observations
16.6 The Chief IE in the production department wanted to know what value of PFD allowance
to use for a particular section of the shop. A work sampling study was authorized. Only
three activity categories were considered: (1) production work, (2) personal time, rest
breaks, and delays, and (3) other activities. Over a fourweek period (40 hours/week), 100
observations were made at random times. Each observation captured the category of
activity of each of 22 production workers in the department. Results indicated that category
2 constituted 19% of the total observations. (a) Define the limits of a 95% confidence
4
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

interval for activity 2. (b) If a total of 522 work units were produced during the 4 weeks,
and the 1540 observations in category 1 activity were all devoted to producing these units,
what was the average time spent on each unit?
Solution: With 22 workers and 100 observations of each worker, the total number of
observations n = 100(22) = 2,200 observations.
For the 95% confidence level, = 1.96

= = 0.00836
– = 0.19 – 1.96(0.00836) = 0.19 – 0.0164 = 0.1736
+ = 0.19 + 1.96(0.00836) = 0.19 + 0.0164 = 0.2064
(b) Given Q = 522 work units
= 1540/2200 = 0.70
Total time TT = (4 weeks)(40 hr/week)(22 workers) = 3520 hr
Tc = 0.70(3520)/522 = 4.72 hr/work unit
16.7 A work sampling study is to be performed on an insurance office staff consisting of 15
persons to see how much time they spend processing claims. The duration of the study is
20 days, eight hours per day. Processing claims is only one of the activities done by the
staff members. The office manager estimates that the proportion of time processing claims
= 0.20. (a) At the 95 percent confidence level, how many observations are required if the
upper and lower confidence limits are 0.16 and 0.24? (b) Regardless of your answer to (a),
a total of 1200 observations were taken, and staff members were processing claims in 300
of those observations. Construct a 98 percent confidence interval for the true proportion of
time processing claims. (c) Records for the period of the study indicate that 335 claims
were processed. Estimate the average time per claim processed? (d) Determine a standard
for processing claims, but express the standard in terms of the number of claims processed
per day (8 hours) per person. Assume a 100% performance rating and that no allowance
factor is to be included in the standard.

Solution: (a) For 95% confidence interval, = 1.96; and interval value c = 0.04
n = (1.96)2(0.20)(0.80)/(0.04)2 = 384.2 rounded to 385 observations

(b) Given n = 1,200 observations, = 300/1200 = 0.25

For 98% confidence interval, = 2.33

= = 0.0125
– = 0.25 – 2.33(0.0125) = 0.25 – 0.0291 = 0.2209
+ = 0.25 + 2.33(0.0125) = 0.25 + 0.0291 = 0.2791
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Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

(c) Given Q = 335 work units

Total time TT = (20 days)(8 hr/day)(15 workers) = 2400 hr
Tc = 0.25(2400)/335 = 1.79 hr/claim
(d) Standard rate for claims processed = (8 hr)/(1.79 hr/claim) = 4.5 claims per day
16.8 A work sampling study is to be performed on an office pool consisting of 10 persons to see
how much time they spend on the telephone. The duration of the study is to be 22 days,
seven hours per day. All calls are local. Using the phone is only one of the activities that
members of the pool accomplish. The supervisor estimates that 25% of the time of the
workers is spent on the phone. (a) At the 95% confidence level, how many observations
are required if the lower and upper limits on the confidence interval are 0.20 and 0.30. (b)
Regardless of your answer to (a), suppose that 200 observations were taken on each of the
ten workers (2000 observations total), and members of the office pool were using the
telephone in 590 of these observations. Construct a 95% confidence interval for the true
proportion of time on the telephone. (c) Phone records indicate that 3894 phone calls
(incoming and outgoing) were made during the observation period. Estimate the average
time per phone call.

Solution: (a) For 95% confidence interval, = 1.96; and interval value c = 0.05
2 2
n = (1.96) (0.25)(0.75)/(0.05) = 288.1 rounded to 289 observations

(b) Given n = 2,000 observations, = 590/2000 = 0.295

= = 0.0102
– = 0.295 – 1.96(0.0102) = 0.295 – 0.020 = 0.275
+ = 0.295 + 1.96(0.0102) = 0.295 + 0.020 = 0.315
(c) Given Q = 3894 calls
Total time TT = (22 days)(7 hr/day)(10 workers) = 1540 hr
Tc = 0.295(1540)/3894 = 0.1167 hr/call = 7.0 min/call
16.9 The shop foreman has estimated that the proportion of time the machines in her department
are idle is a mere 10%. On the basis of this estimate, a work sampling study is to be
performed. (a) If we want a 95% confidence level that the true value of the proportion idle
time is within ±2.5% of this 10% (that is, the confidence interval runs from 7.5% to
12.5%), how many observations must be taken? (b) Suppose after the study is taken with
the number of observations from part (a), the proportion of observations is actually 15%
rather than 10%. What is the range of the 95% confidence interval in this case? (c) How
many more observations need to be taken to achieve a confidence interval of 15% ±2.5%?

Solution: (a) For 95% confidence interval, = 1.96; and interval value c = 0.025
2 2
n = (1.96) (0.10)(0.90)/(0.025) = 553.2 rounded to 554 observations

6
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

(b) Actual = 0.15

= = 0.0152
– = 0.15 – 1.96(0.0152) = 0.15 – 0.0298 = 0.1202
+ = 0.15 + 1.96(0.0152) = 0.15 + 0.0298 = 0.1798
(c) n = (1.96)2(0.15)(0.85)/(0.025)2 = 783.7 rounded to 784 observations
We need 784 – 554 = 230 more observations
16.10 A work sampling study has been performed on a women’s college sorority to determine
how much time the women spend at their desks reading homework assignments. The
sorority consists of 30 women. The duration of the study was 4 weeks, 7 days per week,
between the hours of 7:00 a.m. and 11:00 p.m. each day. It is assumed that no reading was
done before 7:00 a.m. or after 11:00 p.m., since the sorority members observe a very strict
work ethic code. Five observations were taken at random times each day, and each
observation included all 30 women. Out of all the observations, a total of 1344
observations found the women reading homework assignments at their desks. (a) Construct
a 95% confidence interval for the true proportion of time spent reading homework
assignments. (b) What is the average time per day that each woman spends reading
homework assignments? (c) If the women in the sorority collectively completed a total of
513 reading assignments during the observation period, how many hours did each
assignment take, on average?
Solution: (a) Number of observations n = (30 subjects)(28 days)(5 obs/day) = 4200 obs.
= 1344/4200 = 0.32
For 95% confidence interval, = 1.96

= = 0.0072
– = 0.32 – 1.96(0.0072) = 0.32 – 0.0141 = 0.3059
+ = 0.32 + 1.96(0.0072) = 0.32 + 0.0141 = 0.3341
(b) Total time TT = (28 days)(16 hr/day)(30 students) = 13,440 hr
Number of student days = (30 students)(28 days) = 840 student days
Hours per day per student = 0.32(13,440)/840 = 5.12 hr/day per student
(c) Given Q = 513 reading assignments
Time per assignment = 0.32(13,440)/513 = 8.38 hr/assignment
16.11 A work sampling study is to be performed on the art department in a publishing company.
The department consists of 22 artists who work at computer graphics workstations
developing line drawings based on authors’ rough sketches. The duration of the study is 15
7
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

days, seven hours per day. Line drawings are the main activity performed by the artists, but
not the only activity. The supervisor of the department estimates that the proportion of time
spent making line drawings is 75% of each artist’s day. (a) At the 95% confidence level,
how many observations are required if the lower and upper confidence limits are 0.72 and
0.78, respectively. (b) Regardless of your answer in preceding part (a), a total of 1000
observations were actually taken, and artists were making line drawings in 680 of those
observations. Construct a 97.5% confidence interval for the true proportion of time making
line drawings. (c) Records for the period of the study indicate that 5,240 line drawings
were completed. Estimate the average time per line drawing? (d) Determine the standard
time for one line drawing, given that the average performance rating for the artists was
observed to be 90%, and the allowance for personal time, fatigue, and delays is 15%.

Solution: (a) For 95% confidence interval, = 1.96; and interval value c = 0.03
2 2
n = (1.96) (0.75)(0.25)/(0.03) = 800.3 rounded to 801 observations

(b) Actual = 680/1000 = 0.68

For 97.5% confidence interval, = 2.24

= = 0.0148
– = 0.68– 2.24(0.0148) = 0.68 – 0.0331 = 0.647
+ = 0.68+ 2.24(0.0148) = 0.68 + 0.0331 = 0.713
(c) Given Q = 5,240 drawings
Total time TT = (15 days)(7 hr/day)(22 artists) = 2,310 hr
Average time per drawing = 0.68(2,310)/5,240 = 0.2998 hr = 17.99 min
(d) Standard time per drawing Tstd = 17.99(0.90)(1 + 0.15) = 18.62 min
16.12 A work sampling study was performed on the day-shift maintenance department in a
power generating station. The day-shift consists of four repair persons, each of whom
works independently to repair equipment when it breaks down. A total of 800 observations
(200 observations per repair person) were taken during a fourweek period (160 total hours
of station operation). The observations were classified into one of the following categories:
(1) maintenance person repairing equipment, or (2) maintenance person idle. There were a
total of 432 observations in category 1. It is known that 83 equipment repairs were made
during the 4 weeks. (a) How many more observations would be required, if any, to be 90%
confident that the true proportion of category 1 activity is within ± 0.03 of the proportion
indicated by the observations? Also, determine: (b) average time it takes a repair person to
repair a piece of broken-down equipment, and (c) how many hours of idle time per week is
experienced by each repair person, on average.

Solution: (a) For 90% confidence interval, = 1.65; and interval value c = 0.03

8
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

Actual = 432/800 = 0.54

n = (1.65)2(0.54)(0.46)/(0.03)2 = 751.4 rounded to 752 observations
No more observations are required.
(b) Given Q = 83 equipment repairs
Total time TT = (160 hr/worker)(4 repair workers) = 640 hr
Average time per repair = 0.54(640)/83 = 4.164 hr
(c) Hours of idle time per repair worker per week = 0.46(40) = 18.4 hr/wk per worker
16.13 A work sampling study was performed on 12 assembly workers in a small electronics final
assembly plant. Various products are made in small lot sizes, and it would not be cost
effective to direct time study every job. However, the jobs can be distinguished on the
basis of the size of the starting printed circuit board (PCB), and it is believed that work
sampling might provide estimates of the average time per board size. There are three
different PCB sizes: A (large), B (medium), and C (small). The study was carried out over
a five-week period (25 8-hour days or 200 working hours). Observations were taken at
random times four times each day for 25 days, for a planned total of 1200 observations (4 x
25 x 12). However, due to worker absences, 60 observations were omitted (15 worker-day
absences). Results of the study are presented in the table below. (a) What is the mean
assembly time per product unit for each of the three PCB sizes? (b) For the C size PCB
assembly, construct a 96% confidence interval about the mean assembly time per product.
Category of activity A assembly B assembly C assembly Miscellaneous
Number of observations 228 285 456 171
Number of units completed 610 1127 3025 (none)

Solution: (a) Total number of observations n = 1,200 – 60 = 1,140 observations

= 228/1,140 = 0.20
= 285/1,140 = 0.25
= 456/1,140 = 0.40
Total time TT = (12 workers)(200 hr/worker) – (15 worker-days absent)(8 hr/day)
TT = 2,400 – 120 = 2,280 hr
TA = 0.20(2,280)/610 = 0.7475 hr = 44.85 min
TB = 0.25(2,280)/1,127 = 0.5058 hr = 30.35 min
TC = 0.40(2,280)/3,025 = 0.3015 hr = 18.09 min

(b) For 96% confidence interval, = 2.054

= = 0.0145
– = 0.40– 2.054(0.0145) = 0.40 – 0.0298 = 0.3702
+ = 0.40+ 2.054(0.0145) = 0.40 + 0.0298 = 0.4298
9
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

Converting these fractions into assembly time values

Lower time value = 18.09(0.3702/0.40) = 16.74 min
Upper time value = 18.09(0.4298/0.40) = 19.44 min
16.14 A work sampling study was performed on four account executives in a stockbroker's
office. Virtually all sales in the office are made through telephone solicitations. A total of
500 observations were made over a period of one week (seven hours per day, five days per
week). The categories of activity and number of observations per category were as follows:
(1) telephone calls, 164; (2) filing and sorting, 150; (3) reading and research, 101; (4)
personal and nonproductive time, 85. Total sales during this period were $525,000, on
which the office earned a commission of 4.0%. (a) Construct a 97% confidence interval on
the proportion of time on the telephone during the one-week period? (b) Estimate how
many hours were spent on the phone by the four account executives during this period? (c)
The office is considering hiring a clerk at $800/week to do the filing and sorting (category
2). This would reduce the time taken by the account executives on these activities by seven
hours per day. It is anticipated that all of these extra seven hours would be spent on phone
calls to increase sales. If sales level (in dollars) has been found to be proportional to time
on the telephone, will the increase in commissions pay for the clerk? Compute the
estimated net increase or decrease in weekly revenues from hiring the clerk.
Solution: (a) Proportion of time on the phone
= 164/500 = 0.328
For 97% confidence interval, = 2.17

= = 0.021
– = 0.328– 2.17(0.021) = 0.328 – 0.0456 = 0.2824
+ = 0.328+ 2.17(0.021) = 0.328 + 0.0456 = 0.3736
(b) Hours on the phone of 4 account executives = 4(5 days)(7 hr/day)(0.328) = 45.92 hr
(c) Consider how much time is spent in category 2 by account executives.
= 150/500 = 0.30
Total hours of 4 account executives in category 2 = 4(7)(0.30) = 8.4 hr/day
The newly hired clerk would spend 7 hr/day performing filing and sorting for the account
executives.
Commissions per week = $525,000(0.04) = $21,000/wk
Sales commissions per hour = 21,000/45.92 = $457.32/hr
Increase in commissions for 7 hours = 7(457.32) = $3,201.24
Increase in commissions per week = 5($3,201.24) = $16,006/wk
With the clerk costing $800/wk, the net weekly increase = 16,006 – 800 = $15,206
16.15 A work sampling study was performed on 15 social workers in a county government
office. The social workers handle three types of cases: A, single parents; B, foster parents;
10
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solutions Manual: Ch16-Work Sampling-s

and C, juvenile delinquents. The purpose of the work sampling study was to determine
estimates of the average time per case for each case type. In addition to the three case
types, two additional activity categories were included in the study: D, traveling between
cases; and E, other (miscellaneous) activities. The study was carried out over a five-week
period (25 8-hour days or 200 working hours). Observations were taken at random times
four times each day for 25 days, for a planned total of 1500 observations (4 x 25 x 15).
Each social worker was provided with a cell phone so they could be contacted if they were
not in the office building. Because of worker absences, 72 observations were omitted (18
worker-days of absences). Results of the study are presented in the table below. (a) What is
the mean time per case for each of the three case types? (b) What is the average travel time
spent on a case? (c) For the C type cases, construct a 92.5% confidence interval about the
mean case time.
Category of activity A cases B cases C cases D Transport E Other
Number of observations 314 272 350 388 104
Number of cases completed 439 725 273 (none) (none)

Solution: (a) Total number of observations n = 1,500 – 72 = 1,428 obs

= 314/1,428 = 0.2199
= 272/1,428 = 0.1905
= 350/1,428 = 0.2451
Total time TT = (15 workers)(200 hr/worker) – (18 worker-days absent)(8 hr/day)
TT = 3,000 – 144 = 2,856 hr
TA = 0.2199(2,856)/439 = 1.43 hr
TB = 0.1905(2,856)/725 = 0.75 hr
TC = 0.2451(2,856)/273 = 2.56 hr

(b) = 388/1,428 = 0.2717

Total time spent driving (category D) = 0.2717(2,856) = 776 hr
Total number of cases = 439 + 725 + 273 = 1,437
Average time spent driving per case = 776/1,437 = 0.54 hr

(c) For 92.5% confidence interval, = 1.78

= = 0.0114
– = 0.2451– 1.78(0.0114) = 0.2451 – 0.0203 = 0.2248
+ = 0.2451+ 1.78(0.0114) = 0.2451 + 0.0203 = 0.2654
Converting these fractions into assembly time values
Lower time value = 2.56(0.2248/0.2451) = 2.35 hr
Upper time value = 2.56(0.2654/0.2451) = 2.77 hr

11
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover. ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
© 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.