Dislocations & Strengthening

Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals
and alloys?

• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• How do we increase strength?

• How can heating change strength and other properties?

Chapter 7 - 1
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals: Disl. motion easier.
+ + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions + + + + + + + +
for slip. electron cloud ion cores

• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
- + - + - + -
-need to avoid ++ and - -
neighbors. + - + - + - +

Chapter 7 - 2
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocations & plastic deformation
• Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation by
plastic shear or slip where one plane of atoms slides
over adjacent plane by defect motion (dislocations).

• If dislocations don't move, Adapted from Fig. 7.1,

Callister 7e.
deformation doesn't occur! Chapter 7 - 3
 Dislocation Motion
• Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction
perpendicular to dislocation line
• Slip direction same direction as Burgers vector
Edge dislocation

Adapted from Fig. 7.2,

Callister 7e.

Screw dislocation

Chapter 7 - 4
 Peierls-Nabarro stress
• First described by Rudolf Peierls and
modified by Frank Nabarro
• Peierls stress (also known as the lattice
friction stress) is the force needed to move a
dislocation within a plane of atoms in the unit
cell.
• The magnitude varies periodically as the
dislocation moves within the plane.
• Peierls stress depends on the size and width
of a dislocation and the distance between
planes.

Chapter 7 - 5
 Peierls-Nabarro stress
• Peierls stress decreases with increasing
distance between atomic planes.
• Since the distance between planes increases
with planar atomic density, slip of the
dislocation is preferred on closely packed
planes.

Chapter 7 - 6
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
• Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
– Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear
densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur Chapter 7 - 7
Single Crystal Slip

Adapted from Fig.

7.9, Callister 7e.

Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 8
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Stronger - grain boundaries
s
pin deformations
• Slip planes & directions
(l, f) change from one
Adapted from Fig.
7.10, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.10 is
crystal to another. courtesy of C.
Brady, National
Bureau of
• tR will vary from one Standards [now the
National Institute of
crystal to another. Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
• The crystal with the
largest tR yields first.
• Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals
300 mm
yield later.
Chapter 7 - 9
 Anisotropy in sy
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.11 is from
W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure
and Properties of Materials,
Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John
Wiley and Sons, New York,
1964.)

rolling direction
235 mm
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.

Chapter 7 - 10
 Anisotropy in Deformation
1. Cylinder of 2. Fire cylinder 3. Deformed
Tantalum at a target. cylinder
machined
from a Photos courtesy
of G.T. Gray III,
rolled plate: side view Los Alamos
National Labs.
Used with
permission.
rolling direction

end plate
thickness
view direction
• The noncircular end view shows
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
Chapter 7 - 11
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
• Smaller grain size: Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation: s yield so  k y d 1 / 2

Chapter 7 - 12
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions

• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.

• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

Chapter 7 - 13
Stress Concentration at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 14
 Strengthening by Alloying
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
• reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 15
 Strengthening by alloying
• large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low
density side

Adapted from Fig.

7.18, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 16
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.
400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.
120
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: s y ~ C1 / 2
• Alloying increases sy and TS.

Chapter 7 - 17
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: sy ~
S
Chapter 7 - 18
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig.
11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller,
Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
Chapter 7 - 19
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao Chapter 7 - 20
 Dislocations During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:

• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
0.9 mm University.)

Chapter 7 - 21
 Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2
s
• Yield stress increases
sy1 large hardening
as rd increases: sy0 small hardening

e
Chapter 7 - 22
 Effects of Stress at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig.

7.5, Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 23
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 7 - 24
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength & Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
ro2  rd2
%CW  x 100  35.6%
2
ro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
sy = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection:
Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals
Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker
(Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) Chapter 7 - 25
 s-e Behavior vs. Temperature
800
• Results for -200C

Stress (MPa)
polycrystalline iron: 600
-100C
400

200 25C
Adapted from Fig. 6.14,
Callister 7e. 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
• sy and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3. disl. glides past obstacle
• Why? Vacancies
2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
move past obstacles. atoms on the obstacle
disl. half
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle

Chapter 7 - 26
 Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500
• 3 Annealing
40
stages to
400 30 discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
ductility 20 7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
300 Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy,
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American
Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

Chapter 7 - 27
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

Chapter 7 - 28
 Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

Chapter 7 - 29
 Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

Chapter 7 - 30
 Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
 don  Kt
Ostwald Ripening
Chapter 7 - 31
 º

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

º
Chapter 7 - 32
Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point of
highest rate of property change
1. Tm => TR  0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion  annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR – strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
• Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR

Chapter 7 - 33
 Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2 mm)
in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The
circular cross section will be maintained during
deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess
of 55,000 psi (380 MPa) and a ductility of at least 15
%EL are desired. Further more, the final diameter
must be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
accomplished.

Chapter 7 - 34
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
If we directly draw to the final diameter
what happens?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 0.40 in Df = 0.30 in

 Ao  Af   Af 
%CW    x 100  1   x 100
 Ao   Ao 
 Df 4 
2   0.30  
2

 1  
 x 100  1     x 100  43 .8%
 Do 4  
  0.40  
2

Chapter 7 - 35
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420 540

Adapted from Fig.

• For %CW = 43.8% 7.19, Callister 7e.

– sy = 420 MPa
– TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
– %EL = 6 < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria…… what can we do?
Chapter 7 - 36
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig.

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW 7.19, Callister 7e.

For %EL < 15 < 27 %CW

 our working range is limited to %CW = 12-27

Chapter 7 - 37
 Coldwork Calc Soln: Recrystallization
Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
• For objective we need a cold work of %CW  12-27
– We’ll use %CW = 20
• Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
– must be calculated as follows:
 Df 2 2  Df 2
2
%CW
%CW  1  
2 
x 100  1  2

 D02  D02
100

Df 2  %CW 
0 .5 Df 2
 1  D02 
   %CW 
0. 5
D02  100  1  
 100 
0.5
 20 
Intermediate diameter = Df 1  D02  0.30 1    0.335 m
 100 
Chapter 7 - 38
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
Summary:
1. Cold work D01= 0.40 in  Df1 = 0.335 m
 2 
 
%CW1  1 
0.335 
x 100  30
  0.4 
 
 

2. Anneal above D02 = Df1

3. Cold work D02= 0.335 in  Df 2 =0.30 m
  0.3 2  Fig 7.19 s y  340 MPa
%CW2  1     x 100  20
  0.335  

  TS  400 MPa
%EL  24
Therefore, meets all requirements

Chapter 7 - 39