Fault Calculations ‘The operation of a power system departs from normal after the occurrence of a fault. Faults give rise to abnormal operating conditions—usually excessive currents and voltages at certain points on the system—which are guarded against with various types of protective equipment. 6.1 TYPES OF FAULTS Various types of short-circuit faults that can occur on a transmission line are depicted in Fig. 6-1; the frequency of occurrence decreases from part (a) to part (f). Although the balanced three-phase short circuit in Fig. 6-I(d) is relatively uncommon, it is the most severe fault and therefore determines the rating of the line-protecting circuit breaker. A fault study includes the following: L. Determination of the maximum and minimum three-phase short-circuit currents 2. Determination of unsymmetrical fault currents, as in single line-to-ground, double line-to- ground, line-to-tine, and open-circuit faults 3. Determination of the ratings of required circuit breakers 4. Investigation of schemes of protective relaying 5. Determination of voltage levels at strategic points during a fault ‘The short-circuit faults depicted in Fig. 6-1 are called shunt faults; open caused by broken conductors, for instance, are categorized as series faults suits, which may be TO + @ o © SE fp. 2h a © 0 Fig. 6-1 6.2. SYMMETRICAL FAULTS A balanced three-phase short circuit [Fig. 6-1(d)] is an example of a symmetrical fault. Balanced three-phase fault calculations can be carried out on a pei-phase basis, so that only single-phase equivalent circuits need be used in the analysis. Invariably, the circuit constants are expressed in per-unit terms, and all calculations are made on a per-unit basis. In short-circuit calculations, we often evaluate the short-circuit MVA (megavolt-amperes), which is equal to V3Vidj, where V; is the nominal line voltage in kilovolts, and J, is the fault current in kiloamperes.An example of a three-phase symmetrical fault is a sudden short at the terminals of a synchronous generator. The symmetrical trace of a short-circuited stator-current wave is shown in Fig. 6-2. The wave, whose envelope is shown in Fig. 6-3, may be divided into three periods or time regimes: the subtransient period, lasting only for the first few cycles, during which the current decrement is verv ravid: the transient veriod. covering a relatively longer time during which the current decrement is more moderate; and finally the steady-state period. The difference Ai’ (in Fig. 6-3) between the transient envelope and the steady-state amplitude is plotted on a logarithmic scale ‘as a function of time in Fig. 6-4, along with the difference Ai” between the subtransient envelope and an extrapolation of the transient envelope. Both plots closely approximate straight lines, illustrating the essentially exponential nature of the decrement.Short-cireuit current Subtransient Steady-state perio Transient period period d ph mi . : Extrapolated Actual steady-state envelope \ value Extrapolated transient envelope Fig. 6-2. Current e Extrapolated \ transient envelope { \ CorremtenvelOpe — gecaystate \/ / aren ar amplitude ord Fig. 6-3. The currents during these three regimes are limited primarily by various reactances of the synchronous machine (we neglect the armature resistance, which is relatively small). These currents and reactances are defined by the following equations, provided the alternator was operating at noar ‘Time (linear scale) Fig. 64. load before the occurrence of a three-phase fault at its terminals: = 04 _ \Fel We Va7 xX, (6.1) 4) — Ob _ \Egl l= Va xX (6.2) O where |E,| is the no-load voltage of the generator, the currents are rms currents, and O, a, b, and c are shown in Fig. 6-2. The machine reactances X,, Xj, and X% are known as the direct-axis synchronous reactance, direct-axis transient reactance, and direct-atis subtransient reactance, respectively. The currents /, i', and i" are known as the steady-state, transient, and subtransient currents. From (6.1) through (6.3) it follows that the fault currents in a synchronous generator can be calculated when the machine reactances are known, Suppose now that a generator is loaded when a fault occurs. Figure 6-S(a) shows the corresponding equivalent circuit with the fault to occur at point P. The current flowing before the fault occurs is /,, the voltage at the fault is V;, and the terminal voltage of the generator is V,. When a three-phase fault occurs at P, the circuit shown in Fig. 6-5(b) becomes the appropriate equivalent circuit (with switch $ closed). Here a voltage E; in series with X'; supplies the steady-state current 1, when switch $ is open, and supplies the current to the short circuit through X%) and Z.., when switch S is closed. If we can determine £2, we can find this current through X%;, which will be i’, With switch S open, we have Vit iLXs (6.4) a) () Fig. 65.which defines £7, the subtransient internal voltage. Sit have ilarly, for the transient internal voltage we E,= Vt ihXa (6.5) Clearly Ey and Ey are dependent on the value of the load before the fault occurs. 6.3 UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS AND SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS: Unsymmetrical faults such as line-to-line and line-to-ground faults (which occur more frequently than three-phase short circuits) can be analyzed on a perphase basis. For such faults the method of symmetrical components is used. This method 1 based on the fact that a set of three-phase unbalanced phasors can be resolved into three sets of symmetrical components, which are termed the positive-sequence, negative-sequence, and zero-sequence components. The phasors of the set of positive-sequence components have a counterclockwise phase rotation (or phase sequence) abe; the negative-sequence components have the reverse phase sequence ach; and the zero-sequence components are all in phase with each other. These sequence components are represented geometrically in Fig. 6-6. The positive-sequence components are designated with the subscript 1, and the subscripts 2 and 0 are used for negative- and zero-sequence components, respectively. veThus, the unbalanced system of Fig. 6-7 can be resolved into symmetrical components as shown, in Fig. 6-6. In particular, we have Ve = Vag + Vin + Van (6.6) Vs = Voo + Vox + Vio (6.7) Vo = Veg + Var + Veo (68) We now introduce an operator a that causes a counterclockwise rotation of 120° (just as the j operator produces a 90° rotation), such that a 120° = 1 x ef = —0.5 + j0.866 a? = 1/240° = —0.5 — j0.866 = a* a? = 1/360 = 140° ltat@= Using these properties, we may write the components of a given sequence in terms of any chosen ‘component. From Fig. 6-6, we have Var = Vin Vor Vox Vio = Veo Consequently, (6.6) to (6.8) become, in terms of components of phase a, Vy = Vao + Var + Von (6.9) Vi = Veo + @Va1 + aVi2 (6.10) Vo = Van + aVa + V2 (61) Solving for the sequence components from (6.9) through (6.11) yields Veo = MV. + Vi + Ve) (6.12) Va = MM. + a, + PV.) (6.13) Via = MV, + a°V, + aV.) (6.14) Equations similar to (6.9) to (6.14) hold for currents as well. ‘A quantity (current, voltage, impedance, power) that is given in terms of symmetrical components is sometimes called the sequence quantity, as in “sequence current.” 6.4 SEQUENCE POWER To obtain the power in a three-phase system in terms of symmetrical components, we rewrite (6.9) through (6.14) in matrix notation as follows: v=AV' (6.15) ve Vao 111 where vay, a A=|1 @ a Ve. Veen Loa @Similarly, for the currents we have 1=ar (6.16) Le tao where I=|2,] and In Ja. Toa, The average complex power $ may now be written as s=w (6.17) where V is the transpose of V, and I* is the complex conjugate of I. From (6.15) and (6.16), we have We=VA (6.18) and vsatre (6.19) Consequently, (6.17) through (6.19) yield S=WAA'T" (6.20) Now, since 11 aft 1 30 0 AAt=[1 a af/i a a@}=|0 3 0 (6.21) 1a a@ili @ a@ 0 03 (6.20) becomes S= VALE + Voli + VIE = 3(Vaoldo + Voila + Va2lds) (6.22) ‘Thus, the sequence power is one-third the power in terms of phase quantities. 6.5 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS Corresponding to sequence currents, we may define sequence impedances. An impedance through which only positive-sequence currents flow is called the positive-sequence impedance. Similarly, when only negative-sequence currents flow, the impedance is known as the negative- sequence impedance; and when zero-sequence currents alone are present, the impedance is called the zero-sequence impedance. Unsymmetrical (or unbalanced) fault calculations are facilitated by the use of the concepts of sequence voltages, currents, and impedances. Because a voltage of a specific sequence produces a current of the same sequence only, the various sequence networks representing an unbalanced condition have no mutual coupling. This feature of sequence networks simplifies the calculations considerably. Solved Problems 6.1 Figure 6-8 shows the one-line diagram for a single phase of a system in which a generator supplies a load through a step-up transformer, a transmission line, and a step-down transformer. Calculate the per-unit current. The transformers are ideal.O 36 apa Ey aso 20kVA (2+j5)9 Fig. 68. Because the voltage (and current) levels change across the transformers, different base voltages are involved at different parts of the system. At the generator, Vine son = 480 V = 1 pu KVAsweges = 20KVA = 1 pu Along the transmission line, KVAnassie = 20KVA = 1 pu rua = 2 = 90,83 = 1 pu 960, Zonsane = 5p = 46.08 = 1 pu itis ne = Fagg = (0.022 + j0.065) pu At the load, 960 Vows = A = 96V = 1 pu KVAnsseja = 20KVA = Lp 20,000 . Incatme =~ = 208.3 = 1p 96 Zowctoat = 55q 5 = 0.46082 = Lp 2+ _ i Zea = Aagyg 7 434 + (10.85) pu The total impedance is then Loven = Zine + Zioas = (0.022 + j0.065) + (4.34 + j10.85) = 4.362 + j10.915 = 11.75/68" pu yo yor . hoa 1175/68 -O88L=8S Pu so that 6.2 An interconnected generator-reactor system is shown in Fig. 6-9(a). The base values for theJOMVA, 20MVA, —-20MVA, Neutral Nevteal Fos pau cc) ) 6 Fig. 69. ° given percent reactances are the ratings of the individual pieces of equipment. A three-phase short-circuit occurs at point F. Determine the fault current and the fault kVA if the busbar line-to-line voltage is 11 kV. First we arbitrarily choose SOMVA as the base MVA, and find per-unit values for the system reactances, referred to this base. We obtain 30, 2o10 = 05 0° ae 375 pu Bos = 0.375 pu 30, Fp0-5 = 025pu 14 = 0.25 pu ‘These reactances produce the per-phase reactance diagram of Fig. 6-9(b), which is simplified to Fig. 6-9(c). The total reactance from the neutral to the fault at F is, from that diagram, 0,5(0.2344 + 0.25) 05 + (0.2384 + 0.25) 0 x 10° = 203.25 Toa 7 203825MVA Per-unit reactance = 0.246 Then Fault MVA and 203.25 x 10° Fault current = a gge = 10,668. 6.3 A three-phase short-circuit fault occurs at point F in the system shown in Fig. 6-10(a), Calculate the fault current. Let the base MVA be 30 MVA, and let 33 kV be the base voltage. Then referred to these values, wwe have the following reactances and impedance: 30, ran = OAS = 0.225 X 30 0.15, pu Xo 20 %o.10 = 0.3 pu 0 r Sm = S000 = 0398 eu cog (0.0826 + 70.4132) pu Zine = 3 + j15):64 65 @ 20MVA,15% 0 FOS 01825 7.AT32 ‘These per-unit values are shown in Fig. 6-10(b), which can be reduced to Fig. 6-10(c). From that diagram we find that the total impedance from the generator neutral to the fault is Per-unit Zi = 0.0826 + j0.5918 = 0.5975/82" pu 30 x 10° Then short-circuit kVA = Short-cireuit KVA = “7 >= = 50.21 MVA 50.21 x 10° and Short-cireuit current = = Short-cireuit current = Gi = S18 SA The phase currents in a wye-connected, unbalanced load are [, = (44 — j33), I, = -(32 + 724), and J, = (—40 + j25) A. Determine the sequence currents, From (6.12) through (6.14), adapted for currents, we obtain uy = AU(44 = j33) ~ (32 + j24) + (—40 + j25)] 9.33 — j10.67 = 14.17/=131.2° Ju, = M(G4 = J33) = (-0.5 + j0.866)(32 + j24) — (0.5 — j0.866)(—40 + 25)] = 40.81 ~ 8.77 = 41.74/12. A M44 = 33) + (0.5 ~ J0.866)(32 + j24) + (—0.5 + j0.866)(—40 + j25)] = 12.52 ~ 13.48 = 18.37/47 A A three-phase, wye-connected load is connected across a three-phase, balanced supply system, Obtain a set of equations relating the symmetrical components of the line and phase voltages. ‘The symmetrical system, the assumed directions of voltages, and the nomenclature are shown in Fig. 6-11, from which we have Vn =Vi- Ve Vie Because Vip + Vac + Vou = 0, We getFig. 6-11. ‘We choose Vj» as the reference phasor. For the positive-sequence component, we have Voor = Min + Vie + V3) = MW. — Vo) + als ~ VS) + a4We ~ VOI = MY. + a, + a°¥.) ~ (@U, + % + AV) =U. + ae + '¥,) ~ a%V, + AV + VI] = HC = @)Y, + av, + 0°) = aa = V3V,,6" @ Similarly, for the negative-sequence component, we obtain Voor = Wan + 4°Voe + aVes) MOV. ~ Va) + Vs ~ Ve) + a(Ve ~ Vo)] [(V. + a°Vy + aV.) ~ (aV, + Vo + 2°V2)) = AMV, + @V, + a¥,) ~ al, + a°¥, + a¥,)] PV, + a.) =~ a (2) Im (A) and (2), Vz, and Vay are, respectively, the positives and negative-sequence components of the phase voltage V.. Proceeding as in the derivation of (1) and (2), but now choosing Vie asthe reference phasor, we ean show that Voor = ~1V3Ve1 @ Voor = IV3Vex @