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-_. L' ~ --
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~
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' I'
syllabus
...
-
semester V
~

-
Subject NaDle
Credits
4 -
Subject Code Geoteebnfcal Engineering - I - I

CEC502 -
Teaching Scheme
Credits Assigned
Contact Hours Tutorials Total
Theory Practical
Practiw Tutorial
- 04

l
Theory 01
03 02 - 03
-

a
Term Work/ PractiCJll/Oral Total
Theory PR Oil
TW

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End Sem Duration of
Internal Assessment
End Sem Exam
Average Exam
Test 1 T estZ
20 20 80 03 Hrs. 25 - 2S 150
20
Rationale
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All civil engineering structures rest on ground i.e. supported by soil and rock. Rock is rarely occurring and
hence mostly the supporting medium is soil. Hence the stability of structure depends on the stability of
supporting medium. Therefore, geotechnical analysis is required to be carried ouL Geotechnical analysis
-
depends oo the basics of physical properties which are useful for determining the strength, compressibility,
U
drainage etc. The soil mechanics is the basic tool for geotechnical engineering which is the specialized Ji
i'
section of civil engineering. Soil is also used as construction material to make various civil structures, viz.,
dams, embankment etc.Thus, it is very essential to understand various concepts involved in this course of
Geotechnical Engineering-!.
m

~\"rV'.V. e :-::;: :-: ~ Objectives ~rtips

• To study the types of soil and relationships involving the weight, volume and other parameters of. soil. b
-
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• To study the index properties of soil which is measure of the engineering properties .
• To classify the soil based on different classification systems .
• To study the properties of soil related to flow of water.
• To study the concept of total stress, neutral stress & effective stress in soil.
Jl
• To understand the load deformation concept through compaction process.
• To understand the techniques of soil e . 1 .
. .
.
xp oratton, assessmg the subsoil conditions & engineering
Properties of ~anous strata along with presentation of report
fj • To perform different laboratory tests on ·soil.
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Detailed Syllabua

Moda.Je Sub-modu le /Content Periods

Introduction to Gcotechnicnl Engineering, Basic Definitions & Relationships 07

I

1.1 Dcfmitions: RO<:ks, Soil, origin & mode of formation and type of soil
obtained, soil mechanics, rock mccbonics, soil engineering, geotechnical
engineering

1.2 Scope of soil engineering: Importance of field exploration and

characterization
II

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1.3 Cohesionless & cohesive soils

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1.4 Soil as three phase& two phase system in terms of weight, volume, void ratio, '
porosity

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1.5 Weight-volume relationship: water content, void ratio, porosity, degree of
saturation, air voids, air content, different unit weights, specific gravity of
solids, and mass, absolute specific gravity.

II
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1.6 Relationship between: different unit weights with void ratio, degree ()f
saturation, specific gravity; different unit weights with porosity, void ratio,
water content; different unit weights with water content, unit weights air
voids.
, 1.7 Mention different methods to fmd water content, specific gravity, unit weight
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of soil (Detailed description to be covered during practical)
(Refer Chapter 1)

06
n Plasticity Character istics of solls
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2.1 Plasticity of soil: Defmition of plasticity of soil, reason of plasticity,

consistency of soil, explanation about idea set by Atterberg in defining the
three states of soil, definition & determination of liquid limit, plastic limit,
Sa

II shrinkage limit

2.2 Definitions of shrinkage parameters; plasticity index, shrinkage index,

~
liquidity index, consistency index, flow index, toughness index, activity,
l I~ sensitivity and thixotropy of soils. Use of consistency limits

2.3 Explanation about clay minerals e.g. montmorillonite, illite, and kaolinite;
there formation and role in producing the plastic behavior in soil.

li ~~~~~ !

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==~~==~-~Periods ~' -
Module
Sub-module /Content

m Classificatio n of soDs
.
. . dard article size classification,
3.1 Necessity of soil classificaoon, Indian stan P bo dary
Indian standard soil classiiicatioo system as per IS: 1498 ' un
classification
. a1 ·s combined sieve &
Mechanical sieve analysis: wet & dry steve an Y51 •
3.2
,
sedimentation analysis, Stokes s law, Y me
b dro ter method of analysts,
.
.
f
. \.I'
relation between percent finer and hydrometer reading. Umitatlon
- . eli 'b ti' urvelgradation curve and
° ( r:
sedimentation analysis, particle sae stn u on c
its use

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(Refer Chapter 3)
3.3 Relative density

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Permeablllt y of soUs & seepage analysis
10
IV

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4:1 Introduction about ground water flow: water table, types of aquifers, types
of soil water, explanation of surface tension with capillary rise in small
diameter tubes, capillary rise in soils
4.2 Definition of hydraulic bead, hydraulic gradient. Darcy's law, laminar flow

4.3
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through soil, validity of Darcy's law.
Definition of penneability of soil, numerical values for different types of
soils, determination of coefficient of permeability of soil in lab using
constant head and variable bead methods. Determinati on of in-situ
permeability with pumping out and pumping in test Permeabilit y from
U
indirect methods e.g. empirical equation & from consolidation data
I
4.4 Penneability of stratified soil deposits
li 4.5 Definition of seepage and its importance for the study of analysis & design
II of hydraulic structures. Derivation of Laplace equation for two dimensiona l
m

flow, its analytical solution representati on by stream & potential function;

11 Graphical representati on by flow net. definition of flow line, equipotenti al
lines, flow channel, field, characteristics of flow net, use o( flow net
Sa

4 .6 Solution of L aplace equation by other methods e. g. numerical methods

(Refer Chapter 4)
v Effective stress principle 03
5.1 Definition of geostatic stresses, vertical stress/total stress, neutral stress/pore
water pressure, effective stress.
5.2 Effect of water table fluctuations , surcharge, capillary actio~ seepage
pressure on effective stress; quick sand condition. (Refer Chapter 5)
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Module Sub-module !Content Perloda

VI Compaction or soils & soli cxploradoD
6.1 Theory of compaction, determination of Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
& Maximum Dry Density (MDD) in laboratory by conducting the light and
heavy compaction te-st.
6.2 Factors affecting the compaction, effect of compaction on properties of soil,
relative compaction
6.3 Necessity of soil exploration, methods of investigation, methods of boring,
cypes of soil samples, soil samples sampling, number and spacing of bore
holes, depth of bore holes.

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6.4 Penetrometers tests: SPT, SCPT, and DCPT.

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6.5 Representation of data with borehole logs. (Refer Chapter 6)

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39

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 https://cee-book.blogspot.com/ T able of

d conatetency Umlto ' ... f

2.2 consletenoy an Ma 13, May 18, oec;. 15) .......-;--..2·1
(Attorborg Umttsl ( y . 3.2.6
• JstQnCY Umlt.e ............................ 2~
2.2.1
oetermlnarron of cons I 3.2.7
Chapter 1 : Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, consrstoncv Indices 3.3
2.2.2
Baelc Doflnlt lone & Relatlonehlp e1·1 to 1-41 [)eC 13 M.y 18) ......•.•.•--·····---•. 2-8 3.3.1
(May 10, May 13, • '
Activity Numbor (May 13, MaY 15) .......................--•. 2-10
1.1 SoUCO.C.10)................................................................ 1·1 2.2.3
3 oec 13 May 18)........................ 2-10 3.4
1.2 Soli Meohanlcs
2.2.4, sensitivity (M•Y 1 ' • '
3.6
(May 10, June 11, Ott<: 11, May 1 B, O.e. 16) ............. 1·2 ThixotroPY .................................... ••.••.•.•.•.••••.•.•.•.••.•.•.• 2•11 '
2.2.5
1.3 Rock Mechanlcs(Dec.1 1) ........................................... 1·2 Ueo of consistency Umlts ......................- .................. 2-11 3.6
2.2.6
1.4 Complexly of Soil or Umltatlonc of Structural Units of Clay Minerals of soli and
Soli Engineering ........................................................... 1·2 2.2.7
their Role In Plastic BehavioUrs ··•••·•·•···· ················--· 2·11

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1.5 Comparison of Soil with Other Materials ...................... 1-9
cnaracteristlcs of Kaofinite, Montmor111onlte
2.2.8

a
and ltllle Mlnera's ........................................................ 2-11
1.6 Origin ofSoll ........................................... ...................... 1-9
1.7 T)lp8s of Rocks and Geological Cycle.......................... 1·4
' .. I
• Soli structure ..............................................................2·12
2.2.9
1.8 Principal Soil Types (Type of soli obtained) ................. 1·5

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Single Grained Structure .................................... _ •.• -.2·12
2.2.10 4.1
1.8.1 Residual and Transported SOlis •.................................. 1·5
2.2 .1 1 Honeycomb structure ·········································---·· 2·12
1.8.2 Tenninology of Different Types of Soli ..••••••................. 1·6 4.2
22.12 Flocculent Structure .. ·•·••·•........................................... 2·12
1.9 Importance of Field Explorellon and 4.~
Charactorisallon ........................................................... 1·7 2.2.13 Dispersed Structure .................................................... 2-12
4.•
1.10 Cohoslonless and Cohe~~lvo Solis ................................ 1-7 2.2.14 Composite Soli Structures .......................................... 2·13
1.11

1.12
D011lgn Construction Pha~~e~~ of Foundations ............... 1-8
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Thr!HI Phase System of a Soli •......•..••..•••••••••••••.••.••••..• 1-8
2.3 Solved Examples ....................................... ................. 2-13
4.!
4.1
2.4 Solved Examples from GATE Examination ................ 2·20
4."
1.13 Basic Detlnltlons (May 13, Dec. 13) ............................. 1·9
• Chapter Ends..•.............•.............. ···············---· 2·23
1.14
4.
Inter-Relationships

(May 10, Juno 11, May 13, Dec. 13) ......................... 1·11 l Modq_le 111<,11 4.
U
1.15 Properties ofSolls ...................................................... 1-14
4.
1.15.1 Engineering Propertles •........................•.........•...•....... 1·14 Chapter 3 : Classification of Soils 3-1 to 3-21
1.15.2 Index Properties ..••.•.................•.........•..........•..•..•.•.... 1-14
3.1 Sollldentlflcatlon and Classification 4
1.16 Speclnc Gravity Determination (May 13) .................... 1-15
(June 11, Dec. 11)........................................................ 3-1 4
1.16.1 Difference between Specific Gravity of Solids (G) and
m

Mass Specific Gravity of soli (Gm) 3.1.1 Particle Size Classification (May 10) ..........................•. 3-2 4
(Dec. 10, Dec. 12) ...................................................... 1·16 3.1.2 Textural Classff1catfon (June 11 ) .................................. 3-2
1.17 Water Content Determination (Dec. 10) ..................... 1-17 3.1.3 Unified Soil Classification and Indian Standard
1.1B Aeld Density (Unit Weight} Determination ................. 1-20 Classlflcatlon (May 10) ................................................. 3-2
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1.19 Solved Examples..•..............•...................... ................ 1-22 3.1.4 Boundary Classification ................................................ 3-4
1.20 Solved Example from GATE Examination .................. 1-32 3.1.5 Aeld Tests for SoR Classification (Dec:. 12) .................. 3·4
1.21 Solved Example From GATE & IES Examination ...... 1-34 3.1 .6 Difference between Sand and Clay .............................. 3-5
• Chapter Ends...................................................... 1-41 3.2 Mechanical Analysis (Size Gradation Analysis) •••••••.••• 3-7

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3.2.1 Sieve Analysis (May 13, Dec. 13) ........•...............•...•.•. 3-7
/ /
3.2.2 Sedimentation Analysis (May 13, Dec. 13) .•.•...........••• 3-8

Chapter 2 : Plasticity Characteristics of Soli 2·1 to 2·23 3.2.3 Theory of Sedimentation ............................................... 3-9

2.1
3.2.4 Pipette Method .............................................................. 3·9
Plasticity of Soli ••...........•.•.....•.•.•........•......................... 2·1
3.2.5 Hydrometer Method .................................................... 3-1 o
2. 1.1
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Reason tor P/as · · ..................................................... 2·1

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. iJl Geotechnical Enplneerlnp- l (MU-5th Som.-CMI) 2

Sh"t Pft• .................................................................... 4-20

:u.e eorredlon• AppiNid to the H)ldrometer Reading........ 3·11 4.1a.1
4.19.2 H~l Earttl<!n Otun ................................. _ .. 4-20
~.1 LlmiUodon or Sedtmenl811on 1\nefYsla.......................... 3·12
.s,s Grading oi.Soll (May 18) ............................................ 3·13 4.20 Conatrucllon onop Seepage Una a! Earth Oam
(May 13, eec. 13)....................................................... 4-21
s:s: 1 U88!1 of Par1lcla Size OlslrfbuHon CuM
<0-e. 11, May 13)....................................................... 3·13 4.21 Uses ol Flow Nut (June 11, May 13, Dec.13, Dec. 18,
MIIV 18, Dec. 18) ........................................................ 4-22
.S.+ Relatflle De,slry (0.0. 18) ......................................... 3·H
4.21.1 Solll9d EXamples ........................................................ 4-23
3.5 solved aamplp........................................................ 3·14
4.22 Solll9d Example from GATE Examlna~on ................ +24
So/V8d EXamples from GATE ExaminatiOn................ 3-18
3.8 Chapter Ends..................................................... 4<r'T
Chapter Ends..................................................... 3-21
I Mgc!Uie'V l
Chapter 5 : Effective Streae Principle 5-1 to 5-14

l
Chapter 4 : Permeability of Soils and Seepage Analysis
4-1 to 4-37

a
5.1 Geostetlc Stress and Vertlcel Strass ............................ s-1

5 .1.1 Gsostatlc Stress............................................................ S-1

4.1 So11Wster..................................................................... 4-1
Effective Stress and Total Stre&~ .................................. S-1

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4.2 Surface Tension ........................................................... 4-2 5.2
5.2.1 Effective Stress Concept .............................................. 5-2
4.3 capillary Water............................................................. 4-2
5.2.2 Effective Stress In Dry or Drained Cond'rtion ................ S-3
4.4 Capillary Risaln Solis................................................... 4-3
5.2.3 Importance of Effsc:tlve Stress Conoapt ....................... 5-3
4.5 Permeability.................................................................. 4·3
Darcy's law (May t 0) .................................................. 4-4 5.3 Seepage Pressure ........................................................ 5-4
4.6

4.7 Validity oi Darcy's Law (May 10).................................. 4-4

nR 5.4
5.5
Quick Sand Condition ................................................... 5-4
Solved Examples .....................,.................................... S-5
4.8 Detennlnatlon of Coefficient of Permeability ·
(Dec. 11, May 13, o.c. 13) .......................................... 4-5 5.6 Effect of Water Table Fluctuations .............................. 5-11
4.9 seepage VelOcity and Discharge Velocity.................... 4·7 5.6.1 Soil with Capillary Fringe ............................................ 5-11

4. 10 Factors Affecting the Permeability 5.6.2 Partly Submerged Soli ................................................ 5-12
U
(May t o, June11, Dec.11, May 15) ........................... 4-7
5.6.3 Fully Submerged Soil Mass with Water
4.11 Field Permeability ......................................................... 4·9 Table at Top................................................................ S-12
4.12 Field Determination of 'k' .............................................. 4-9 5.6.4 Fully submerged Soil Mass with Water
4. 12.1 Pumping Out Test (Dec. 15) ........................................ 4-9 Head atTop ................................................................ S-13
m

4.12.2 Pumping In Tests ........................................................ 4-10 5.6.5 Permeable Sandy Strata Below Stiff Clay .................. 5-13

4.13 Permeability of Stratified Solf Deposits (Dec. 15) ...... 4:-11 5.7 Solved Examples from GATE Examination ................ 5-14

4.14 Solved Examples........................................................ 4-12 • Chapter Ends..................................................... 5-14

4.15 Seepa.ga ..................................................................... 4-17

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4.15.1 DeflnlllonofSeepaga ................................................. 4-17

4.15.2 Importance of Seepage .............................................. 4·17 Chapter S : Compaction of Solis 6-1 to 6-48
4.1 6 Laplace's Equation (May 10, May 16)........................ 4-17
6.1 Compaction ................................................................... 6-1
4.17 Solution of Laplaca Equation· Flow Net (May 13)..... 4·18
6.2 Mechanics of Compaction ............................................ 6·1
4.17.1 Properties of Row Net (Dec. 11)................................ 4-18
6.3 Difference between Compaction and Consolidation
4.17.2 Construction of Flow Net (May 13)............................. 4-19
(May 10, June11 , May 13, May 15)............................ 6-2
4. 18 Graphical Method ....................................................... 4-19
6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction (May 1 o, May 1S) ......... 6·3
4.19 Examples of Constructing Flow Nets ......................... 4-19
6.5 Compaction Tests {Laboratory Test) ............................ 6-4
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Geotechnical En lneerfn 1 MU-5th Sem.·Civll :( • -
PercUSSion Drilling .........................................,............. ~-
https://cee-book.blogspot.com/ 6.11 .5 ,
6.5.1 Standard Proctor Compaction Test (May 10)............... 8-4
6.12
Soli Sampl&rs lltld Sampling (Dec.13, Dec. 16) ........ 6::t·
6.5.2 Heavy Compaction Test or Modified Proctor Test ........ 8-6
6.12.1 Open DriVe sampler ...................................................~
6.5.S MolstuAI Content-Dry Density Relationship
Stadonary Piston sampler .......................................... e,2s
(standard Proctor Compaction Test) ............................ 6-6 6.12.2
Split barrel or Split Spoon Sampter.............................~28
6.5 .4 Comparison between Ught Compaction 6.12.3
and Heavy Compaction ................................................ 6-7 Rotary Sampler........................................................ _&-28
6.12.4
6.5.5 Zero Air Voids or Saturation curve .............................. 6·7 Block or Chunk samples ............................................ e.a,,
8.12.5
6.5.6 Optimum Moisture Content: OMC............................... 6·7 Types of Samptel> .......................................................6-31
6.12.6
6.6 Effect of Compaclfon on SoU Properties (Dec. 15) ...... 6-7 Depth of exploration and Extent of Exploration ........~6-31
6.13
6.7 Aeld Compaction .......................................................... 6·9 Depth of Exploration (Dec. 11 , May 15) ..................... ~
6.13.1
6.7.1 Placement Water Content (Dec. 13, Dec:. 16).............. 6·9 Extent of Exptoratlon................................................... &-32
6.13.2
6.7.2 Aeld Compaction Control spacing of Borfngs ...................................................... $-33

l
6.13.3
(Dec. 13, Dec.15, Dec.16) ....................................... 6-10 Factors Affecting DisturbanCe to Soil Sample
6.14

a
6.7.3 Compacting Equlpments ............................................ 6-11 (Dee. 15) ..................................................................... &-33

6.8 Solved Examples........................................................ 6·12 6.15 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

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(MaY 10, Dec. 13, May 15)......................................... 6-84
6.9 Introduction to Soil Exploration................................... 6-22
6.9.1 Soli Exploration and Site Investigation 6.16 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)
(June 11, Dec.11) ..................................................... 6·22 (May 10, June11, May 16) ........................................ 6-37

6.92 Factors Affecting Cost of Soli Investigations .............. 6-22 6.17 Static cone Penetration Test (CPT} ........................... 6-37

6.1 0
6.11 Methods of Obtaining Soft Samples (Dec. 10) ........... 6-23
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Steps in Soil Exploration ............................................ 6-23 . 6.18

6.18.1
Presenting Report of Site Investigation ...................... 6-39

Bor~_Table Logging (May 15, May 16, Dec. 16) ........ 6-39 .

6.11.1 Test Pits and Trenches............................................... 6-24 6.19 Solved Examples ........................................................ 6-40

6.11.2 Auger Boring............................................................... 6-25 • Chapter Ends..................................................... 6--48

6.11 .3 Wash Boring ............................................................... 6-25

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6. 11.4 Rotary Dr1111ng (Core Boring or Core Drilling) ........... 6-26

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Introduction to Geotechnic al
Engineering , Basic Definitions &
Relationshi ps
11

Syllebu8:

l
ij Definitions : Rocks, Soil, origin & mode of formation and type of soil obtained, soli mechanics, mel< mechanics, soli

a
engineering, geotechnical engineering.
li) Scope of soil engineering: Importance of field exploration and characterization.

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Ill) Coheslonless & cohesive soils.
iv) Soil as three phase & two phase system in terms of weight, volume, void ratio, porosity.

v) Welght·volume relationship; water content, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation, air voids, air content. different
unit weights, specific gravity of solids, and mass, absolute specific gravity.
vi) Relationship between: different unit weights with void ratio, degree of saturation, specific gravity; d ifferent unit
nR
weights with porosity. void ratio, water content; different unit weights with water content, unit w eights air voids.

vii) M ention differen t methods to find water content, specific gravity, unit weight of soil (Detailed description to be
covered during practical).
\
U
1.1 Soli naturally occurring relatively unconsolidated earth materials,
organic or inorganic in character that lies above the bed rock.
+ (MU- Dec. 10)
It includes different material li1re boulders, sands, gravels,
···B*"' I clays and silts."
m

The tenn bas different connotations for various personalities

The particle size in a soil varies from 10_. micron in diameter
related to different disciplines. The definition of the tenn soil
up to large size boulders.
varies with different disciplines.
Sa

According to Dr. Tenagbi (who is called as Father .of Soil

The definition of soil by an agriculturist or a gwlogist is
Mechanics), soils can be divided into their constituent
different from the one used by a civil engineer. To a
particles relatively easily, such as by agitation in water.
geologist. soil is thin outer layer of loose sediments within
which plant roots are present.

A geologist coosiders the rest of the earth's crust as rock,

imspective of the intensity of bonding forces of sediments.

To an agriculturist soil means only top layer of the earth

which supports plants. For a civil engineer, "soil means all

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easlc Definitions & Flelati
ch En .,
lntro. to Geote
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MU·Sih Sem.·Civll
1·2
.
Rock Mechanics
1.3
3.
1.2

Compe I Xlty of Soli or Llmltatlona 01

Soli Engineering _

occurring loose or soft deposits,fonn;.,_

soil is the natura1J Y .._
, rust produced as a result of Weathering or

l
part of e arth s c • .
.. . decomposition of rode: formation, or decay
dismtegration or .

a
of vegetation, inteanineled together. <:r

The top Iayer of ground that supports vegetation is termed aa

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'top soil' or soU and undisturbed strata lying immediattl:y
below the natural top soil is termed as 'subsoil'.
A natural deposit is quite unlike any other material of
According to Dr. Terzaghi (1948), 'Soil Mechanics or construction known to man.
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Geotecb.nique' is the application of laws of mechanics and
hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments
Among all available common construction materials, one can
select material which best meets the prevailing conditions and
and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles then determine the allowable stresses for that material.
produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of
The material can be expected to behave in a rea~onably
rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture
predictable manner.
of organic constituents.
U
On !he other band, no choice of soil is normally available to
The study of the science of soil mechanics equips a civil an engineer. Most of the suitable sites for construction have
engineer wilh !he basic scientific tools needed to understand already been used up and often one has to make up to do with
soil behaviour. a site having unsatisfactory subsoil conditions.
m

cr SOli Engi neering or Geotechnical Engineering Occasionally, it may be possible to improve the soil
conditions by some suitable treatment, but more often the soil
has to be accepted in its natural state.

The natural deposits are complex to deal with because

Sa

1. The stress-strain relationship for soil deposit is non-

linear; hence difficulty in using easily determinable
Geotechnical engineering is a new term and includes soil parameters to describe its behaviour.
mechanics, soil engineering, rock mechanics and rock 2. Soil deposits have a memory for stress ~dergone in
engineering.
their geological history. Their behaviour is vastly
The scope of the present volume is restricted to the study of influenced by their stress history; time and
tbe engineering behavior of the soil mass. environment are other factors which may alter their
behaviour.

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1-3 lntro. to Geotech. En g., Baalc Definitions &. Relatlonsh( ·

3. Soil de~ts being for from homogeneous, exhibit Behaviour and . properties of man made material can be
predicted fairly a=uta~ely, whereas, it is difficult in ~e of

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'">' 4.
properties which ""'Y from localion to locaJUin.
As soil layen are buried and hidden from view, one bas
narural product such as soil. A comparison of soil with sucb
materialS is shown in Table 1.5.1.

I
to rely on tests carried out on small samples obtained
Table 1.5.1 : Comparison of a soil with other structural
from selected depths and localions. Since there is a
materials
coosuaint on the number of samples that can be taken.
tbere is no guarantu that the soUparometen are truly
If represe1llalive of the field strall!.
1. It is a material which bas These are manufactured
5. No sample is truly UDdisi:IIJbed. In a soil which is
been subjected to vagaries materials, the properties of
sensitive to disturoanc.e, the test results obtained from of nature without any which are accurately
the laboratory and performance of the same satnple in control controlled.
r
the field is normaiJy different for most of the cases.
Universally available Restricted supply,

l
2.
' abundant and cheap expensive materials.
cr Scope of Soli Engineering

a
materials. availability depends on raw
It must now be clear why it is enough for a soil engineer in materials.
search of practic.al solutions, to possess the knowledge of

ev
3. Complex, variable and Uniform and more or less
principles of soil mechanics.
changeable properties with constant properties, which
He needs to bave geology as his ally. The knowledge of for may be altered if desired.
little scope
various processes that have gone into the composition to
improvement
natural soil mass is important since these have a direct
4. Inel astic. non- Can be treated as isotropic,
bearing on soil behaviour. He must also draw upon
experience of others. He must also continually evaluate his
own designs in the light of data obtained from field
nR homogeneous, non-plastic,
3-phase particulate system.
linearly elastic
homogeneous system.
and

measurements. 5. Relatively weak and highly Relatively strong and

compressible materials. urtyielding materials, resist
Th.e basis of observatiollal method in soil mechanics is lhe
Resist only compression compression, shear, tension
comparison of lhe predicted performance wilh lhe actual
and shear. and bending.
U
measured performance.
6. Soil strength depends on Material strength is a
One then tries to fill the gaps in lhe original reasoning. With
rote of loading and drainage constant property.
alJ this, a soil engineer is a practitioner of an an, ralher than a
condition.
science.
Thus, soiJ engineering is an intuitive science whe.re inruition 1.6 Origin of Soil
m

comes from combination of the knowledge of theory,

experience and skill. Soils are formed due to mechanical disintegration or chemical
decomposition of rocks.
1.5 Comparison of Soil with Other
Sa

Wben a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an

Materials appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into small
particles and thus the soils are formed.
Soil is a highly complex material. It differs from conventional
Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained
structural materials such as steel, concrete, plastic etc.
from the geological cycle whlch goes on continuously in-
Tenaghi has rightly said that, ''Unfortunately soil is not a
nature.
man made material and all products of nature are
The geological cycle consists of erosion. transp<Jrtation,
(OilJpiu,.,
dep<Jsition and upheaval of soil.

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. )'
. .. . . ., .~ . . ... ~. -- -· ·. ·. .
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lntro. to Geotech· En ., Basic Oaftnltlona & Re
.I I
1.7 Types of Rocks end Geological Cycle 1.8

The geologim ~be tflree principal types of rocb :

TYPe• of Rocke

1. Igneous or primary rockS

2. Sedimentary or secondary rooks

3. Metamorphic rocks

l
Fig. Cl .l : Types of Rocks

a
· . --~"' ·-"ace or located deep under the surface COVet
Igneous rocks are formed by cooling of molten magmaellherexposed at the c:;<~~u• s Sw •· •

The surfilce rocks are subjected to the geological processes of denudation (surface wear). weathering (mechanical and chemical

ev
destruction) and transportation.
A sedimentary soil deposit is formed when transported sediment is deposited.

A sediment deposit is consolidated or cemented into sedimentary rock. Under heavy pressures and high temperatures, ~k maa

transform into metamorphic rocks.

nR
Later, crustal moven1eot exposes rocks to further weathering or returns them to molten magma. to start the entire cycle liesb
(Fig. 1.7.1). It consists of four main operations: (1) Denudation, (2) Deposition, (3)Sedimentatioo, (4) Crustal movement.

1
Crystallization Melting
U
m

Metamorphism
Weathering
Sa

llttll1lcation

Fig. l.7.1 :Geological cycle

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1·5 lntro. to Gootech. En ., Baalc Dellnltlons 4 Ralatlonahl
1.8 Principal Soli Types
These soils lie cUrecUy over tho bed roclt. Igneous rocka truc:h
(Type of soli obtained)
ns granite or b11311lt and 3C:dlmentary rocu sueh u W>d&tone,
$11lllo or Umestone arc the p~nt matetW for reeldual so lie.
_ ~ On the basis of the gcologiCJII origin of their constJtucnt
scdjments, 3oils can be divided into two main groups. Latuitic soils and blcclc cotto11 :olu or• UC~rtpk~ of ruidl.al
soil.t.
1. Those which owe their origin to the physiCJII and
chemical weathering of the parent rocks. and
2 Those which are chiefly of organic origin.
The latter rype are extremely compre.~sible and their use as
foundation material is best avoided.
Of tbe formec group, soils which are a product of physical Ch~~C~U:tcristics of soil such as the size of the particle3, their

l
wea1Mring or nuchanical disinlegraJion, retain the minerals shape and roundness, surface texture and the degree of
that were present in the parent rocks are called as coarse sorting that takes place in a soil deposit are influenced by the

a
pined. Gravels and sands fall into this category. agency of transportation.
The physical agencies responsible for weathering are the
Table 1.8.1 summarizes these effects. Transported soils are

ev
impact and grinding action of flowing water, ice, wind and
further classified according to the traosporting agency and
splitting actions of ice, plants and animals.
method of deposition.
As against this. chemical weathering or decomposition of
roclcs is caused ~y by oxidation, hydration, carbonation l
~
IUld leaching by organic acids llDd water.
(Gtavily)

',,
(Ghtc:lers)

'
<Wmf)
l
('l'olncl)
Clays llDd ro · some extent, silts are formed by chemical
nR ' i

1.8.1
weathering.

Residual and Transported Solis

COIIIMII
depotfts
E.g.:
Tllua
Gllc:iel
depoaita
E.g. :
EslcCIB
On.rnllna
Glec:iel
'
~ '
Streams
'
Freahwatet

l el<e•
l
Seawater

Martne
doposlta
Aeoline
CSepolitl

~
E.g.:
lOQ8end
On the bii.Si:> of the fotJIJation, soi.ls can be divided into two sanc1 ~nes

' ' '

til

large groups : ....-------::-"7"'"-:---;---. Alluvial LIICUSiml E.g. :

Types of soli on the basis deposb
U
deposits Mllline
daylnd

' '
of formation rna~
E.g.: E.g.:
Shales Va~Wd
1. Residual soils and tilts dey

2 . Transported Soils ~ (a) Alluvial deposit

m

Soils that have been deposited from suspension in running

(a) Alluvial deposit
water.
(b) Lacustrine deposit ,
~ (b) Lacustrine deposit
Sa

(c) Marine deposit

· Soils that have been deposited from suspension in still fresh
(d) Aeollne deposit water 'of lakes.
~ (c) Marine deposit
(e) Glacial deposit
Soils that have been deposited from suspens~on in sea water.
Fig. Cl.Z : Types of son on the basis of formation
~ (d) Aeoline deposit
-t 1. Resldnal soils
Soils that have been transported by wind.
-+ (e) Glaclal deposit

Deposits that have been transported by ice.

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'd - "lo Considerable

.-
Reduction throuah solullon, little Consl eoow ......Ar.t I'
grinding o.nd 1'"r-
abrasioo in suspended load. some
abrasion and impact in traction impact
load.
Angular, non-
Shape and Rounding of nnd ond gravel High degree of Angular po.rtieles
roundness
Striated
Surface Sand: smooth, polished, shiny Impact produces Striated surfaces
teJcturo surfaces
frosted surfaces
Sorting Very considerable Very little sorting
No sorting
Consjderable sorting
sorting

l
1.8.2 Terminology of Different Types of Soli .. 1. Loess

a
Names of some of the soils lllat have been fomled by various A loose deposit of wind-blown silt that bas been Weakly
methods of transportation and deposition are given and explained cemented willl calcium carbonate and montmorillonite.
below.

ev
Loess is formed io arid and semi-arid regions and 5Unds ia
Different Types of Soli nearly vertical banks.

1. l oess
2. Tuff
A small-grained slightly cemented volcanic ub that has beea
2. Tuff

3. Bentonite
nR ~
transported by wind or water.

3. Bentonite
4. Glacial fill (boulder clay) A chemically weathered volcanic ash.
5. Varved clay .. 4. Glacial till (boulder clay)
U
Typically, a mixture of boulders, gravel, sand, silt and clay,
deposited by glaciers and not traosporu:d or segregated by
7. Gumbo
water.

-+ 5. Varved clay
m

Alternate thin layers of silt and clay deposited in fres.b water

glacial lakes by outwash from glaciers.
10. Humus
The silt is deposited in warm weather during heavy runoff
Sa

11. Hard pan and clay is deposited in cold weather during small run off.
Generally, one band of silt and clay is deposited each year.
12. Colluvial soil

t 3. Mine tailings
-+ 6. Marl

A very fine - grained calcium-carbonated soil of

origin.
15. Inorganic soil and organic soil
-+ 7. Gumbo
Fig. Cl .3 : Different types of SoU
A sticky. plastic, dark coloured clay.

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 I

I
I
Geotechnical E
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1-7 lntro, to Geot11ch. E
I '' BMio Definitions & R alaUonshl
~ 8. Peat
I
..
~~
_. 15. ln oraa n lc: 11011 ond orca ntc toll
• A highly organic soil. consistlng almost cndrely ~f vcgcuulvc
{ll ' n:lllltCr in varying states of decomposltlon. brown ro black In
colour, po6SC$$ing an organic odour. Peat Is nbrous and
highly compressible.
Orgnnic mllUcr conslats of the more or lest decomposed
. . 9. Muck remoins of plant nnlmal organiams.

A mixruro of fine porticled, inorganic soil 8Jld black Such toils undergo eon,lderable volume change.s under load.
In general, dork coloun; of gt:ly, brown or black. indicate
decomposed organic matter.
organic soils.
I t is usually found accumulated in conditions of imperfect having brightet colours. Organic soils
Inorganic soil& nrc
drain3ie as in swamps or is deposited by overflowing rivers. have distinctive smell. They are not good soila from the
engineering point of view.
Peat and muck are also called cumu/Qse .soils.

l
-+ 10. Humus 1.9 Importance of Field Exploration and

a
Characterisation
A dark brown, organic, amorphous earth of top soil,

I consisting of pnrt.ly decomposed vegetative matter. Field exploration studies helps in detennining the

ev
chnrncteristics of soil strata below tround level along with
-+ 11. Hard PIUl
position of water table.
A layer of elCtremely hard, cohesive soil that can hardly be With help of this data the selection on type and depth of
drilled with ordinary, C4rth boring tools. foundation can be decided.

-+ 12. Colluvial soli

The accumulation of rock debris or talus at the base of a steep

nR In addition, suitability of site for that project can be
undertaken and if unsuitable, measures to improve soil
ehnrncteristics can be suggested.
cliff or a rock: escarpment.
I~ position ~ul~ mainly from the effect of the force of With some effons and less cost if proper exploration stndie..~
gravity acting on the rock fragments broken from above are carried out, it can save lot of money and efforts during
U
rocks. construction or post construction.

-+ 13. Mine taJJings 1.10 Cohesionless and Cohesive Soils

These are the silt sized materials resulting as waste after
-. Cohesion is the attraction between particles which give
extraction of minerals from natural rock and are usually
m

cohesive strength to the,soil.

deposited by hydraulic fill.
Hence cohesive soils have very fine particles and they are
~ 14. Fill governed by surfnee forces rather than self weight. e.g. clay,
silt.
Sa

In pure cohesive soils, friction between particles will not

occur and hence their shear strength will be contributed by
only cohesive force and not by internal friction.

A fill is actually a transported soil where human being is a Non cohesive soil or cohesionless soil do not have -cohesive
transporting agency. forces. They have comparatively coarser particles with self

A blasting may be used l.o fonn a soil from rock. Trucks, weight governing their behavior. e.g.•sand and gravel.
scrappers or bulldoz.eiS are used to transport the soil The particles have internal friction and their strength depends
on the an \e of internal friction between the articles.

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M sem.

Tho na!UI'&I coil deposits mostly have

111

. ., rces
1·8
Geotechnical En Jneerin - I MU·5 https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
-Civil

..,h
.
n h the different phases p
'J110U&-·
both c:ohestve .o
be sep~~Jl~U"'
resent in the soil l1laS$ ca...;,__
• Fig. t.12.l(a), but for a'--
-_....~ as shown 111
'"""'~\
• """"q
b ·or it is helpful to make tt..._
-
~

... •
L.:ctionaJ forces conuibuting t O uoCif Shear streD&w" ~
d d rstalldfn8 O f soil be aVI '
u m un e diagtalll
f ~-•"' ond study the phase . •
1.11 Design Construction Phases 0 sep... - . resentation of the differenr ~
Foundations The
d.iagrllJllmanc rep
. is termed as a phase ~
resent in the soil mass . Co b' ..
· studies are carried P three phase system. m l1llltion of
As listed earlier. if proper soil c:xploratJon Fig. J.l2.l{b) shoWS
our. information pertainlng to subsurface soil strata. water
solids, air and wnter.
table level and Its characteristics can be acquired in detail.
. ot saturated. the voids present in the IQl
When soil mass IS n .
With the: help of lhls data, foundation engineer will be able to
mass are ftlied by the liquid (water) and atr.
design !lie s~itablc foundation biking into account the
explomtlon data and the fuoctiooal requirements of the

l
· slructure.

a
Also tho suitable technique for construction of foundation is
suggested. Ground improvement or soil stabilization Solids

ev
technique, if required at site is also to be mentioned.
ln addition, during c:onsiJuction also, the characteristics of
@]
Air
soli actually obse.rved at site are to be compared with
exploradon data.
Water
In case of any discrepilllcy it is to be noted and suitable
modifications requ ire4 are to be further suggested.
nR Fig. t .ll.l(a) : Natural soil
1.12 Three Phase System of a Soil

The soil mass in general. is a three phase system composed of

U
solid, liquid and gaseous matter.

The solid particles are cal.led as soil grains. The void between
the solid panicles is filled partially with water and partiaJly
with air.
m

The Iiqu.id phase is generally water that fills partly or wholly

Fig.l.l2.1(b) : Partially saturated condition
the voids. The gaseous phase is usually air occupies the voids
Three phase system o1soil mass
not filled by the water.
= Total welgbt of soil mass
Sa

W
These three constituents of soil mass are blended together
forming a complex material.
w. = Weightofai.r:::O
W, ::: Weight of water
They do not occupy separate spaces. The properties of soil
mass depend upon the relative percentage of these W, = Weight of solids

constituents and their arrangements. . V., = Volumeofwarer

Hence the relative volumetric and gravimetric proportions of Volume of voids

tbe solids, water and air in a soil
mass are required to be v = Total volume of soil mass
Studied.
v. "' Volume of air
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MU;5"" 5em.·Civll) 1·9 Intra. to Geotech. E ., Basic Definitions & Relatlonahl

1.13 Basic Definitions

(a) Water eontent : The water content [w] of a soil mass is

defined ns 'the ratio of mass of water [M.,l in voi.ds to the
') m111s of solids (M.)'.
M,
w = Mx tOO percent
I
[O~w<-l

Fie- l.l2.1(c) : Dry condJtlon lt is expressed as a per cent

Fig. 1.12.1 (c) shows the combination of air and solid particles (b) Void ratio

forming 2-phase system.

When soil mass is completely dry, the voids present in the

soil mass are completely fiUcd.only with air [gaseous phase]. The ratio of volume of voids (V. = V • + V.,], to the volume of

l
The liquid phase [water] remains absent in such ~e and solids [V1] is defined as void ratio (e).

a
hence V, =V•.
[0 < e< -1
Fig. 1.12.1 (d) shows two phase system of saturated soil.

ev
Since soU is saturated, the voids are fuUy filled only with It is expressed as decimal (fraction).
water and hence V• =V,.. (c) Porosity : It is a ratio of volume of voids [VJ to the total
volume of soil M· It is denoted by (n).
vy
n = vx100per cent (O<n<100%)
nR It is expressed as a per cent.

Dqree or saturation

Fl&.l.lU(d): Saturated condition

of saturation.
U
FromFig. 1.12.1(b),
The degree of saturation (S,], is a ratio of the volume of water (V.1
Total weightW = W,+ Ww in the voids, to the volume of voids [V v1·
v..
The weight of air is negligible and hence for all practical
S, = v x 100 per cent
y
purposes, it can be assumed be zero.
m

It is expressed as a per cent.

Total volume, V = V, + v..
(e) Density : Density (p) of a soil mass is defined as 'the mass
= v, + v. + Vw (3-phase system)
of unit volume of a soil'.
Sa

From Fig. 1.12. I (c) for dry soil (2-phase system) : M

p = v
w = w,
where. M = Mass of soU
V = Total volume of soil
From Fig. 1.12.1 (d) for fully saturated soil (2-phase system) : It is expressed as kg I cubic metre or gram I cubic
centimeters.
W = Ws+Ww
(0 Unit weight : Unit weight [y] of a soil is defined as 'the
V = V,+ v.
weight of unit volume of a soil' .

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to aeotech. E .,
1-iO lntro. w
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MU·5.,Sem.·Civll .:iJ. W ..!.. __

y =
Where w = wclght of soli
v • total volume of soil
It is exp!'C$sed as a kN/cubic metre.
W Mxg Mxg
y = v= v =v
Y = pxg
air is expressed by :
y, W
(I)
lltis is also l.'Jlown as 'bulk unit weight' of a soil.

Ullft weight of water : The unit weight of water at a given

G = r.= v.Y:
temperature is expressed as the ratio of !he weight of water to (I) Percentage oIr voids ' 0 • : It is percentage of air. in the voids.
It Is defin ed as 'the ratio of the volume of au (VJ to tba

l
the volume of water nt same temperature and is designated as
[y.,]. The notation [yJ is normally used for unit w~ight of volume of voids('/v>' ·

a
wruer at reference temperature 4•c. v.
w., . 2
n. = V v x 100 per cent
= y w kN/m

ev
Y., at certain temperature.
It is expressed as percentage.
(h) . Dry unit weiehl : The dry unit weight [y4 ] of a soil mass is
If 0 =O%, nonnally soil sample is saturated.
•
expressed as the ratio of the weights of solids [W,.) to the
If n. = 1009&, soil sample is dry, i.e. all the voids are filled
total volume [VJ.
only with air, and no water is present in the voids.
nR (m) Air content, a.
(l) Sat~.~n~ted unit wele,ht : The saturated unit weight (y101), of a -+ (MU ·May 13)
soil mass is the ratio of the saturated weight (W..) of the
UUISS (I.e. S,= 1 00~) to the total volume(V).
I Q. EXplain ~Air content

w It is the ratio of the volume of air (V,) to the to1al volume of

v.. = ~kNZm
v 3
U
the soil.

0) Unit weight of solids : The unit weight of solids (y,) is v.

~ = v
defined as 'the ratio of the weight of solids (W,), to the
~ = n(l-S.)
m

(n) Absolute specific gravity

It is· the ratio of weight of absolute solids to the weight of

equal volume of water.
Sa

(k) Specific gravity

The soil solids are not perfect solids. 1bey contain some
voids or por:u; or small holes on the surface of the solids.
Some of these voids are permeable through which water can
enter, whereas others are permeable.
The specific gravity of any substance is the ratio of its weight
in air to the weight of an equal volume of water at reference Since the permeable voids get filled with water when the soil
temperature 4°C. is wet, they are in reality a part of void space and not part of
solids.
The specific gravity of a soil mass including air, water and
solids is termed as mass specific gravity (G ).
111

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M_ G eotechnical Enpin&ertnp· I (MU·5"' Sem.·Civll) 1·11 lntro. to Qeoteoh. Enpa., Baslo DeflniUons & Relallonahlg

I{ both these penneable and Impermeable void• aro excluded -+ (b) Relation between Yold ratio (e) and the water
com~ct content (w)
J from the volume of solids, tbo remnlnlng lA 1ho
\ volume of solids. -+ (MU ·May 10, J une 11)
rr.l.
o. - y;
1
ld I G, = Absolute specific gravity
where. [y,), = Unit weight of the absolute solids
y,. = Unit weight of equal volume of water. M., Ww
... (1 .14.1)
Water content w= M, = W,
The absolute specific gravity is not of much practical use. ns
But, W., = V.,xy. and W, =V, xy.
it is difficult to differentiate the penneable and impenneable VwXYw Vw Yw
voids. In most of the cases, the impenneable voids are talcen Hence, w - - --x-
V,xy, - 'f, v.

l
as part of solids. Y,
But - 0

a
y..,
1.14 Inter-Relationships vw 1
Hence, w = -V, x-
G
...(1.14.2)

ev
Inter-Relationships

(a) Relationship betw&en void ratio (e)

and porosity (n]

{b) Relation between void ratio (e)

and the water content (w)

(c) Relation between G, e, wand y

nR
(d) Relation between i
(submerged unit weight), G, e

(e). Relation between y, Yd and w

Flg. 1.14.1
U
(f) Relation between Pd• n8 , S"" wand G I Vw
We know that saturation, S, = y or V w "'S, · V v
(g) Density index or Relative density, Rd
•

Fig. C1.4 : Inter·Relationships .

Using in Equation (1.14.2),w "' vs,v. >< 01
I- I

v
.
m

-+ ··=
(a) Relationship .between void ratio [e) and porosity
(n]
But void ratio (e)
- ..J
s,xe
I
w =-o ; e=swG r
Sa

By definition,
i.e. e · s. = w G

=
I e = _n_
1-n Alternative method
For S, = 1 (fully saturated soil), e wG

I = -v., v. v..
x--- . .. (1':14.3)
Also, n v. v.- v.
Ww
But. y., =
e
0
= l+e

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...( 1.14.4)
or, e =
Gp,.
w, - - 1
and~ .. Pd
Andy, c v,
_. (d) Relation ~tween y' (submerged 1IDit wdght). G, e
.. v = w, ...(1.14.5)
I Yo
y', submerged uni t weight ,. y,.-Y.
•·• From Equatioru (1.14.3), (1. 14.4) and (1 . 14.5),
v.. w.. i.
= c~::) .., . _.,_
Sr · e = -V, - - .-W,
- y..,
y' = (~;~) .....
and p' = {~; ~) P..
_. (c) Rc:Jation between G, e, w and y

l
.. (e) Relation between y, ydand"'

a
ev
Bulk unit weight =
w = M. ::: w.
. w., v. w, w..... w. w
Smce WI ' =
Gy,U+ w)
w, y =e and -V = Y =Gy,
I a S
nR
~
1 +W

w. =
w
w. =w
•
Y = l +e T+'W
And G Ps {1 + w) w. w
P • 1+e ...( 1.14.6) yd = v =V[1+W]
Weknow tbat S, · e = w·G
y
U
Sr · e Y, ::a
l +w
or w =
a p
Using in Equation {1.14.6),

r = ( G+S,• e)
l+ e Y.,
. (f)
and pd = I+W
RelatJon between p,, u_, s., wand G
m

(G + S, • e) • v = V1 +Vw+ V,
and p = l+e P.. v. wM,
•;

= _ + _ + _M.
If s, = I (saturated soil), V V y.., Vy,
Sa

(G1 ++eJY., I- 0. =
wya l
r. , = Y.,
+
G Y.,

and P.., = (G+ J

1 + e P,. yd =
G [l - n1]
l + wG Y.,.
G · y,.
Ifw:::O (dzy soiJ), yd = l+e G [1 - n_] p,.
and pd = l+wG
and Gp"
p4 = l +e

. J. = ..!.±.!..
yd 0 · Y.,
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Ita.- 0 ('*"'"'led roil. .........>:

r. • 6.!...0 )r.
It 110ill5 not 1\JIIy !'&ltlnlled,
e"' ~
s,
OP.. Oy.
y' • "'i'+O • I
+
.!:2,
s, .,.,
Void raao (e ) -
.,.
-+ (&) Dclllllty lodex or R.e blti'ft dtNJilty, A.
lil t. 1.1• •2
_,. (MU · Dec. 13, May 13) 1, I• 100%1
Prom Fig. 1.1 4.2, 1M 0 •
•.... -•.
:I

l
)

a
I.e. ,. cot 9

I The density index (I~ for coarse grained soils is defined as

Any intennediaie val!MI ofld can~ expteSSed u .

ev
e,...- e
emu - e...
1/y• mh - 1/y•
or I,=
1/ydm - 1 /Yd -.
e.,. - e
Maximum void ratio Ooosest state) :. Id = [ e.,..-e"'t•l
e.,.. = MinUllwn void ratio (densest state)
nR Expression for 14 in tenns of dry density can be derived as

e = N~ void ratio of soil under :

y4 mu MaxinlWD dry density

Yd ..m = Minimum dry deosity

~:w _tj
U
yd Dry density ln natural state .• e = ( G

The density index varies from 0 to 100%.

Qualitatively it is described as :
e,... = (_~·Yw- l)and
\ omla

1,~;~ I~ ,.Compac:tfo
-~ a .Ute <::f:t '-·. = (_G·Yw _;'t
m

0. 15 Very loose '\

\ Ydmu ')

15-35 Loose It may be noted that, when void ratio is e.,... dry density will
35 -65 Medium dense (compact) be yd mJn nnd when void ratio is minimum, i.e. emht dry density
Sa

65.85 Dense will be maximum [i.e. ydm:u).

85- 100 Very dense

The concept of relative density is purely arbitrary and is not

based on density of any physical body. The concept applies
only to sand and not silt or clay.

The relation between void ratio and Id can be represented by a

graph shown below; and the mathematical equation can be
derived from the same.

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 www.engineeringonyourfin

[:
----
Ydg!n
I

rL.- Yd~
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YdI J'
Engineering Properties

.....e
'"
compress•
.
mlllneng•
·neering propertiC$ are
'bllitY Md shear strengtb. PeTTllcabili ty ~
.
· ·
.. (

1
Yd-Ydmtn Y
d...,xyd_. .
case W1th wh1
'ch the water can flow through soils.
= Yd•'Y~tmlll X Y~t.._, - YctnU • • is related with the deformations ~ _
Compress1b11ltY . -

e·.;:-9 (ydy:~y::J
subiected to compress1ve loads.
undergoes when 1
Tile shear --ngth
~u~·
helps in determining stability of a'--.
-.....,._
For very dense gravelly snnd sometimes density index call be
bcllring capaclty of soils Md the eanh pressures on ~
more lllan 100%.
structures. The enainecring
.,.... properties of soils are d i - -.•
----..a
This would mC411 that the natural packing does not permit
itself to be repeated in the laboratory. in later chapters.

The application of the relative density test to sand is to check 1.15.2 Index Properties

l
the achieved density B!ld the compactness of fi Us made of

a
gmnulnr material.

Loose sand can best be densified by vibration. In evaluating

ev
sandy soils. their narural and relative densities are of
panunounc imponance for the evaluation of their properties as The tests requited for determination of engineering pt'Opertiea
a material upon which structures can have their foundations. are nonnally elaborate and time-consuming. For most of 1be

From the change in the volume of voids in a soil, for example

cases, the geotechnical engineer requires some nJOgb 1.1
on compaction, it is possible to evaluate the chMges in assessment without conducting elaborate tests.
nR
density of o soil medium, and thus to judge the achieved
degree of compaction.
These tests or properties which ore not of primary interest 10
the geotechnical engineer but which are indicative of tbe
Depending upon the prope~es of the particles of the sand engineering properties are termed as index propctties.
and llle texture of the latter, two kinds of sands of the same The simple tests wbicb are required to detetmine the index.
volume of voids (porosity) may possess tota!Jy different properties are known as 'classification te,sts'. by
abilities of densification (compaction). Hence, the coefficient
U
The main index properties are :
of relative density of a given sand usually gives us a clearer
idea of the density than the value of the void ratio itself. (a) Particle size distribution.

(b) Density index or Relative density,

1.15 Properties of Soils
(c) Consistency.
m

The properties of so!l can be divided into index properties First two index properties are related to coarse grained soils
' and third property is related to fine grained soils.
and engineering properties.
The index properties are sometimes divided into two
Properties of Soils
Sa

categories :

1. Engineering Properties

2. Index Properties
(a)

(b)
The properties of individual particle size and

Properties of soil mass (aggregate properties). -

_. (a) Aggregate properties
(a) Aggregate properties
The properties of soil mass depend upon the mode of soil
(b) Individual properties fonnation, soil history and soil structure.
FJg. Cl .5 : Properties of Soils These properties are required to be determined from
undistributed samples or preferably from in-situ tests.

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M U -{S111 Sem.-Civt 1-15 lntro. to Oeoteeh. En ., BasiO Oeftnltlons & Relatlonah
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A dcmlty bottle of ~0 ml capeclty b uacd for thU purpose.
.. ~) lJHflvldual propu~Jeo!
!::!...
'· _ . 'Ille properties of individual particle.• can be detennlned ror Qs~ Qs .:!a_
Y. !!!.,
J"CDlOidcd, disturbed S.~JT~p!es. v.
'Jbe$e propertlcs dcpond upon tl1c indl vidunl grains ond nro
Independent of tho manner of ~oil fonnallon.
If v, =v.,.then, 0 =
'Ibc index property gi ves some infonnntion nbout tho
engineering propcroes.
Genetally, it is assumed that tl1e soils with like index
properties ha\'C identical engineering properties.
However, the correlation between the index properties and
engineering properties are not perfecL

l
A sufficient factor of safety should be providerl if design Is

a
· ' based only on index properties.
Jl'ig. 1 .16.1
- • ~ign of important 5tructurcs should be made only after the
Hence, we lcnow that specific gravity is the ratio of weight of

ev
det.cnnination of engineering properties.
dry soil to the weigPt of equal volume of water.

1.16 Specific Gravity Determination cr Procedure

-+ (MU- May 13) (i) Find mass of empty density bottle (M 1).
limit and

I
nR
Ufiii
(ii) Put some over dried soil sample in th.e density bottle, weigh it

~·
The laboratory specific gravity detennination is carried out (iii) Fill the density bottle in stage (ii) completely with distilled
water and take its mass (M~.
by the following methods.

I
Methods of
Specific Gravity Determination
(iv) Fill empty density bottle completely with distilled water and
weight it (MJ.

--- - .--- -
U

B~
_::::::::::::::

11
1. Density bottle method IJI ::=:=::::::
:::
--·-V!.•l't!.·_-__ ______________
=:=:=:=:=:=:=:= :=:=:--=:=:
-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-
2. Pycnometer method ,
Solds
------ --
-: -:-:-:-:-:-:-
·---- ---
J!!!l..
m

3. Gas jar method :o>

(M1) (M 0)

Fig. 1.16.2(n)
4. Measuring flask method
(I) Mass of dry soil,
Fig. Cl.6 : Methods of Specific Gravity Determination
Sa

Mass of water in stage (iii)

. . 1. Density bottle method
Mass of water in stage (iv) = M4 - M,

(ll) Mass of equal volume of water = Mass of water in stage

(iv)- Mass of water in stage (iii)

= (M4 -M 1)-~- M~
This method is used to find the specific gravity of preferably
find grained soils.
= ~-M 1)+M4 -~

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. . r~\
!r'"i"·t
,,
4_fl.
,
'·"''¥1
-~' ~ - -- - --r:;:---:'t----..;----_
-
-·-
~ ~~-t::--.. ...
- . -
t.
-· - - - - - - · - · ·

- --
- - v.
II,
.,.~ -~--'"'-·;:.----·
•
-~ - " -- -
~::..;_-_ ..~-=------- .-
..
- -· •
1
~ ~( I • • 1 • I / •
- _ ,, ,, ,, . - '" .,,
.b•. • •.i . . .• . , ;. .,. _.• '· . . --L . ,~ .. ,~ • \
f• ~
,' • •

---- oJ • <I • 1..=-

" ~· ~ ' 1 ~ , t
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h En e aslc Defi nitio ns &•Rei
lntro. to a eotee
1-16
https://cee-book.blogspot.com/ . .•

~
.. 3. Ga• J• r method
.. M,+ M.- M, :M, .. (M, -MJ
bout I litre capacity i& used. The
M -M M. -
A gus jar o f n jill: h lLl 1.17
Now, spcclticgnvlly. 0 .. M - M: + M: - M, "' Md +M. -MJ The gas jnr serves as a pycnometer. ....
2 willl rubber bung.
Dividing numerator and denominator by Md, .
1he meth od Is stmt'tor to the pycnometer method.
we gel.
1
Meosurlng flask method
. . 4.
.
A measunng Oaslc of 250 ml or 500 ml capacity ...._
-f> 2. Pya1 0me ter meth od • ~~q~
grnduated mark at that level is used
.
This method is similar to lhe dens
ity bottle method. This ~•r is removed. The procedure is simi
method can be used for lllJ types The entrap ped ... luto ....
of soils but it is more ""
swtable for coane grain ed soils. density bottle metJlod.

lbe re.~t of the procedure is sllllle This method is suitable for fine grain
ed and medium ~

l
as that of density bottle
method. soils.

a
The specific gravity is reported at
27°e (IS 2720 • m or at . . Difference bet we en Spe cifi
4°C. 'The specific gravity at 27°e and 1 16 1 c Gravity o1
4°e are determined as Solids (G) and Mass Sp ecific

ev
follows: Gravity ot
Specific gravity of water at t0 e
soli (Gm)
Gn G, X
Specific gravity of water at 27oe

o. G, x Specific gravity of wate r at t0 e nR

Where, Gn Specific gravity ar 27°e (soil)

o. Specific gravity at 4°e (soil)

Gt Specific gravity at t0 e (soil)

I. The ratio of weight of soil The ratio of weight of soi\

solid s (excluding water mass (including air, water
U
and air) to an equal and solids) in air to weight
volume of water at of an equal volume of

.... ··.·.
standard temperature of water at stan dard
• • •• 0 4°C is termed as specific temperature of 4°C is
• 0
m

• - 0 0.
gravity of soil solids (G) termed as mass specific
Fig. 1.16 ..2(b ): Pycn ometer gravity (0.,)
Entrapped and dissolved air is great
source of error wbicb 2. G =l'a. =..:JL y,
0 =.. !.L =-
w
results in a lower calculated value of
Sa

specific grav ity. For Yo V, Yo m Yo Vyo

certain soils, kerosene, in place of wate
r give better results. If 3.
Gt is specific gravity of kerosene, then ,
4.
G - ~ x Gt G is used in determination Mass specific gravity is not
- M.i+M4 -M1 of void ratio and other used in relat
ions between
Above equation is used only wben indelt properties.
kerosene is used as better index properties as it
wetting agent, in place of water.
compares bulk unit of solid
toequal volume of water,
hence not much useful.

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1-17 lnlro. to Gaotach. En ., Baalo Oeflnltlona & Relallonahl
1.17 Water Content Determi nation Thi& t.cmpellllurc range Is auhable r~ most of the •oil._ The
tempenture lo1110r 1hM \ to"c ± s•c may not uuse comptele
evapontlon of water and tempen.ture higher than this may
cnuso breaking down of cryatallin10 att\lc:tu~ of \he •oil
particlC3 du~ to loss of chemically bound stnldllral water.

However. this temperature is not suitabl10 for soils with

sufficient amount of organic mattet. For such aoi1s the
temperature of 60°C to so•c is recommended.

The drying period of 24 hours is suitable for most of the soils

Most of the properties of a soU are governed by the water
to cause complete evapollllion of water.
content of a soil sampl~. It controls the behaviour of a soil.
The soil may be deemed to be dry when the difference in
I t is a quantitative measure of wetness of a soil mass. The
successive weighing of the cooled sample does not eJtc:eed

l
,
water content can be determined to a high degree of
about 0.1 ~ of the original weight

a
precision. as it Involves only weights (which can be
detennined more accurately than volumes). FoUowing
The soil containing urganic matter may ~uire drying period
more than 24 hout11. Mass of sample after dryin& is taken

ev
melhods are used to fllld the water content
[M3]'
')
Methods of Water Content Determina tion Mat
w X)()()
M,

' 1. Oven drying method,

2. Calcium carbide method,

3. Infra-red torsion balance method,

nR M,.

w
=
=
~-~
M, - M,
~-M. X 100

Mass of container with lid

4 . Sand bath method,
Mass of container with wet soil
5. Alcohol method,
M3 = Mass of container with dry soil
U
a:Radiation method,
-+ 2. Infra-red torsion balance method
7. Pycnometer method
This is a rapid method to f1.11d the water content. The
FfJ. CI.7 : Methods of Water Content DetermJnatlon equipment has two main parts.
m

~ l. Oven drying metllod (a) The infra-red lamp. (b) The torsion balance.

This is a standard and most accurate laboratory method to The infra-red radiation is provided by a 250 W lamp built in

find the water content the balance for use with an alternating current 230 V, 50
Sa

cycles single phase main supply (IS : 2720, Part n, 1973).

A small, non-corrod able, airtight container is taken. Its empty
mass is taken (M1). The soil sample is taken in the container. The sample is kept in the suitable container so that its water

The mass of sample with container is obtained ~- content is not affected by ambient conditions.

The soil sample in the container is then dried in an oven at a The torque is applied to one end of the torsion wire by means

temperature of I IO"C ± 5°C for 24 hours. of a calibrated drum to balance the loss of weight of water as
sample dries out under infra-red lamp.

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VI :II
•
Dut,
A lhennomete r is provided for reco rdl ng tho drying
temperature wh.icb is kept nl t I0°C :ts•c. .!..
Hence. m "'
•
The provision Is made to OOJUSI • Jtn<Ye
lhc mpul vo o.oo to the lnfm·
red lamp to control the beat for drying oflhc SM~pte..
.. j_
w
.. 1
- - I
m
1-m
"'"'11\ 'n
(n

The balance sc:ate is divided in terms of moisture content (m) .. w .. Ill

Wall!r content on dry buls • T::"ft\
T
based on wet weight It is also tenned as wnter content on wet xpressed as percentages. then,
basis. If (m) and (w) are e 0

m = .Ma
M
w == ( _.!1!.-)
100-m
X I 00

.!. = M M,+~
m M...= M...

a l
o.sertptlon

ev
1. Bate
2. Pan hOUIInll
3, Pen
4. o,..o~~ awlldl
5. ....,. t.ns!OI*
19 6. Jnlllel ~~stment knob
7. Left·lland wire ~
8. Gear
e. camping magnet

1
nR 10.

12.
13.
Oaml*liJIIWl8
11. Balance erm
Stopper
Calibrated drum
14. Wira grip tor balanoa
Front VIeW
15. Gear
18. TorsiOn wtnl
17. Pointer
18. RIOhi-IUifld wire g!lp
111. 01\1111 drive knOb
20. lndelt me!ll
U
13 21 . LOCk
22. Vatlee knob (for heat control)
16 23. Thennometer
18 24. Thennometer bracket
19

8
..
m

20

21
Sa

Plan (Cover removed)

Fig.l.l7. 1: Torsion balance moisture method (0-100 per cent)

The time required for complete drying depends upon the type of soil and quantity of water content in the
sample.
This method is suitable for soils which quickly absorb moisture from the air, after drying, since
drying and weighing occurs
simultaneously.

~ 3. CaJclum carbide method

This method can be used in the field and in the Iabomtory too. The instrument used is known as rapid
moisture tester.
The method makes use of fact that when water reacts with calcium carbide (Ca<;), acetylene gas (<;~
is generated.
eac; + ~0 = c;H2 + Ca (OH) 2https://cee-book.blogspot.com/

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 .M- Geot.chnlcsl Engineering- I (MU-s"' Sem.-Clvil)
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1-19 lntro. to Geoteeh. Engg., Beslc Definitions & Relationship

Tbe acetylene ga.s produced ex ens p=sure BJJd i t is rec:ordcd away completely. 11\e cUsh Is llilowcd to cool an<1 mass or dry
in t.he dial gause attached to 11\e moisture tester. coil io oblllin<d. Wtttr content is found out as usual.

1be soil •ample of 6 grams is takea ia th~ test cylinder Care should be taken to prevent fire since alcohol is
(moisture tester) containing calcium cartlide. extremely vol81.llc..

1bo aoil somple is required 10 be ground and pulverized. 1be This method Is quite rapid. but not vecy accurate and c:annot
steel balls (chlties) are also u$CCI to serve the purpo~~e ia ca.se be used if tho soil eont.oins largo proportion of organic manu,

of rollesh-e and plastic soils. gypsum and MY other calcareous mntuial .

_ , The quandt:y of eas produced Is indicated on tbe dial gauge in ~ 6. Radiation m ethod
tdms of pressure. From the calibrated seale of pressure gauge

-- !he mois!w'C content (m) ba.sed on total mass is d~termined.

Tho wa10r content (w) based on dry mass is calculated as

l
In thls method. radioactive isotopes are used for the
determination of water content of soils.
A radioactive isotope ma.terial like cobalt-60 is placed In a

l
_!!!_
w capsule. It is then lowered in a steel casing A. in a bore hole.
t- m
.

a
or w • ( IOO~m) . >< IOO% A steel casing bas small, opening on its one side through
wllich rays can come out. A detector is placed inside another
s~l ca.~ing B. wllieh also has an opening facing that in

ev
.. 4. Sand bath method
casing A.
This is 2 field method for determination of water content. It is
rapid but not very accunu.e.

A sand bath is large open vessel containing sand fiUed to a Slllel casing B
depth of .5 em or more.
The soil is taken in a traY- It is crumbled. A few pieces of
nR Sol

Hydrogen
atoms 01 wet•
white paper are also kept on the sample. Mass of wet sample
is obtained by weighing lhe tray.
The tray is then placed on sand bath. The sand bath is heated Fig. 1.17.2
ove.r a stove. During heating, the sample is turned with a Neutrons are emitted by radioactive material. The hydrogen
U
palette knife. Overheating of soil should be avoided. atoms in the water from the soil sample cause scattering if
The white paper turns brown when overlteadng occurs. When neutrons. As these neutrons strike with the hydrogen atoms,
drying is complete, the tray is removed, cooled and weighed. they lose energy.
The water con ren t is determined by The loss of energy is proportional to the quantity of water
m

M
w = M xlOO% present in the soil.
•
The detector is calibrated to give directly the water content
~ 5. Alcohol method
This method may lead to radiation problems if proper
Sa

The sample is broken. crumbled and taken in an evaporating shielding precautions are not taken.
disb. The mass of wet sample is taken.
~ 7. Pycnometer method
The sample is then mixed with alcohol. About one milliliter
To use this method to find the water content, it is necessary to
of alcohol is added for every gram of soil. Mixing of alcohol
know the specific gravity of the soil
and soil is done properly.

The alcohol is then ignited. The mixture is turned with

spanlla when ignition is taken place. After the alcohol is burnt

,. '
-'';.·
,.·
..
..,..
~,

"
...
. ... .
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..
-
-------------::.
__--::-c..::-::~""--~-::...,_~-::-::::-::..--
. .. ,
,. .. ;,
,. .
.II":J
1Pt

. . ... .. -
~ -
':..""-

- - ..- -·-
~
- - -_
___

.
•
~
~
-
.,.
•. ~
-
.
~------
·--
-
- ..
-- - - I.
~
 www.engineeringonyourfingeh rtips.ooo
En ., Basic Definitions.& R
1 20 Intra. to a eo1ec .
Geotechnical En lneorin • I MU·https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
5 "' Sam•.Civil • _ M.s'
... in the pycno1neter
A sample of wet soil. about 300 g Is t....en
and weighed ~). Distilled wRier Is t.llcn added to Lhe soli In

the pycnometer to mnke it about half full.

The contents I\I'C thoroughly mhted nnd entrapped air is
removed. Pycnometer is filled with water flush with hole In wa
tho conical CIJP·
If
The pycnometer Is wiped dry and weighed (~9· Then de
pycnometer is filled completely with water only and weighed
Tot
(M.).

Mas~ of pycnometer

Mus of pycnometer wit.ll wet soil

l
M3 = Mass of pycnometer+ wet soil+ water
-

a
M~ = Mass of pycnometer filled with water
1.1 8 Fl~ld Density (Unit Weight)
M4 = M3 -M,+ [~] XYw

ev
Obviously, Determination 'Yp = 1

M; Bull

moss
Following methods are generally used to determine the field

plus the mass of equal volume of water.

nR
Mass (M.J equals to mass (M,) minus the mass of solids (M.).
density of soils.
Methods of Fleld Density
G (Unit Weight) Determination
M. (M3- MJ. G-1

Mass of wet soil ~- M 1 1. Water displacement method

Therefore. mass of water = M,
U
2. Core cutter method
M, .. ~- M,) - (M3- MJ ( G~ l)
3. Sand replacement method
w = &
M,
X 100
Fig. C1.8 : Methods or Field Density (Unit Weight)
m

Determination

-+ 1. Water displacement method

The volume of a sample is determined by water displacement.

Sa

As soil mass disintegrates when it comes in contact with

This method is suitable for coarse grained soils, from which water, it is coated with a paraffin wax to make it impervious. -4
the enttapped air can easily be removed. A test s~ple is trimmed to more or less or a regular shape

Let Gapp be apparent specific gravity of a moist soil sample of and weighed (M). It is then coated with thin layer of paraffin

massMl by dipping in molten wax.

Then substituting for GI!'Pand Md' in the equation The specimen is allowed to cool and weighed (M1).

G M" Difference between the two weights vii.. M and M1 will be

- ~ +M~-M3
the weights of wax.

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Sem.·Civll) 1·21 lntro. to Ge<>tech. Enpg.• Beelc DaRnttlona & Ralallonsll!p

I TI,., waxed $&1llple is then inunerocd in" WftiU di•plncemenl The weiBhl or coro culld" fllled with soli I• laken. 'Tho welghl
of AOII In the core cutter tft calcul.oted lly dai~Ktlng welg)\t of
container. Tile volume or water dlspiiiCCd by the specimen

'•'
J equals tho volume of the waxed SAmple. empty core culler from tollll wei8ht.
111e acrual vol11me of the SAmple is lau lhM the water of nte dlment lons or coro cutter arc meaaured to Cllleulme
r: waxed sample. volume of core cutter which is I000 mi.
H unit weight of w:u Is b 1own, the vo lume of wlllt Cl\ll be Then, Bulk density, p ,. yM
detmnincd. p
nuJ volume of soil. V e: V1 - (M~~ M) Dry density. pd = T;";

1be water content (w) is determined by taking reptuentative

wllem. v = Volume of waxed sample
sample from the middle portion of sample.
v, = Volume of sample
lue Of where, M Mass of soil
M, ,. Mass of waxed sample

l
V Volume of core cutter (soil)
M = Mass of sample

a
VP = Volumeofpamffin w Water content

- ,
y, = Unit weight of paraffin wax (approximately 0.95 gm/ml)

ev
yM
lf1 Bulk density of soil, p =

1m p
D.ry density, pd = I + w
ield
w Mxg
Unit weight, Y = V =-v-
nR
Water content (w) is detennined by taking soil from middle
of the sample.
125 "

Dry unit weight of soil,

co....-
Fig. 1.18.2 : Core cutter method
U
-+ 3.· · Sand replacement method

This method includes two steps :

Sand replacement method

m

(a) Detennination of density of sand,

Fig.l.t8.1 : Water dJsplacement method
(b) Detennination of density of soil
Sa

... 2. Core cutter method

Fig. C1.9 : Sand replacement method
A core cutter consists of an open, cylindrical section, with a
It consists of calibrating cylinder pouring cylinder and tray.
hardened, sharp cutting edge.

A core cutter is hammered into the soil. In order to prevent

-+ (a) Determination of density of sand

the damage of top edge of the core cutter, it is provided with

I
The density of sand is detennined by using calibrating
dolly. After removing the surrounding soil, a core cutter with cylinder. The sand to be used should be standard sand passing
soil is removed from the ground. througll600 microns and retained on 300 microns.
1

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Unit weight of soil.
y .. M5 xg

The diameter nnd length of callbmling cylinder iR measured p c M1

v
~
to find volume of the calibrating cylinder.
Bulk density. EX. 1.
p
Tho weight of empty cnlibmtlng cylinder is taken, tho
DrY deMity, Pd = r:;w The.
calibrating cyli:~der is then filed with snnd and weighed. unit '
19.8
The weight or
sand filled in the calibmting cylinder Is
80in
obllliocd and then density of sand is calculated as follows :

p...,, .. vM
where, P.w = Density of sand
13mm....,.....,l'ool!t
Ex.
M ;; Mass of sand in ll1e cylinder ~~~ stuter ,,

.. v .. Volume of sond (cylinder)

1}\E

l
18 •
(b) DetermlnatJon of density of soil
~~­

a
A pouring cylinder consists of conical portion at the bottom
Hole In ground -.....
so,
and a opening which allows flow of sand from cylinder to the

ev
cone. Arrangement of closing and opening is also available. (a) (b)Calibntiua ~lllda

Fig. 1.18.3 : Determination or density of soli by sand

The steps to find density of soil are as follows :
repla cement method
1. Close the opening and fill the pouring cylinder with
sand. Talce its mass (M 1) . 1.19 Solved Examples
2.
nR
Place the sand pouring cylinder on a glass plate. Open
Ex. 1.19 .1
the opening and allow the sand to fill in the core. Close
the opening and take its mass (M,). The moisture content of saturated soU is 30% and specHie
gravity is 2.7. Find void ratio (e) and porosity .(n). What wil
3. The mass of sand in the cone, M =M 1 - M 2•
be the degree of saturatjon (S,) and the air content {llc) \t
U
4. Refill the pouring cylinder with sand which weighs moisture content gets reduced to 5% on d rying ?
(M,). Soln.:
5. Clear and level the ground and make a hole of exS, = wG
(
approximately I0 em' and about 15 em to 20 em deep.
But for full saturation, S, =
Take out soil from the hole. Take its mass (M3) and
m

find water content (w) of the soil. e = wG = 0.30 x 2.7 =0.810 •••.Ans.
_ e_
6. Place the pouring cylinder over the hole and allow the n = 1 +e
sand to fill in the hole. Then close the openings and 0.810
Sa

talce mass of pouring cylinder with sand (MJ.

= T8iQ =0.45 = 4S % ...Ans.

7. Find the mass of sand required to fill the hole. s, = wG

e
M5 = M 1 -M4 -M 0.05 x2.7
= 0.810 =0.167 =16.7 % •.•Ails.
8. Find the volume of hole (V).

V = Ml
1\, = n (1 - s.)
plUdxg
= 0.45 (1 - 0.167) = 0.375
This volume (V) equals the volume of soil taken out from the
hole.
= 37.5 % •••ADL

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lntro. to Oeotecta. E:lsp. , BallO Oellnlllona 6 Rlila!or:ti!p
Ex. 1.18.2
a
nte d1y den~ (pd) ot a soli 18 t .75 g/cm • Whet Ia 118 dry
t ·unit welghl y4 ? Find the bulk denlllty (P) If the unit w.lght 18 ···"--
.- ~x.1.1t.e
' 19.8kN/m'.
J Sollt.! The bulk denelty of d umple le 18 kN I ms. The~
f Y., • p xg• I.7Sx9.81 "' t7.17kN/m • gralltty of soU eo41de 18 . 2.70 and ~,. coment 15%.
11
Calculate voids ratio, poroelty, degrM. of . .turatlon Md dlrf
p = .rtt =~ '"0"' -~~-3
9.81 .. ......... _ .. ••• AM.
unll weight.
Soln.:
EX. 1.19.3
3
~~ry _lXIII weight (y11) of a soil having 12% water content le Given: y • 18kN/m
;r
• I.11 ~
3
t8.2 kN 1m'. Find bulk unit weight (y), saturated unit 'wtilght Take Y., = 9.81 kN /m
• .I VI
=2.65.

l
{Y~; an~ submerged unit weight (y~. A$SU~e G
0 2.70

a
~= ~
w 15 %=0.15
' I
·': .• y 18 :
I" (i) Dry unit weight, r•. = T+'W .. T+"'':E

ev
18.l (1 + 0.12)

20.38 leN I m 3 ...Ans. =

1~.65 kNinJ3 •••Alii.
·' .- G·y
e ~Y.,..- I ={2.6~:.:·81_ 1) =0.43 ... Am. (ii) Void ratio, e = -- " - ·1
yd
d

..l +e
(Oi- elY,._ ·_ 2.7x9.81
.,.at = '

[2.6 + 0.431 X 9.81 - 2113 kN I 3 ••• An&.

nR ,.·
= 69.2%
15.65 - 1 =0692
.
...Ana.
= 1.43 • - •. m "'
_e_
.. Porosity, n
[G- IJ'l'.,.. ' . l+e
'( l+e 0.692
=·
.. 1+,0.~
[2.. 65 l.~hx 9.8~
~·

.. = 11.31 kN I m 3
U
'( = ...Ans.
= 40.9~

of-n! '( = Y,.,-!.., (iii) Degree of saturalion, Sr :

.,·
21.13-9.81
"''.'
Since,
I. -,.
e · S, = w· G -1

I = · 11.3ZkN I m . 3
· ~ ~ .:. 0.692 X Sr- =:= 0.15 X 2.1'J
m

:. s. = 0.385 =58.5 % •.•AM.

I .. t . • ,.... ... . 3.,.. '"

The•bufk unit' weight (y) 'of a soil is 19.5' kN I m , water . Ex.1.19.6
":,,. ,.. • •
Sa

content is 20% and degree of saturation; (S~) is 75%. What' If specific gravity-of soli sample Is 2.87, find the ratio ot
will be the moisture content and unit .weight on .full' submerged density of its soil mass to its dry density. . •.. 1 ; I

saruration
H•
? Soln.: o I
l.l•-
Soln. :
I)'
PIUb = (G-l)
l+:e .Pw . ' • !\! I'..
e" wG w
s, = -;= wwG= wat Tf
p4 = (t~~) Pw
= s. =0.75 =26.67%
w 20
•••Am.
plllb
1+e e+e)
v
.. pd = (G-1) G X
-.--

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Since. Yd .. I +VI
~ .. 14.6 1 kN/m
3

• 1 +0.15
P__. •••Ans. .v .. t4.61 xs~73.os
.. • o.w :. w, • Y4
P,
. . Quantity of VI&t er tddcd,
Ex. 1.18.7 w.. .. O.l w, :::0.1 x73.9S = 7.30SkN
A aollu~e w.ignlog 9t0 N has a volume of 0.0 163 m •
3
. . Volume o( water added to raise VI to 25%
When drled out In own Its weight reduces to 270 N. The
w. 7.305_ 07~m3
apeclflc grivfty of soli solid Is 2.65. Determine y~, n, Sr v .. = y.. .. 9.81 - .
Soln.:
.. 744.6Slltres
GhW~: V • 0.0183 m3

W e liON Ex. 1.19.9

a To
= 270 N = w,

l
W4 A soil sample has a bulk density of 2.1 gmslcm when ""'
15%. Calculate the water conten~ (w) if the soil partially dlfet

a
G = 2.65
w, 270 . -
to the bulk density o f 1.96 gm/cm ' e Is unaltered.
(i) Yd = v =o:Ot8J=14754.098Ntm3 Soln.:

ev
II

= 14.7s'itNJm 3
•••Ans. p ( --r:;e
G +wG) pw
G. Y,. . • 2.65·~ 9.81
e = -:y:-- - I = . 14•15 - I =0.762 •••Ans.
p =
G·P.,
--r:;e [I + w]
d -.
(i
e 0.762
(uJ
..
n • l + e - 1 + 0.762- 0.4J2S
nR •• .ADS.
.. 2. 1 =
G· P.,
--r:;e [1 + 0 .15]
s
• r \' O·P.
SinCe. e · s, = -~ :a .. l+e =
1.826

.. 0.762 x S, = a•o :. 270)

\. 270 x2.65 O· P •
Similarly. 1.96 = -r:;e [l + w]
U
... sr = 0.515 ... Ans. '
.. 1.96 = 1.826 [1 + w]
Ei. diu .. w = 0.0734 .. 7.34 % ••.ADS.
3
A natural deposit of soli has bulk unit weight of 16.8 kN/m
, Ex. 1.19.10
and water content 15%. How many lltres of water will have to
m

3 3
be added to 5 m of this solfto raise Its water content to 2,20,000 m of soli Is removed from a site. This dry soil has
..
25%.?
,,.. ... ., ... Insitu voids ratio of 1.20. (i) How many m3 of a fill having
Soln. : - ·- .voids ratio [e) 0.72 could be constructed from this soil ?
..
Sa

(ii) With 2.7 specific gravity of soli particles what would be

• I
w .. the weight of soil mass moved ?

GJveo: Soln. : (i) TOtal volume of soil.

w..J •O.l5W,. W..a =0.25 w,.Y = 16.8 kN t m3 v = V, + Vv ...(i)

. . Quantity of water added.

.! -
.. 2,20.000 = V,+V,

• 0.25 w.- 0.15 wI Sinee

vy
I e = 1.2= -v
= O.JOW, •
.. Vv = 1.2 v.

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1·215 lntro. 10 Oeotech. En . Batlo Oellnlilont & R•tallon
~ dti• valuo in Equation (I) iall:S !222 ... AINI.
166<1.6 - ·- 0.62

. '
..
, , 2,20,000 ,.

.·. v, ..
1.2 V, -t

1.00.000 m'
V,
n
- ..;-; dUcr. ... AM.
I' •

Now, fiJliag .has voids ratio .. 0 .72 • y SP

;!:a. s, ...
s,
-• w·O
0.2><1.7
0.62 ••
870 ~ ... AM.
wheJe Yp = Volumooffill
v,,. = Volume of solids for fill EK. 1.1tM2

... VVP = Volume of voids for fill Assuming cubical pacl<lng of spherical grains of un1to1m elze,

-
'I

Tocal volume for filling

Vyp = 0.72 VSF
determine (I) void ratio, (II) porosity.
Soln.:
.,
Consider a cubed>< d l< d enclosing a sphere of diameter d.

l
Volumcofsphc~e, V, = %d3
1.72 Ysp

a
Since volume of solids does not change. Volume of cube, vI .. o'
= 1.72 X 1,00,000 Volume ofvoids, v.

ev
Vp

= 1,72,04!0 m' ...Ans.

(ii) Weight of soU mass moved Weight of solids moved v.

Void ratio, e = V,
[W,]

Since (j = :!J...
r.,
nR
r, = 2.7 x 9.81 =26.487 kN/m
3

w.
Sine., Y, = V, Porosity, n = •••AM.

W1 = 'Y• • V• = 26.581 X 1,00,000

U
Ex. 1.19.13
= 26,48,700 kN •••Aos. Prove that maximum dry density of soil Is 1.4 times the
3
1,72,000 m of a fiJ I having voids ratio of 0.72 could be minimum for value of G = 2.6, e 0.4 and 1.0 respe~ely.­ =
constructed from the given soil. The weight of soil mass moved is Soln.:
m

26,48,700 kN. •••Ans. Dry density (maximum)

Ex.1.19.11 G·p..
Pd !awtl = 1 + erm.
Moisture content ot a moist soil sample was found to be 20%
and Its bulk density 2000 kg/m3 • Detennlne (i) Sr (ii) e and __
Sa

G· p,_
=
(Ill) n, it G 2.70. pd[mlnJ = 1 + ell\U
Soln. :
.. 2.6 X 1.0 _ l SS gm/
p p d [max) = 1 +0.4 - . cc
pd = 1+w
2.6x 1.0 ..:. gmJ
2000 3 p4 [nola) = 1 + 1.0 - 1.3 cc
= 1 + 0.20 =1666.6 tg/m ...An.s.
Gxp
... Hence, p4 lmul = 1.4 X pd (IIIIa] ••• Ails.
e = --1
pd

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~ 1.1t.14
'A·<>, n:wuM~~ 8011 ~it 11M ~~~ • bulk unll weight ol
18.+4,lcNtmt·and water ®iltent of 5%. 'Cafeulatt the amount
ot water required to be added to 1 'tn" of soil to raise the
1
!Mter ·oonttnt' to 15%. Aaaume ' the void ratio lo ramafn
Oonei.nt.
•
'What' will
...
then
\;
be rthe •deOretJ ot ' saturation?
' - --"-\f'" :0. - •

~G"!' 2.87. • '.l,. ..,~ _ j

Soln.:

w =
w., - wxw. Soln. :
W., 1 = o.os w. y
- w
-y =
17.5 X J0- 3
] X 10-J = 17.5 kN/m3

l
1 • I f t ~ '' •

w"2 .. 0. 15 w.
- y

a
Quantity ofwnterto be added = 0:15 w, - 0.05 w. =0.1 W, Yd • I +W
17.5
-X..:. - 18.44 3
= 1 + w - 1 + o.o5 = 17.56 kN/m
14.8 T+W
-·"' Yd

ev
.., ,
. 'i', ~-w• = ydxv w = 18.2%
For I ~J volume. 'f• • 17.56 x I = 17.56 kN e =
Q& - 1 >= 2.68x 9.81 -1
14.8
Y11
.. ,... W., ,.,·j 0.1 X 17.56 = 1.756 kN
~ e = 0.776

J,
V;.

' .·•.
= y.,

Qr. I
1.156
=9.8J =0.179 m
2.67 X 9.81
nR
i.e. 179 lit:res
n c
e
1+~ =0.437 or 43.7%
e = yd - - . 17.56 - 1
r... = (G1 ++e)e Yw = e.68 0.77~
X

I
1 + 0.776 9.81
e = 0.492
• f!/ •.•
y,.. • 19.09kN/m 3 ...A.a.
Sre • wG • 7

I
U
S, = 0. 15 X 2.67
y' or y....,.,"JCCd = r ..,-v.,
0.492 ;
= 19.09-9.8 1
, • ;,= r 81~ % ...Ans.·
= 9.28kNfm3 • ...ADs.
wG
s, = e- =O.l82x 2.68
m

0.776
I •

...Ans.
Sa

P1 = 1.8.5 t/m 3

Pz andy%= 1
- _h_ _...llL
.
.P" - - I ·+ w -~ t + 0.15 = 1.61 tim
3 Soln. :

1.61 = ~' p2= 1.93 t/mJ e = w141 ·G

Y2 = ~ g = 1.93 x toJkg x 9.81 = 0.38 X 2.7 :: l .O'U;

.._, unit weight,
Bulk
e
n = ~ = 50.64%
= 18.93 x IQ NJm 3 3

= kN/m3 Y, =~ 2.7 x 9.8l

d 1+ e = I + 1.026
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1·27 lntro. to Qeotech. En ., Baalo Definitions & Ralallonahl
~ 18 ,
J3.74kNir n' .. .AntL 03 'lw ,. 2.67 X 9.8 • 0.6879 m
y ::r Y.( l or w) • 13.74 ( I + 0.38) ~ 2 ,
Vw • .. -98 • 0.2041 m
3 ... t\n..1. Yw •
18.04 kN/m

MU ·June 11 . 10 M:lrks
Yv = Y- Y3 = 1 -0.6879 •0.'3121 m,

Prom phase diagram.

Wnter content. w

nf.,,vt'...,oomatar full of wal8r =2965.20 gm 0.1111 01' 11.1'1'0

~\J',....r;,.,,.t,~~r ~-Soll:+.Water:;3092
~<ot..
:8S;g'rn
r~ ,_ ~ _!lllli
, """' .. .
Porosity, n V - I
of the soli. • Dertve~
> '
-~ = 0.312.1 or 31.2% ...Ans.

l
Soln. : Void ratio, e
'!.:L = 0.3121
Vs 0.6879

a
Mz - M 1 = 0 • 27 ··n
.. -
230.7.5 g >~,

6.45 ... Ans. .

M. = Z965.2g
~ _QJ:Qit

ev
Degreeofsaturation, S, = Yv - 0 .3121
M3 = 3092.85 g

w = r&:=~~(Ool)-t] x lOO 0.6539 or 65.4%

230.75 ) (2.7
[(3092.85- 2965.2 2:7 - I
-I) J IOO
X
nR MU- Dec 11 10 lil<~r ks

]3.8% ...Ans.

t9.19 MU • Dec. 11. 10 M;~rks

-~ ·, Weight ohxcavated soil = 761 .25 g
we( soil w8iQhts 20 kN, its dry weight Is 18 kN,
2.67. Oetermlne the wate~ Weight of sand + cylinder (W 1) = 1<)500 g
1$. Gravi~ _
of . solids is
n1 P<)rJfitr. volCf ratio and the degree saiU(atlon ot
U
A~.Qlag~_,
Soln.;
s. On the phase diagram, the volume of the soil (V) and its wet
weight (W) and dry weight (Y-15 ) which are given, are first shown.
m

The volumes and weight of the constituents

s.
c.alculated :
~elnSitu u

Soln.:
Sa

Weight of sand filling the excavated = (JV 1 - W1)

hole and the cone
- _- .. .pos00 - 9450)

= 1050 g

Weight of sand fiUing cone only

Fig. P. 1.19.19 • I
= 9450-90 05
Ww = W-Ws =io- t 8 =2kN = 445 g
- - ~-

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Basic Oef1n1t1ons

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1-28

1050-445
Ex. 1.19.23 ~ali.
Weight of sand filling hole . t8
non-cohesive backfill was
The field density o o If SOin.:
605 g 3 tar content of 8.4 Yo. void ratio ...
1647 kg/m at a wat states were found out as 0.8SQIll
Unit weight of sand = 1550
1000
=1.55 g/CC loosest and denes . .
0.462, determine the density mdex.
Volume of the bole = T.5s
605
=390.32 cc.
Soln. :
ln siru unit density, p = 161.25 - 1 95 glee.
390.32- . ~- 1647 =1544 kg/m3
Pcry = l+w-1+0.084
ln siru unit weight. y P, =1.95 X 9.81
G. 0 .. 2.7 X 1000 - 1-0 748.
3 e ~-1= 1544 -'
= 19.13 kN/m
"fdry
... Ans.

Now, density index,

Ex. 1.19.21

l
em" - e x 100
The following observations are obtained for determining the
lo = e.,... - eml•

a
specifiC gravity of soil. Find the value of <3.
0.859 - 0.748 X l{)()
Mass of empty density botUe (M1) = 500 g = 0.859-0.462
Mas§ of botUe + soil (M2 ) = 729 g

ev
Mass of bottle + soil + water= 1670 g (M3 ) = ...ADa,
Mass of botUe +water= 1513 g (M 4) A soli
Soln. : Ex.1.19.24 dry 0

G Mz-M1 A fully saturated clay sample · has volume of 186 cc and (G=
= (M.-M.) - (MJ-MJ =2.67, find o, n, w and p. sOIn
' 729-500
(1513 -500)- (1670-729) =3.18
nR ••• Ans.
mass of 337 gm. If <3

Soln.:
337
Ex. 1.19.22 P,., = 186 = 1.81 gmlcc •.•Am.
The following are the details of laboratory test on. a sample of (G+e)p.,
soil:
p.., = l+e

=1 gm/cc)
U
Bulk density by core' cutter= 2000 kg!m 3 (Assume P.,
G =2 .7 and water content =25% :. 1.81
Detennine pd, n an.d Sr.
Soln.: •. 1.81 + (1.81) x e = 2.67 +e
Using equation p = 0(1 +W~ X P., 2.67- 1.81 ,.,_~,
m

l+e :. e 0.81 -1.062 ...Am.

.. 2.7 (1 + 0.25~
2000 =
1+e xtooo .. S,·e = w ·G
.. e = 0.68 ... Ans. .. w =
1.062
-::u;; =0.3976or39.76% ...Ans.
Sa

Now, e 0.68 Ex
n = T+e =1+0:68 e 1.062
n 'i+e ::;2.062 =0.515 12
= 40.7% ...Ans. bo
p = 51.5% ..• Ans.
2000 (a)
Also, pd = ~= 1+0.25 Ex. 1.19.25 (b)
= 16001qVm3 ...Ans.
A soil sample has e =0.8, S1 = 45%, G =2.7. Find w, n, 'fbulk
and s, = We· G and Ydry· By how much quantity water content can
be
0.25 x2.7 increased without changing e ?
= 0.68 =99.26% •••.A.os.

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~.

S,·e = w·O
S,·e 0.45 x0.8
.. w = G • 2.7 = 01333
'
• I
13.33~ ••• An.s.
.. lf:... 08
_ ll_S,= I, w = 2:7 = 29.63%
••• An$.

Ex.1.19.28
.·.Water content can be increased from 13.33 to 29.63 or by
' ~·· ... ""'
ci9.63 :. 13.33 = 16.3~> .. I At,= 19;1 kN/m3, w= 12.5%; G =·2·.67: Ffnd Yd~• e,' n(sr·~·...wl
;"r·H •"J( • ,..• f! ...,."Pi l ~ .. r _. ~'· •r•
e 0.8 ,.. ,..,.
n = r+e =u = ---7<> ..
. . · Solo. ;
...Am.
G · y,., ( 1 + w)
~ 2.7 x9.81:_ .kN·, , Yb = ~+e . t _ _ __ • , •
= I + e = I + 0.8 - 1472
· rm ... Am. ' t. ...
e = [G · y,., (1 + w) -t]=[2.67 x 9.81 (1 + O.l 25 ) _ 1)

l
- ~= 14.72 =lz.98kNim3·
Y4ry - 1 + w I + l.333
,.,An,s, I
Yb . - 19.1 -
' '
.
.

a
= 0.54Z7 •-' .... '' ... Ans.
··-"'. - .....
~· .

Ex.,1.19..26 . Y
J9.1 " ~ I 3 --~~l'
IS,
YdrJ = ~ .= 1 + 0 _125 =!,6-~~kNfm ...J\1!!· :..

ev
A soil sample weighs 520 gm in wet C?nditiorr and 400 gm in
e 0.5427
dry condition. If its volume is 270 ml, find e, n, S, , Ybuk , Ydrr n = T+e"' 1.5427 = 0.351~.. ...Ans.
• .J ' ~ ~

ld (G =2.7)
sOin.:
S,· e = wG
Yb = 520 X 9.8I
270 -
18.893 kN/n/ ... Ans. :. S, = 0.125 )( 2.67 0 615
0.5427 = . or 61.5%

ydrJ =
400
;,g· 81
= 14.533 kN/m 3
nR
•.• Ans. Ex. 1.19..29
r 'I
• • \ I '

....ib..._. _Q..:.l.. A soil has w = 12% and n ,;..-3EI%. Fl~d mass of water·
l +w- l+ e 3
required to be added to 100m of sgll for. full saturation.
18.893
---0 .. . .;._ .;:
.. w 14.533 - 1 =0.3 = 30% ... Ans. Assume G;:: 2.67.
U
Soln.: :•
2.7 X 9.81 J _ OSl"" ... Ans.
e = 14.533 - - • IW n 0.36
e 0.8225
e = 1- n =}:"(i.3'6-
n 1+e=1+0.8225- 45•13 % ... Ans.
0 36
.. e - · = 0.5624
• 0.64 , , . •I, , r '· .r. , ~i .>
Sr w. G - 0.3 X 2.7 0.985
;:: e - 0.8225
m

= 98.5 % ...Ans.
Mass of water
0.12
Mass of dry soil
Ex. 1.19.27
. . Mass of water = " I
...(i) ...
Sa

12 gm of over dried sample was placed in special gravity 0.12 X 1709 =205Jcg
bottle.·
(a) Weight of bottle filled with water and soil and
(b) Weight of bottle filled with water alone was found to be
[1--------1
+++++
.- .,

+ ++ + +--
7.2 gm. Find G. .12
'
Soln.:

:. Equal volume of water displaced= 12.0- 7.2 = 4.8 gm

.. G = .!12
4.8 -- .,-.;:, I!
•••Ans.
- Fi • P. 1.19.29 - - --

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1

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(b)
s .e 0.6 x 3 _ 9 7%
Volumcof solids, Y, • w .. T = 7x 4 - ·
--.-. v. ,. ,li.. O.S632-0. 12• 0.3167 cu.m. 0 . P.<t + W) - 2.65 (I + 0.921
Pb .. H·e - 1+3n
:. Additional ~tlty of water per cu.m to malce it sllturatcd
• (0.3167 x UXl),. 316.7 kg/cu.m. .. z.o34 gmlcc
:. For IOO cu.m .• quantity of water= 31670 q •••An.l.
ElC. 1.19.33 , l•

Ex. 1.11UO '"'' s G _ 2 7 natural water content .. 25"'

=
Pb 2000 "l::'m , - . ' ,.,
Prove thattor G .. 2 ..6 and a .. 0.4 and 1, maximum dry Pd• e, n, s,..
density Is 1..4 limes the minimum.
sorn.:
Sofn.:
.£.:...&.. Gx l G
l + c ; l +0.4 = TI ( p.,= lg/cc)

l
o ·o
J+i=2

a
... Ans.

ev
Ex. 1.1t.31
. ll ... . t
n = ~
l +C
= 0.3963 II r, ...-.
\

If p., = 2000 kglm and w

3
= 20%, determine S,. e and n. wG 0.25 X 2.7 _
Assume G =2.7.
nR = e-= 0.6554 1 0299
.

Soln.• :.
= _G. Pw (1 + w)
l+c
2.7 (1 + 0.2) ]
.. • ••• :- ;:: C ~ !" · [ , 1 2•< - 1: .: 0.6l, ;>,;,... Ana.
.,.
e-= o.20.62
=l:·~a-
n • '-- - x 2.1' ·
s, =87.1% ... Ans.
U
e 0.62
n = 1 + e =1.62 = 38.27% ...Ans.

Ex.1 .11.32

A sand sample has porosity of 30%. Find (1) Dry unit weight,
m

(2) Unit weight of sand If degree of saturation is 60%. Embankment

. ' . {I)
Assume G =2.65. n 0.3
Soln. : e '!: 1 - n = 1 -0.3 = 0.428
Sa

e = wG = O.t5x 2.68 = 93.9 %

(a) n = 1 +e=0.3 s, e 0.428

.. e =
0.3 +0.3e . v = ( G + Sr' e)
. l+ e y.,
= [ 2.68 + 0.939 X 0.428]
1+0.428 . . .9.81
.. 0;3 3
e = 0.7=7
- . = 21.17kN/m3
P. · G.:.. 2.65-07 265
pd = l+e - 3- . x .
1+ -
!\ = n ( l - Sr) = 0.3 [1 - 0.939]
7
!\ = 0.0183
... 1.855 plec ...Ans.
Wt of soil = yx 2000 m3

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W • 17 X 2000kN ~la. Mt.H,K!W!p+Mpamw

' Volam&·or ccmrnote!d cmhAnkllll'nt , Ont OOblo l\'letir of WI, 1011 W.d ,o.e:MN. If$ .
gr"vtty ol toll ~rtlcl" '' 2.7 .nd wat.r con""' 11 f1~, PI
Jl 17 X :!()()Q I"""'
V • y • 2 1. 17 • '""'m
3 ••• AM. ~. ,,,.. .
Soln.:
(II) Borrowpll 1
V • Im • Wal9.8kN, Os2.7 ,
_:t_,._lL
Y• ,. 1 + \II I + 0. 1~
hl ., I I %,
1
• 14.78 kN/m w
y • v· -19.8 )
1- .. 19.8kN/m,
c ., ( -y;-
Oyw
I
)
a 0.778
,. _Y_ = __!2,L
0 Yd I + w I + 0. 11

l
n = I TO =0.438
3
"' 17.84 kN/m ....Ana.

a
s,
Oy,.
0.1Sx2.68 e = -yd- - 1
0.718

ev
0.516 or 5 1.6 ~
2.7 X 9.81 I =0.485 ... Ans.
17.84
o., = o(I-S,) =0.438(1-0.516) _ wO 0.11 x2.7
S, - e 0.485
O.Zll
= 0.612 I.e. 61.2% ...Ans.
nR
U
Soln.: G = 2.67. e = 0.63

V = lOOOml yd = 16kN/m
3
,
m

m,"""' 1475.gm 3
Y.-k 19.6kN/m ,
m..,.l*" 1770 gm
(I) 15%,
1475
<Pa)min 1000
=1.475 glcm3
v 3
= 50,000 m ,
Sa

pdmh
Gp.,
1 + em&l
. enw =0.81
( Yd )embrulk
19.6
T+O:i5= 3 w
t7.04 kN/m =v
1770
I ( Pd)mu = 1000 = 1.77 glcm
3

w = 17.04 X 50,000 =852173.9KN

•)

I emlo =
Gpw
(pd)mAX - 1 = 0.508 Volume of borrow material = (
·w
)
8521'73.9

.I
Yd borrow 16
emu-e 0.81 -0.63
lo ::
e.,..-elllla -o.st-0.508 = Sl260.86 m 3 ...Ans.

Io = 0.596 i.e. 59.6% ...Ans.

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1.20 sorved Exam pre from GATE

20 4
Ex. 1· · p 1.20.4, which Interference can ~
From gtvan Fig. . g :::r 2.7
Ex amination
vol
Air
0.48 co •
Ex. 1.20.t lfl L---~==~-:4

~~§Bifl.~iil~
A soil sample Is considered to be saturated. 11 Is spec 0
gravity Is 2 .4 and \/Old ratlo Is 0.8. then what will be the water
0.62 00 Ex. 1.2t
constant and dry density •
Which
(a) 0.2, 1.5 tlm 2
aaturat•
(b) 0.33, 1.8 11m2 1CO maxim~
(c) 0.5, 1.8 tlm 2 f8IIP8C'
Fig. P. 1.20.4
(d) 0.8, 2 tlm 2 (a) 40'
Soln. : (a) Soli Is partially saturate Soln.:

l
Since soil is saturated (b) Porosity of soli Is 50%
3

a
wG = eSr
(c) Dry density of soil is 1.3 tim

where, Sy = I
(d) All of these

ev
Soln. :
=
e 0.8
e = [if,]= [0.4st00.52] = 1
G = 2.4
.Q..=..l_.ll=.l_ Ex.. 1
w = 0exl 1+e- 1 + 1 -oss ""1 6
' ... .
Two

= T+e =T+f=2=50%
0.8 1 e l 1 n9 :
= 2.4

..QY.._
=3= 0.33
nR n

G 27 a
(a)
I

1+ w 1 + e =T;:1 = 1.3 tim Soln

~
1 + Ol --18"
• um
l Ex. 1.20.5
Soil samples A and B have void ratio of 0.5 and OJ .
Ex. 1.20.2
,,
U
3
respectively. If 1.5 m of soil A 1.7 m3 of soil sample 8 are
It a soil sample is having porosity 40"~ and degree of mixed to form C having · a volume of 3 .2 m 3 • Which one
saturation 80%, than its percentage air voids is following correctly represents the < sample C ?
(a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 8 (a) 0.375 (b) 0.60
Soln.: (c) 1.66 (d) 2.66
m

Ex.
Air content, a. = 1- S
7
Soln. :
Tht
1- 0.8 = 0.2 ' Volume of void in soil A = v•. is 1
% air voids, n8 n x a. 0.5 = v.N. .. v. v. = 0.5
rati
Sa

(a)
= 0.4 x 0.2 = 0.08 i.e. 8% 1.5 = vv + vs = 0.5 vs + vs = 1.5 v. (c)

Ex. 1.20.3 .. v, = 1m
3
So
3
By placing a soil sample at 1.SO C an oven and v. = 0.5 m
(a) hygroscopic moisture is lost Volume of void in soil B
(b) capillary water is lost
(c) free water is lost . =
07 ~
v, .. v. =0.7 v.
(d) all of these
1.7 = V,+V1 =l.7V5
Soln. : (d)
3
Vs = 1m an d V v "' 07
•
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~- i..to.t
_, Tolal V(ltom>e ,. ) .l. ,.• ~ ~~ 18 1\e-.lng "' lp.KII\o ~vi!Y of ~ C!O 11nd • ~
ra~ of <> 7'8 Th~ -""• aJn~JM:Ain Cl"lll)AinUIQII "''l•t'8d 10 ~
: .. n .tt !.. .. !.1 _l ., "-31t M!\Jf111~ lt1'!! 1()11 lit 'f~N!t Wid Millo 'NOt!ld 114
" ,\ 2 II ·
(s) tO (b} 30 (d) 'TO (c) 50
b. t Al 9ofn. :
Which ol 1he following repreeonts r&l&tiYe ~ of
S, . e ., wO
ut~nt.d eand deposh h"vJng molsttJre oomem of 25%.. 11
mofmum er'ld minimum void t81i0 ot Nnd sre 0.95 e-~ 0 .45 s, .. I. 0 •1.6. e,. 0.7'8, w •1
1~ end specfflc gravity of &ar'ld J){lrticles Is 2.6? I )( 0.78
• .. W II ~XIOO•JO~
(e} ~ (b) 50% (c) 60% (d) 70%
Soli\.: Ex. 1..29.10

l
S, . e = .,.<J Relallve density of a 9011 having maximum dlry cknsity

a
Yd r!TWJ)• 2, minimum dry density 'fd(r!olfol 2 1.2 and normal dry
e e 0.2$ >< 2.6 .. 0 .65
density 1.6 wtll be
c;.... - e 0.95 - 0.65 0.3
e_ - e.... • 0.95 - 0.4S =0.5 (a) 75% (b) 62.50 (c) 66.67 (d) 50"/o

ev
Soln.:
.. 0.6=60~

Ex. 1.20.7
Relntivc density. 10
[e::·--e:J x 100

Two soli samples A and B have, porosity nA = 40% and or Density lndex Also 10 r.-.. [ r. - YAw. J x too
n8 • 60% respectively. What Is ratio of void ratios eA . e8 ? Yd Yo,... -Y dnlij
(a)
Soln.:
2 : 3 (b) 3 : 2 (c) 4 : 9 (d) 9:4
nR = ...1...
1.6
[1 .6 - 1.2]
2 - 1.2
X IOO
= 62.5
111 = ~ =0.4
I
:. e, = 0.4 + 0.4 e, Ex. 1.20.11
0.4 The compactability of a cohesion less soil having e,_ = 1.0
).7. .. e. = 0.6
=
and eiTin 0.5 Is
U
are
ne nb = ~=0.6 (a) 0.7 (b) 1 (c) 0.85 (d) 0.67
Soln.:
.=.. 0.4 0.4 0.4 4
c; = 0.6xM =0.9 "'9
Ex. 1:20.8
m

Here, emu = 1 and emiD= 0.5

The ratio of saturated unit weight to dry unit weight of a. soil
1-0.5
is 1.25. If the specific gravity of solids (G,) is 2.56, with void Compactability = o:s= l
ratio of the soil is
Ex. 1.20.12
Sa

(a) 0.625 (b) 0.643

(c) 0.944 (d) 1.325 A sample ot saturated sand has a dry unit weight of 16
3
kN/m and a specific gravity of 2.7. If Is 10 kN/m3 , void ratio
Soln. : of the soil sample Is.
{a) 0.5 (b) 0.6 (c) 0.4 (d) 0.9
. 1w.
= 4=_Q:.1&_ 1+ e
5
Ydry I + w. X G . 'Yw = (I + w) Soln. :

I .. 5 = 4+4w
.. w = l4
"' = 0 ·v,_
1

:. l +e
dry 1 + e - 18
27
_2.7x 10
· - 1+ e

= T.S= 1.5 :. e = 0.5

.. e = 4 1
X 2.56 = 0.64
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1·34 lntro. to
https://cee-book.blogspot.com/ II has a bulk density of 1.80 grntcma at
4. P. 50 f 5o, if the void ratio remains conat-.'
1.21 Solved Example From GATE & IES conten1 o nslty
ro for "" Wilt...
a water content of 10% , -::"'11,
ltsbUIk d 9 3 .,.,
Examination 1 98 nlcm3 (b) 1.BB gJ em
7.
(a) . .., 3 3
(c) 1.80 gtcm (d) 1.70 g/cm
The collapsible soli Is associated with
(a) dune sands (b) laterite soli Ana.: (b)
(c) loess (d) black cotton soils G ·y.. (l + W)
Bxplanatloll : Yd I+ e •
Ane.: (c)
G . y, ( I + O.OS)
2. :. 1.80 = l +e

Q.:.k Ana.
1.80
I+ e ,. I.OS

=
(G· v_)
~ (1 + w) = l.OS X 1.10
1.80

l
(A) Lacurstrine (1) Transportation by wind J
soils = 1.88 Ffcm

a
(B) Alluvial soil (2) Transportation by running water 5. In a wet soil mass, air occupies one-siX1h 01
volume and water occupies one-third of its

ev
(C) Aeolian soils (3) Deposited at the bottom of
8.
lakes The void ratio of the soil is .... (IES ~'-l
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.5 (c) 1.00 (d) 1.50
(D) Marine soils (4) Deposited in sea water
Ana. : (b)
Explanation
Codes: (a) A B c D (c) A B c D V,+V* _ V,+Vw

2 3 4 3
nR 2 4
Void Ratio, e

1
v, -
I
v
Given, v. = (iY and V., =3V
(b) A B c D (d) A B c D
9
= 18=0.5
3 2 I 4 3 2 4
Ana. : (b)
U
6. The given figures Indicate the weights of dltlerent
3. Match List I with Ust II and select the correct answer pycnometers. (IES 1996}
using the codes given below the lists · (IES 2000)

lie;.; Ultt l 111 I,.$ Uat U

D
m

(A) Loess (1) Deposited from suspension in

running water ,,
pycnomollt
• 1011• _....
s
(B) Peat (2} Deposits of marine origin w.
(C) . Fig.Q. 6
Sa

Alluvial (3) Deposits by win~

soil The specific gravity of the solids is given by,
M2
(D) Marl (4) Organic soil (a) (M•- M2)
Codes: (a) A B C D (c) A B C 0 ( M2- M1 )
(b) (Ma- M4) - {M2- M1 )
3 4 2 1 4 3 2 1
M2
(b) A B C D (d) A B C 0 (c) (M3- M.)
( M2 - M1)
4312 3412
(d) (M2- M1) - (M3 - M4 )
Ant.: (d)
Ana. : (d)

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1-35 lntro. to C3eotech. En . Baalo Dellnltlooa & Relatlonah1
1.9
The dry density of a soli Is 1.5 glee. It the saturation 6 XU
water content were 50% then Its saturated density 19
8lld submerged density would, respectively, be. 4
(IES 1997) 3
10. A sampler with a volume of 45 em If ftl1ed with a soli
(a) 1.5 flee and 1.0 glee sample. When the soil Is poured Into a graduated
3 0

(b) 2.0 glee and 1.0 glee cylinder, It displaces 25cm of water. What Is the
(~J 2.25 glee and 1.25 glee porosity and void ratio of the soli? (IES 1998)
l • r 2.50 g/~ and 1.50 glee
.• ,.
(d)
--· .. ,.
.....;. ': (cf

~tlon:
' J
Y.try e}:)= l.S ·
(~}:)x (l +w)= (1.5)(1 +0.5)

l
2.25 gm!sec

a
9
Ysub = y..,-Y., =2.25-1.0 = 1.25 ,, Fig:Q.lO '-·
(a) 0.08 (b) 8.0 ' (c) 0.8 (d) 0.85
8. A fill having a volume of 1,50,000 cu.m. is to be
Ana.: (c)

ev
constructed at a void ratio of 0.8. The borrow pit soli
I • \... • • ' 3
has a void ratio of 1.4. The volume of soU required (in Explanation : Total volume of sod 10 samples = 45 em
3
cubic metres) to be excava!ed fr<>ryl the borrow pit will :. Volume of solid soil= Volume of displactd water= 25 cm ••
1
be ... ...
,.,, .. . (IES 1997)
' ' Volume of water ::: 20cm • 3

•.. ~ (a) 1,87,500 (b) ~.oo,oqo ,, Volume of void 20

( •! .. _ •.

Ana.: (b)
(.,:) 2,1 0,000.
;.,. 1,.
(d) 2,50,000
nR Now, Porosity

n
=
=
0
Total volume = -45
'·

44.45%
=0.4445

Volume of void 20
Explanadon :
Void ratio = Volume of soild soil = 25 = 0 ·8
vhrmlwnit 1-f-e.m.,rpit ..
=-.- 1 +e~, 11. If a soil sample of. weight 0.18 "kg having a volume of
v..,bul<menl
3
1o- m3 and dry unlt weight of 1600 kgfm ls mixed
4
1 + 1.4
U
2.4
= r:;o.:s=rs with 0.02 kg of water then the water content in the

0 • vborrowpil = (1.50.000) G::) sample will be ......

(a) 30% (b) 25% (c) 20%
(IES 1999)
(d) 15%
•' I

= 2,00.000 cu.m. Ans. : (b)

m

-4 3 18 4 3 '
9. A truck can carry six cubic metres of loose earth at a Explanation: 0.18 kg per 10 m = 100 x 10 = 1800 kglm
void ratio of 1.4. This earth is to be excavated from a
quany where the void ratio e =0.9. The volume of the Ydrf = 1600 kglm
3

3
Sa

earth in cubic metres which needs to be excavated :. weight of water = 1800 - 1600 = 200 kg/m ·
1·
would be (IES 1992) j..,

(a) 2J (b) ~ (c)

28
3 (d) 6
0.18 kg = -6!) 1
1000 =180 gm •

Ana. : (b) O.o2 kg = 20 gm of water or 200 kglm3

3
~on : Let, t = truck, b = borrow pit . • total weight of water/m =200 + 200 =400 kg
400 '
.YA = ~ w = 1600=25%
v, 1 +t;
1 +0.9
= 1 + 1.4

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.:>. 0 ~;'~.~j -:.~""'--:-=.-..::-;;.:~-~--=:-;;.~-i~~-: ~::_;; 'lfj~ .._·--"'-·- ·--~~ ,;. -- _.-: 0 ·.· ·:. • • ••

• • • • • ' • • • 1 • • • • ~~••• ~ - - • - ~
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Baste Definitions &
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1·36 Intra. to

12. The saturated and dry densities of a soli are To .,

3 3
respectively 2000 kg I m and 1500 kg/m The water 0.85 - 0 .587 ,. 0 151
content (In percentage) of the soil In the saturated - 0.85-0.5 .
state would b....... • (IES 1999) wO 0.15 X 2.65 O671 =617%
s, = -;- "' 0.587 = . .
(a) 25 (b) 33.33 (c) SO (d) 66.66
Ana.: (b) 16. The natural void ratio of a sand sample Is 0.6 and 111
density Index Is 0.6. If it.s void ratio In the loosest state
Expluation : Y<~ty = (~ ~~J = 1500 kg/m3 Is 0.9, then the void ratio In the densest state will bt
Ane.:
Yw. c1 +w>e };)=2000 (a) 0.2 (b) 6.3 (c) 0.4
(IES 2001)

(d) 0.5
Espla
2000 (c) re;
.. (1 + w) i5iiO = 1.33
Ana.: (c) volure

l
.. w = 1.33- 1 = 0.33 or 33.33% lhrinlc
Explanation : ld

a
13. A sample of saturated sand has a dry unit weight of 0.9-0.6 0.3 20.
3
18 kN/m and a specific gravity of 2.7. If Ywatar is 0.9 - ernln = 0.9- ecnlo

ev
3
10 kN/m , the void ratio of the soil sample will be .....
:. 0.54 - 0.6 ernl• 0.3
(IES 2000)
0.54-0.3 = QJ1 =~4
(a) 0.5 (b) 0 .6 (c) 0.4 (d) 0.9 , . 0.6 0.6 I .

Ana. :,(a) 17. The value of porosity of: a soil 'sample in which lhe
I Ane.
• G .. y. (Q..:.:&_ ) 2.7 X 10
Explanation :yd = ~. e = \ Yd - 1 = - 1-8 - - 1 = 0.5
nR total volume o~ soil gr~lns is equal to twice the total
volume of voids, would be .... (IES 2000)
Expl:

14. A soil sample having a void ratio of 1.3, water content (a) 75% (b) 66.66% (c) 50% (d) 33.33%

of 50% and a specific gravity of 2.60, is in a state of

Ana.: (d)
(IES 2001)
Expl~ation : V, =2V 0

(b) full saturati~n _Y..:t..._ v

U
(a) partial saturation 0
- v - V,+Vv
(c) over saturation (d) under saturation V· · 1 21 .
= 2V. + V. -3
Ans.: (b)
= 33.33%
Explanation : S, · e = I.e =wG =0.5 x 2.6 =1.3
18. A dry soil sample has equal amounts of solids and
m

:. FuU saturation.
voids by volume. Its void ratio and porosity will be ......
15. A sample of sand above water table was found to (Choose ES 2001)
have a natural moisture content of 15% and a unit
3
Sa

weight of 18.84 kN/m • Laboratory tests on a dried

sampl!'l Indicated values of 0.5 and 0.85 for minimum
and maximum void ratios respectively for densest and
loosest states. Calculate the degree.of saturation and
the relative.density. Assume G = 2.65. (IES 2000) Ans. : (b)

y 18.84 J Explanation :
Explanation : yd = i'+'W = 1 + O.l 5 = 16.38 kN/m Given: vv
v
e =
G·v
~- 1 e y= l
Yd 'v 1
2.65 x9.81
16.38 1 = 0.587
n = v +v =1 + 1 =0 ·5
v '

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1-37 lntro. to Geot&eh. En ., Basic Oeflnltlone & Relatlonsh

Which one of the following phase dlegrams 22. Moleh Uat I with U st II end select the co"ect answer
using the codes given below the lists · (IES 1999)
represents a clay a t Its shrlnkago limit ?
u.tl lT....) " .• · &.let II CFomHa...l '

I I~
(IES 2001)
v.
(a):~ (b) WATER (e) (d) WATER
(A) Void ratio (I) v
WATER SOUDS ~ ~Al:.:.R;__-t (B) Porosity (2)
t.1w
--x100
souos M.
:lits souos
w.
tate Flg. Q. 19 (C) Degree of saturation (3) -v;
I be Ans.: (a) w
01)
EKp~anadon :Fig. Q. 19 (b) represents satur:lted soil. Fig. Q. 19
(D) Water content (4) v
(c) repJUCilts other dried soil. In Fig. Q. 19 (a) and Q. 19 (c) v.
volume of voids is same. Hence Fig. Q. 19 (a) represents soil at
(S)
v.
shrin]age limit. Fig. Q. 19 (d) represents incorrect situation. Codes : (a) A B C D (o) A B C 0

l
20• Which one of the following represents relative density 4 3 s 4 5 2

a
of saturated sand deposit having moisture content of (b) A 6 C o (d) A B C D
25%, If maximum and minimum void ratios of sand
a 5 4 3 2 5 3 2.

ev
are 0.95 and 0.45 respectively and specific gravity of
(IES 2002) Ane.: (d)
sand particles is 2.6 ?
(a) 40% (b) SO% (c) 60% (d) 70"k 23. Match Ust I (Densities) with Ust II (Expressions) and
the AM.: (c) select the correct answer usittg the codes given
:>tal
Explanadoo : S,·e .. w. G. below the lists :
)())
e = 0.25; 2.6 =0.65
nR (Symbols G, e, y., and S stand for specific gravity of

em.. - e
Id = emu - emln
0.95 - 0.65 - 60%
0.95-0.45-
(A) Dry density (1) G+Se ) .Yw
( 1+8'
U
21. Match Ust I with Ust II and select correct answer by
using the codes given below the lists. (IES 1992) (B) Moist density (2) ( 1 ~e ) Yw
List II (Permeability)
nd (C) Submerged density (3) 1 + e ) Yw
( G+e
(A) Gravels (1) 10- 7 em/sec.
I
m

(2) 10- 6 em/sec. (D) Saturated density (4) G-1 ) Yw

( T+"Q
t) (B) Sand

I (C) Silt

(D) Clays
(3)

(4)
1o- 1 em/sec.

10 em/sec.
Codes : (a) A B C D

2 1 4 3
(c) A B C D

4 1 2 3
Sa

Codes : (a) A 8 c D (c) A B c D (b) A 8 C D {d) A 8 C 0

1 2 3 4 4 3 2 2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1

1. (b) A 8 c D (d) A B c D Ana.: (a)

3 4 1 2 2 4 3
24. Match List I {Unit) with List II (Purpose) and select the
Ana. : (e) correct answer using the code given below the lists :
(IES 2005)
~I

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. ....
-- -- - - ·••• ·~· - • • ">;•o;..~._- . • ..-'- •
V f'o' 'I,·~
'>
~•-'!.!'· i · :jt Sf. _..:
'It:- ~~·~ ··· ~

. ...... .. ...-. ... . .

,f, • .
w'l"',
....,
• • '•' ·, · ,
• --
_- .·
• '''(:.:...,. • •
'·'L~ . . i,u··--.
.
• ·"* llr -- ' •.
'"'- ·t :n,
'1••),-i'-
')o • - -•
.-.·~i·i!i\t<,
•
J
-
•
._· ·" ' • '
;r,·
'' '
. -! ~1 }( .
il)l.._._";::ii\~14· ,.,"·-~ ':t''''~~ -:.,:. -;. ~'-ll~i~.~~~~-
·' - .'
-~-
-
.· .J,~I~.
·,•,
'· '. ··. .:P'"" .: '
..... t.~..... 'I ,.!•\".!....--·
.. ·~.ylll"f~\
' ;J ' I

· t·ft' ~ ~ ' - : :. ..
., ..... . .: . : · · .-lf"' tr-· - t'' ,. ·- {\"l '
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1·38 lntro.
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What are the respective values of void ratio,
3
ratio and saturated denslty(in kN/m ) tor 6
To reduce seepage of water Sample which has saturation moisture content
filter through of earth dam. and specific gravity of grains as 2.6? (Take uotn•• ·-•
3
(B) Ume (2) To reduce water seepage through water 10 kN/m ) (IES
treatment foundation below dam. (a) 0.52, 1.08, 18.07

(C) Impervious (3) To stabilize black cotton soils. (c) 0.77, 1.08, 16.64

clay core
Ans. : (d)
(D) Curtain (4) To drain water without losing fines Explanation : Soil is saturated.
from the soil. '
:: Degree of saturation (S )
Moisture 'content (w)
(a) c
Codes: A
.
B D (c) A B c D
=
'"•''

l
Specific gravity (G) 2 .6
4 3 2 4 2 3
S, · e· = ' wG ..

a
(b) A B c D (d) A B c D
s,
2 4 3 3 4 2
Void ratio, e = wG =0.2 x 2.6 7'-0.Sl

ev
Ans.: (a)
e 0.52
·· · Porosity, n T+"e = r:;:o:52 =- 0.34
25. Match Ust I (Soil) with Ust II (Type) and select the
G + e · 2.6 + 0.52..,.
correct answer using 'the codes given below the Saturated density, Y,.. = 1 + e Y., - 1 + 0.52 "" x

= Z0.14 kN/m3
nR 28. Embankment fill is to be compacted at a density
3
18 kN/m • The soil of the borrow area is at a
3
of 15 kNlm • What is the estimated number of trips
6 cu.m. capacity truck for hauling the soli required
compacting 100m fill of the embankment? l"'~~uu~a
3
(4) Organic soil
U
that the soil
Codes ; _ (a) A 8 c (c) A 8 c ..
embankment are at the same moisture

3 2 . 3- 1 2
(a)·14 (b) 18 (c) 20 {d) 23
-'(b) A 8 c • •(d) A 8 c
m

Ans. : (c)
- ' 4 3 2 3 4

Ans.: (d) - Explanation : In problems of fill and borrow pit. the volume

' 8 have porosities

'
soil solids shall be equated.
26. Two·soll samples A and nA = 40%
Sa

and"n8 = 60% respectively. What is the ratio of void Since yb = Yc~ry (1 + w) =G · (l1++w)'{w
e
ra~ eA: e8 ? , • (IES 2004)
V Vv ..,-
(a) 2 : 3 (b) 3 : 2 (c) 4 : 9 (d) 9 : 4 v. = 'i"'+e =G (1 + w)y..,
Ans.: (c)
~ _ _M__0.4
As the moisture content of borrow area and that
E"pbmadon: Void ratio, eA =
. • I
- - '.J
1-nA -1-0.4 -o.6 embankment are same.
;: . . ··Void ratio, ~ =
_.!!J1._- ....QL
1- n8 - 1- o.6
- Q&
- 0.4
VtYt = V,_ '!z
. ,. . c~ . ~: For 100 m fill at embankment, the volume required
.. i
til
0.4 0.4 16 4
= o.6xo.6=36 =9
borrow pit,

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1-39 lntro. to Oeotech. En .• Basic Deflnltlons & Aelatlonsh
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I' qtJJeotlv• auestlonti• I
1 0 Wetor transported soils are termed as ............
Namberoflrips ofltllck - ~ .. 20
1.
whereas Glacier deposited soils are termed as ........ ..
)f

) 29. Which one of the following relation gives the valuo of When the products of rock are not transported but
2.
degree of saturation S, In terms of unit weight y ,
remain at the place of formation, the soli Is caned
water content w (as ratio) and specific gravity of soH
as......
soUds G., y,. Is unit weight of water? (IES 2006)
w 3. Coheslonless soils are formed due to ........
(a) S.., (Yirwl (1 + w)- 1/Go
w 4. Assertion A : Alluvial soils are very fertile.
(b) 5 =(yly.,) (1 + w) + 1/0 8 Reason A : Alluvium contains a lot of water and
w
oxygen.
(c) S • (y.,ly) (1 + w) + 1/G.
w State which of the following is correct :

l
(d) 5 (y., ly) (1 + w) -1/G8 (a) Both A and A are true and A is the correct
explanation of A.

a
Ans.: (d) (b) Both A and A are true but A is not a correct
G,(l +W)
Explanation :Unit weight, y = (1 +e) Y., explanation of A.

ev
G, (I+ w)y. (c) A Is true, but A is false.
l+e = y (d) A Is false, but A is true.

Using G, w s.·e State which of the following Is true :

O,w = G,(l+w)y., Losses deposits are formed by
I+ S y I

,,
y
r

s.
w
(y._ ly) {I+ w) - II G,
nR (a)
(b)
physical disintegration of rock.
constant blowing of wind from the same

, 30._ Which one of the following represent relative density

direction. ·

, of saturated sand depOsit wlth moisture content of

(c) vertical deposition of glacial till.
(d) chemical weathering of residual deposits.
25% if maximum and minimum void ratio of sand are
U
0.95 and 0.45. Assume specific gravity of sand as 6. Lacustrine soils are soils..... .
) 2.6. (IES 2002) (a) transported by rivers and streams
(a) 40% (b) 50% (c) 60% (d) 70% (b) transported by glaciers
An•.: (c) (c) deposited in sea beds
m

Explanation : Density index or Relative Density (d) deposited in lake beds

I
e -e
f mu =6% A soil sample Is having a specific gravity of 2.60 and
emax - emia 7.
a void ratio ot 0.78. The water content In percentage
s.· e = wG
Sa

req~fred to fully saturate the soil at that void ratio

wG _ 0.25 X 2.6 _ O would be ...
e = s, -
100 - .65
(a) 10 (b) 30 (c) 50 (d) 70
.' 0.95 - 0.65 - 0.30 100 - 60%
I0 = 0.95 - 0.45 - 0.50 X -
8. A dry s~il has a mass specific gravity of 1.35. If the
specific gravity of solids is 2.7, then the void ratio will
31 . ' 'The collapsible soil is associated with
be ..... .
(a) dune sands (b) laterite soil
(a) 0.5 (b) 1.0 (c) 1.5 (d) 2.0
(c) loess (d) black cotton soils
AnL :(c)

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A B c D
a void ratio ofhttps://cee-book.blogspot.com/
0.50 In dry state and 1 2 3
9. A clay sample haS 2 70 Its shrinkage limit will
4
specific gravity of solids =· · 4 5 2 3
be ...... (d) 22% 2 4
(a) 12% (b) 103.5% (c) 18.5% (c) 5
(d) 1 5 3 2
C<lnsldar the following statements In relation to the
10.
given sketch :
(1 ) Soil is partially saturated at degree of satura11o
:r60%.
n
c
1. Alluvial or marine, glacial deposits
(2) Void ratio • 40%
(3) Water content= 30% 2. Residual 3. deposition
(4) Saturated unit weight = 1.5 glee Of these 8. (b) 9. (c)
4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b)
statements
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct 10. (a} 11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (d)
(b) 1, 3 and 4 are correct

l
(c) 2, 3 and 4 are correct

a
(d) 1, 2 and 4 are correct .
Volume, cc Weigh~ g
Distinguish between : 1

ev
0.2 Air 0
(a) Residual soil and transported soil.
0.3 Wet.r 0.3
~
(b) Inorganic soil and organic soil.
(c) Mechanical weathering and chemical weathering
0.5 Solids 1.0
of soil.

11.
Fir. Q.IO
A soil has a bulk density of 1.8 glcm3 at water content
nR (d)
(e)
Alluvial and colluvial soils. .
Honeycomb structure and flocculent structure.

of 5%. If the void ratio remains constant, then Its bulk 2. Prepare a tree type chart gMng the details of four 1
density for a water content of 10% will be .. ....
3
natural transportation agents for formation of soils
3
(a) 1.98 g/cm (b) 10.88 g/cm
. 3 3
and give one example of each category.
(c) 1.80 glcm (d) 1.70g/cm
U
12. 3. Describe the various stages of soil formation.
Which one the following gives the correct decreasing
order of the densities of a soil sample ? 4. Sketch the geological cycle, explaining the processes
(a) Saturated, submerged, wet, dry
of denudation, deposition and sedimentatio n.
(b) Saturated, wet, submerged, dry
m

(c) Saturated, wet, dry, submerged 5. Explain the role of weathering in the formation of
(d) Wet, saturated, submerged, dry soils.

13. 6. Write notes on : Loess, Bentonite, Marl, Gumbo,

Colluvial and Peat.)
Sa

7. The natural water content of a sand sample is 20 per

cent, the bulk density weight being 1.8 glee.
(A)· Grain size (1 ) Pycnometer Assuming specific gravity of soils as 2.65 and the
(B) Specific gravity (2) sand sample to be partially saturated, calculate
Permeameter
.: (C) Coefficient of (3) Vane degree of saturation and void ratio of the sample.
shear
permeability
apparatus
(D) Cohesion (Ana. S, = 69.7%, e =0.76
(4) Pipette
(5) Sand pouring

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I

Geotechnical E https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
1-41 lntro. to Geotech. ., Basic Definitlona & Relationshi

A sample of saturated clay weights 15.45 and Ita of solids of 2.7. Compute Its degree of saturation and
molstura content Is 38.0 per cent. If the particle void retlo. (An•. S, - 87% , e .. 0.62)
specific Is 2.70, lind the void retlo, Porosity, dry and
12. Why soli Is known a.s three phase syotem ?
bulk unit weights of the soli.

I
13. Define the terms : Void ratio, Water contant, Degree
(Ana. e = 1.026, n = 50.6 % , yd =13.07 kN/m3 ,
of saturation and Dry density by the help of three
y =18.04 =kN/m3) phase system.

"· lhe weights of an undried specimen of clay was 14. Does the size and shape of particles reftect the
34.629. The oven-dry weight of some specimen was physical properties of cohesion less soils?
28.369 before drying, the spedmen was Immersed in
mercury and its volume found to be 20.26. Calculate 15. A partially saturated sample of a soil from an
the water content, void ratio and the degree of embankment has a natural moisture content of 20 per
saturation of the son. Assume specific gravity of solids cent and bulk density of 2.0 glee and specific gravity

l
as2.68.
of solids is 2.7. Compute its degree of saturation and

a
(Ans. w = 22.06%, e = 0.91, S, = 64.9 %) void ratio. If subsequently soil gets saturated,
I determine Its unit weight.
10. A sample of sand with the specific gravity of solids of

ev
2.65 has a porosity of 40 per cent. Find out the dry (Ana. : (i) S, = 87%, (ii) e - 0.62)
unit weight, saturated unit weight of the sample when 16. A pycnometer test for water of a soil sample having
tuny saturated, submerge d unit weight an.d bulk
G = 2.70 yielded the following data :
weight when the degree of saturation is 50 per cent.
Weight of moist soil= 230.75 g
(Ane. (I) yd - 15.66 kN/m3• Yae~
I
= 19.65 kN /m3, Weight of pycnomet er full of water = 296520 g
nR
(ii) y- 9.75 kN/m3, y =17.61 kN I m~ ·
Weight of pycnomet er+ Soil +Water= 3092.65 g
Calculate the water content of the soil, Derive the
11 . A partially saturated sample of a soil from an relationsh ip used. (Ana. : 60.75%)
embankm ent has a natural moisture content of 20 per
cent and bulk dens of 2.0
U
Chapter En4s ...
m
Sa

"'

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Plasticity Char~cteristics '

m
of So• I

l
Syllabus f soil explanation about Idea set by
I. Plasticity of soli: Definition of plasticity of soil, reason o
f plasticity
rmln~tlonconsistency o ' hI k I' it
of liquid limit, plastic limit, s r n age lm :

a
Atterberg in defining the three states of soli, definition & dete . 'l.llty Index consistency Index, flow Index,
I tl 'ty Index shrinkage Index, 11qui , . .
u. Definitions of shrinkage parameters; Pas ~1 ' U f consistency limits.
0
toughness Index, activity, sensitivity and thixotropy of soils. se 't • their formation and role in p roducing the

ev
iii. Explanation about clay minerals e.g. montmon·11 onite • illite• and kao 11m e, "
plastic behavior in soil.

2.1 Plasticity of Soli of resistance offered by a fine grained soil to deformation. To

nR certain extent, it denotes firmness of a soil.
Cohesion is the binding together of like substances by
intramolecular forces and in soils through medium of
moisture as well. Due to coh~sion, various soil particles stick
together and hold the soil mass intact
2.1:1 Reason for Plasticity The cohesion of soil is that part of its shear strength, which
U
does not depend upon inter' particle friction. Consistency
Fine grained particles in presence of water exhibit plasticity.
pertains to cohesive soils only. It is de~cribed by such terms
Negative charges are present on surface of clay particles.
as stiff, sticky, plastic, soft etc. and is influenced by moisture
The water molecules are dipolar and hence they are attracted content
m

towards the surface of clay particles. This process is known

A Swedish agricultural engineer, Atterberg, introduced that a
as adsorption of water. The adsorbed water contributes to the
fine grained soil can exist in four states, namely, liquid,
plasticity of soil.
plastic, semisolid and solid state. The water content at which
the soil changes from one state to another state are termed as
Sa

2.2 Consistency and Consistency

comistency limits or Atterberg's limits.
Limits (Atterberg Limits)
A soil containing high water content is in liquid state. It
offers no shearing resistance and flows like liquids. It has
shear strength equal to zero. As water content is reduced, soil
starts developing resistance to shear deformations.

Consistency of lhe property of material which shows its

resistance to flow. When referred to soil, it means, the degree

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2 ·2 Plastic! Characteristics of Soli

.....
. ..u.s. nq ufd limit is a water content at which the ~oil ceaseJ to be liquid or It b the water content at wblcb soii is o n tbc verge of

becoming liquid.

I Thus, the piMtic limit is tbe water content nt which the soil j ust fo.Jis to behave plastically.

The difference between the liquid limit 11nd plastic limit Is Jcnown as plasticity index (P.L).

Constant
volume Liquid

l
Semi solid

a
Plastic
Solid or
semi-plastic solid
Dry Thiel< Thin

ev
soil Hard Stiff Firm Soft Ve soft slurry slurry Suspension
wP w1 Moisture content(%)
I -- - PI •I
Ic= 0
' 't· I L= 1

Fig. 2.2.1 : Different states of soil

rr States of soli
nR
As water content is reduced, the soil gradually transfers from liquid to plastic state.·As water content is further reduced, the plasticity
-
of soil decreases. When water content is reduced below the plastic limit. the soil attains semisolid state. In this situation. soil cracks
'

when moulded
U
The volume of soil decreases with decrease in water content till a stage is reached when further reduction of water content does not
cause any reduction in the volume of the soil. The soil is said to have reached a solid state.
.
The water content at which the soil changes from semisolid state to solid state is known as the shrinkage limit. With further reduction
in the w~r content below the shrinkage limit. there is no decrease in the volume of soil. This is due to the capillary tension
m

developed. The ~ enters the voids emptied by the water.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Sa

2.2.1 Determination of Consistency Limits

Determination
of Consistency Umlts

... f Liquid state

,,
2. Plastic limit I I

3. Shrinkage li ..
Fi~. C2.1 : Determination of Consistency Limits
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-+ 1 Liqald. Limit ' . State• The liquid limit

)' uid stale to plastic
• which soil changes from IQ all shearing stteng1h.
As defined earlier, the liquid _limit is thew~~ content at. ·cally JiJce sl U!l}' (liquid), but possesses a sm •
-als At the liquid limit, the clay JS pncti . ..__. ater and therefore, hig}ler
depends upon clay ma.ten . ill be the amount of absOni<iu w
barge the greater w
The lhiooer the particle and stronger the surface c • • ..,..
be the liquid limiL
. · of limit in the l aboratory :
FoUowing are the two methods used for the detemunal!on

(a) By Casagrande's method,

(b) By Cone penetrometer.

.. (a) Casagrande's method . • - -•"" b a

l
h 'ght
The device used in this method consists of a brass cup which drops through a eJ of 1 em on a hard base when o.,....~ y

a
handle. The height of drop is adjusted with the help of adjusting screws.

ev
nR
Solr sample after test
U
m

Type A - Casagrande grooving tool

(All dimensions &Min mm)

Casagrande apparatus
Sa

Fig. 2.2.2(a) : Liquid limit apparatuS

o:r Procedure

About 120 g to 150 g of air-dried soil sample passing through 425 J.L. IS sieve is taken and mixed with distilled water to make
unifonn paste. In case of clayey soils, the soil paste shall be left to stand for 24 hours so as to ensure unifonn distribution of
moislllre, throughout the soil mass.

Some portion of this paste is placed in the cup of liquid limit device. The surface is levelled with a spatula to a maximum depth of
1 an.

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IS 2720 pAit V rrc:omtne"'l<b ,....., I)~ of J;tOOvin~ rooh · ( I) Thn. the llq\Jh1 limit I~ artlllnutly taun .. tt1e ..,IO!rt eotlb!ftt

Caaa,vande 10.11. (2) ASTM tnol. The ea..,_. tool artt • Ill Which the •all hM ~., •trenam ~utnc.leruto w\lhstmd 111e
u JIVOW of width 2 mm 81 the bottom. II mm 111 the top IUid 11 ~ns •f'ejl- ll~<hla!d '" l l btow.. Ncmn.olly. the ,,_,.

mmd«p. Jtreftath of soli at liquid limit I' about 1.7 kNtm•.

11le ASTM tool CUll • II"JO"'! of width 2 mm 111 the bolrom. - o~tnt me1hod

13.6 mm • • the top Met 10 mm cleq). The Casapnde tool I• AIM:lve ~•hod requlrea .5·6 repetllioM for plott!ns the pph.
I"OCOmmended (or clayey AI'C pncd I!Oih.
Thut. procedure becomu inconvenient and contumes lot of
The ASTM tool is rDComrnended for 1ilty fine grained ~oill.e. tJme.
30ils haYing low pi~~Stlclty indices, In which Cuagrande tool lt ls ~slble to obtain an approximate value of Uquld limit by
tends to tear !he ~oil in the groove.

l
0 conductJna only one tut provided tlle number of bloWl is in
tbe limited range. This method b blued on assumption lhat
Aftu levelling the 1urfecc, a groove ia cut through lhc sample

a
the now curve Is a atml&ht line.
along the symmetrical axis of the cup. in one stroke. using
w
one of the above tools, depending upon typeof soil. Uquid limit (W1),. I.Jl!S _ O.l3l~>g,. N

ev
The handle turned 1111 rate of 2 revolutions per second until where, w • "' Water content e>f !ample when groove

the two partS of tbe soil sample come to close at the bottom of closes in (N) blows
!he groove for a distance of 10 nun. The groove should close r:w,. 1~)

by a flow of soil and not by slippage between the soil and the g30
cup.
nR i 25
fi ~ ~~~-------------------
Soils having low plasticity indices, tend to slide on the
surface of cup instead of soiJ flowing. In such case results
1 15
10
o:
:
5 :
should be discarded and test repeated, until flowing does
2 3 10 \00
occur. The number of blows required to close the groove are
U
Nunbet d blow (tog lcalo) -
noted. Fic.l.l.l(b) : Flow curve

The soil oear the closed groove is taken for water content
~ (b) Cone penetrometer method
determination. The test is repeated by changing the water
content of the sample. Every time water content of sample This method consists of a stainless steel cone having an apex
m

and number of blows required to close the groove are noted. angle 30°± l/2° and length of 35 mm.

The water content of the sample is adjusted such that The cone is futed at the lower end of the sliding rod, fitted
numberof blows come in the range of 10 to 40. with disc at its top. The total weight of the cone, sliding rod
Sa

and disc is 148 g.

The liquid limit is the water content at which the soiJ· is
sufficiently fluid to flow so as to close the groove by 25 A paste is prepared and placed in a cup of 50 mm internal
diameter and 50 mm height The cup is fitted with sample.
blows. Using semi-Jog papers, graph is plotted with % water
The surfau of the soil is levelled.
,. content as ordinate and number of blows on log scale as
abscissa.

Tho plot is approximately a straight line. This plot is !mown

as flow curve. The water content corresponding to 25 number

of blows is the liquid limit.

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..

l
Test $811lll& In
penetraiQil til ~ mm
dlome1Gr40 mm high

a
ev
Fig. 2.2.3.: Liquid limit appara tus : Cone penetrometer method

(i) 1be cup is placed below the cone and cone is gradually -t 2. Plastic Hmlt
lowered so as to just touch the surface o! the soil in the cup.
nR Plastic lillllt is the water content below which the soil ·stops
The graduated scale is adjusted to zero. The cone is released
behaving as a plastic material. At this stage, soil begins to
and allowed to penetrate the soil for 5 seconds. The water
crumble when rolled to 3 mm diameter thread
content at which the penetration is 20 mm is the liquid limit
An air-dried soil passing through 425 1.1. IS sieve is taken. It is
For other penetration values following fonnulae may be used.
mixed with distilled water, till it becomes plastic. Some
Liquid limit.- W, = 0.77 ~~roX or 0.65 + ~:0175x plastic soil mass is taken and ball is prepared.
U
wllere, The ball is rolled with fingers on a glass plate to form a soil
thread of uniform diameter of 3 mm. If soil mass does not
w,-= Water content corresponding to penetration x [mm]
crumble, it shows that the water content is more than the
Above equation is applicable when penetration (x) lies plastic limit
between 14 to 28 mm. The sllear strength of the soil at liquid
The soil is kneaded further. The soil is then re-rolled to 3 mm
m

limit obtained by this method is about 1.76 kN/m2 •

diameter and if it crumbles, then corresponding water content
This 'method is easy, applicable for wide range of soils, is the plastic limit The test is repeated and average value of
reliable and is specified in IS 2720 part 5-1985. three readings is taken as the plastic limit
Sa

1t may be emphasized that, there is drastic change in the

method specified in the I.S. 2720 part 5-1985 than that
specified in I.S.2720 part 5 -1970.
Glass
(ii) Liquid limit can also be calculated by the fonnula

W1 = wx + 0.01 (25- x) (w1 + 15)

Where W1 iS water content corresponding to penetration

x (20-30 nun) and cone is C;aJ.ibrated to read penetration of
25 mm at the liquid limit
Fig. 2.2.4 : Plastic limit determination

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2·6 PlasUcl Characteristics of Soli
.:
. . 3. Shrinkage limit

Shrinka,ge limit is lhe wntor content at which soli mnss stops

shrinldn.g. ll is n mrucimum wntercontenl at which a reduction
of water content will not cause a decrease In the volume of

lhe soil mass. ·

In Fig. 2.2.5 (a), the soil snmple is fully saturnted. (c) Oven dried son pat
The mass of water in (a)., M 1 - M4 Ftc. 2.2.5 : Dct~nnlnaUon or volum~ of dry pat In shrinkage
limit test
Where, M1 = Mass of sarurated soil sample, with
Loss of water from stage (a) to stage (b) ., CV 1- VJ p.,.
volume V1
Mass or water in (b)= (M 1- M,.)- (V1- VJ P..

l
Md ::: Ma~s of dry soil solids
But shrinkage limit is the water content in stage (b).

a
The water content of saturated soil is gradually reduced and •
W = (Mt-M.t>;.rt - VJ P,.. X 100
sample is brought at shrinkage limit Let V1 be the volume at I d

ev
this suge. In Fig. 2.2.5(c), since there is no reduction in the volume with
Consider Fig. 2.2.5(b). The sample is at shrinkage limit. further reduction in water content, CV1 ~ V J where (Y d) is

Hence, further reduction in the water content will not reduce volume of sample in dry state and Mdls dry weight of sample.

>ps the volume of soil sample. W, => [ M1 (Yt ~:J Pw]x 100
to

.is
nR Laboratory Procedure

About 50 g of soil passing through 425 11 is taken and lllUed

ne
with distilled water to fonn a saturated soil mass.

A circular shrinkage dish of diameter 30 to 40 mm and a

il
I height of 15 mrn is taken. The capacity (volume) of shrinkage
U
,t
I
e- 1 dish is determined by filling it with merclll)'. A dish is placed
in the large porcelain evaporating dish and filled with
(a) SAaturated soil sample mercury.

Excess mercury is removed by pressing a plain glass plate

m

finnly over the top of the shrinkage dish. The mass of

mercury in the shrinkage dish is obtained.

The volume of shrinkage dish (y 1) in ml is equal to the mass

Sa

of mercury in grams divided by the density of mercury

(usually 13.6 'lfcm\

The inside surl'ace of dish is coated with grease. The mass of

empty dish is obtained.

(b) Soil at shrinkage limit The saturated soil sample is then filled in lhe shrinkage dish.
Top surface is levelled. Air entrapped is removed. The mass
Fig. 2.2.5 : Contd....
of dish ~tb sample is taken.

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£aeotE
rr ~.Shrt.r

After shrinkage
Before thrlnkage

Glass plate wltn prongs .. l '

Ground aurlace of lop
of glass ClJP.
Brass pin secured finnly Evaporating dish

.J; ~ !;.,$ .: -
Obtaining displace mercury by son pat
G•uwp
Mercury displace

l
Glass plate with prongs · ·
Fig. 2.2.6 : Determination of volume or dry pat in shrinkage Umit test

a
M,.
Tbe soil is then dried. Drying is initially at room temperature Shrinkage limit. W, = M (in fll1al state)
4

ev
and then it is oven dried. The mass of dish with dry soil is
Refer Fig. 2.Z.S(b).
obtained. The mass of dry soil in the dish can be calculated.
To determine the volume of dry soil pat, a glass cup is of SO But, M., (Vd- V J ·p.,

mm diameter and· 2~ mm height is taken and placed in the

large dish. The cup is filled with mercury.
(vc:.;J·P., sin~,G= v~: Sill
cia

( v4 · ~ ')
nR
The dry soil pat is removed from the dish and placed on the
surface of the mercury in the cup and pressed with glass plate Therefore, W, =
- G ·PwPw
M4
Vd·Pw
=~ ~ 0
1

having prongs, the volume of mercury displaced is

determined from its IDJISS and density. · :. w.= £..!
Pd -G Shrinl

The volume of dry soil pat (V4) is equal to the volume of i.e. knowing the velum~ and mass of oven dried pat,
&4=~) and G, W, can be determined.
U
mercury displaced by it The shrinkage limit is then
detetm.ined by the following fonnula :
(MI- Md) - (VI- VJ P., cr Determination of speclflc gravity of solids from
w, = Md shrinkage limit
where, M ~ass of shrinkage dish filled with
m

The data available while carrying out shrinkage limit test, can
saturated soil sample as well be used to determine specific gravity of the soiL
Md Mass of soil solids =Mass of dry soil pat Md
v• =Gp..,
-
VI Volume of saturated sample
Sa

V1-Volume of water present at the start of test

V4 = Volume of dry soil pat 4
Md
P.,. = Density of water Gp.,
17
Determination of w. when G Is known Md
G = V1p...,-M1- M.i 1
Shrinkage limit can be detennined only with the observation Md u
of final volume V2 (Vd) and mass~ if the specific gravity of
G = :-:--~-~
v ,p...,- (MI- Md)
the soil G is determined previously. Thus,
.. G
1

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2-8 Pteattct Cnarectel1attca of Soil

.,- Shrinkage Pa,..mete,. -+ 5. 1:>earte oft!hrtnk•ae (D.S.)

V-V
O.S. • ~x 100 percent

On the basi~ of the degree of ~hrlnk.ege. the soils ca.n be

1, Shrinkogo indox (Is)
ciMsl lied liS follow~ :

2. Shrinlcago ratio (S.R.) D.S.~ QuaHtJ of 11011

3. Volumetric shrinkage (V .S.) <S Oood

S-10 Medium good
4. Unear shrinkage (LS.)
10- 15 Poor
5 . Degr&e of shrinkage (O.S.) > 15 Very poor

The soils lbat belong to the montmorillonite group sb:rin.k

Fig. C2.2 : Shrinkage Paramelen

l
more than the kaolinite and illite groups. Due to sllrillkage of
-+ ). Shrinka&"e Index (I.) soils, craclcs develop on the surface. which may eit~d to

a
great deptlls.

The soils that shrink and swell more are called expansive

ev
soils. Black cotton soils belong to this ~gory.

shrinkage index is directly proportional to the percentage of 2.2.2 Consistency Indices

clay size fraction present in the soil. + (MU- May 10, May 13, Dec. 13, May 16)
-+ Q,
2. Sllrinkage rado (S.R.)

(¥,)x too
nR Q,

Shrinl<age ratio wl - wl
t,
M.. Q. Explain (I) Aowindex
VdPw
Mass of the dry soil .L
U
Q, ·Define plasticity jndex.
Volume of dry soil x Pw •
' Pd Md Consistency Indices
- wherep =-
p.., d vd

1. Plasticity index
-+ 3. Volumetric shrinkage (V.S.)
m

V.S. = S.R. (W1 - W.)x 100 2. liquidity index

-Where, W1 is liquid limit of soil. 3. Consistency index

Sa

-+ 4. Linear shrinkage (L.S.) 4. Flow Index

1/3

L.S. = (1- V, ~ 1) x 100 per cent S.Toughness index

The linear shrinkage is related with plasticity index (111) as 6. Activity number

under : 7. Sensitivity
Ip = 2.13 xL.S.
B. Use of consistency limits

Fig. C2.3 : Consistency Indices

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index and liquidity indeX' ~can
BJiaeo·
Both cons IstenCy ~um
~ 1. PIASI.Iclty Index positive or negative value. filet.
• In
It is the range of water content over which the soil rema~ns . d Tobie 2.2.1 given below shoWs v~ Pols
Ftg. 2.2.7 an
. . d and liquidity index due to varu.Joa peru
plastic state. Its magJlitudc equals to the difference between conststency tn e,.,
Tbe
the liquid limit (W1) nod plastic limit (W ,>. moisture content. As per Kez.di, knowing COilSistency
detJ
of a soil sample, approltimate value of uncOOfilleld
J,orPI = W1 -Wr red
compressive strength of the cohesive sample can
If (W1) nod (W,>cannot bo determined, the soil is non-plastic. del

The plasticity indeOt cannot be negative. ln such case, It Is estimated. If

e.xpresscd as zero. Ic Upper limit. dry soil
---- --- ------------- ~~
~ 2. Liquidity index

l
It indlcates the nearness of its water content to its tiqu.id limit.

a
I H o.2s u
It is de.fined as : j
I
----1---- 0.00 ......

ev
1 I
I I 0 .26
Ill 0.75 ---i----;-- -N~u~ISt&T&
~ ,. Liquidlty inde.x ~ ----:-----r---- -4-
Where w = Water content of soil in natural condition I 0.50 ----~----..J--
1
1
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
0.50

0.75
·o 0.25 ---,- ---,-- --~----
Plastic limit
WP
8 t I
I
oI-,:.- - 'I -- - L
I
I Liquid Umlt

1be
~ Plasticity index
nR
liquidity index is also known as water-plasticity ratio.
w,
--,..L.:::.:li::.:...:::;.;;;:....:CH 1.00
WP Wn
Moisture.oantent IL

The liquidity index. of a soil at liquid limit is 1 and soil is in

Fig. 2:1..7 : Variation of consistency index and Uquldlty index
liquid state. The liquidity index ~mes zero at plastic limit with moisture content etc.
state. The negative liquidity indicates the water content is
U
smaller than plastic limit

~ 3. Consistency indes

It shows the nearness of the water content of soil to its plastic

Hard Can be indented with > 400
limit lt is defined as :
m

w, -w difficulty by thumb nail.

I.,= - I -
P Medium Can be readily indented 200to400
The consistency index indicateS the consistency (firmness) of hard with thumb nail
Sa

a soil. It is also known as relative consistency. The

Stiff The thumb leaves imprint l00 to200
consistency index becomes zero at liquid limit and 100% at a
but can be pressed with
water content equal to the plastic limit of soil.
great effort only.
The consistency index greater than I 00% shows semisolid
state of soil and negative value of consistency index indicates Deformable The thumb can be pressed 50 to 100
in with light pressure.
that the water content is greater th.an the liquid limit

It can be proved that, sum total of consistency index feand Soft Thumb can be pressed 25 to so
liquidity inde1t It is always ~ne. easily.
W1-w w-WP
-~ -+ ~ Very soft The fist can be pressed if
easily.
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:H 0 Plaatld Charactel1a1lca ol Sd\

Numerou~ ocher mo~hods ha''l) ~n Kti.IIJ!W~t. anll are. tn 2 .2 .3 Activity Number

t11c1. In usc for cl\amt-Jeri r.ins ~oil COMI~ttncy. An10ng tlle.ooo.
:iation ill Pol shin '• sq·UCOT.C ta.t. bnll pc.ncu.,.clon tt.<l And Swedhh cone ~ (MU ·May 13, U.., 18)

iatloa in penetr'llllon te.~t are "'ortll n~ntionin11. Ia. Denne : (MI) ActMIY '*d"A"'I \
cy ~ Tho pltu:tieity or cl&y~ depend.• on tho manner in which cho of ploatlcU, Uadc\
confined dccumlnadon I~ made. 01'Jlanlc mils
l't'dudion in the liquid limit of tho
~lO"" a 001\!idernblc I O.ftDJUon 111 It lhf111«l111 '"'- ml.lo
. to eerwtl4(! of ely (J e/'rodlonJ'. _
C8Dbe ~nils If dried bcfom
•. A "
detennlnntion of t11e liquid limit % fi nes < 0.002 mm
I( the pi:ISticity indCJI drops by more chnn 30%, It is nn It is a mensum of physio-chemical behaviour of soil. On lhe
indicruion or !he organic ll.'lturc (Terznghl and Peck, 1967). basis of nctivity of soil. it is ciMSificd a_, Inactive when
FincJy deposited sediments also show n significant reduction A < 0.'15, normo.l when A .,. 0.'15 to 1.25 and ICtive when

;l in L.L on air dtying and if vlllucs of coosisrcncy nttio have to

l
A > 1.25. It also depends on the minerol compo;ition IIIli
1 ....Cl. be used. i t i~ n ecessary to detenninc L.L. and P.L. using
shown below.

a
~
undried soil from !he rcmoulded wer srnte.
•
....... Mineral Actl-rit)' number
-t 4. Flow index

ev
Kaolinite 0.4 toO.S
It is a slope of flow cutVe obtained between water content and :'1',
flUte O..S to 1.0
number of blows in Casagrande's met11od of determination of
liquid limit It is given as foUows : MontmOrillonite 1.0 to 7.0
w1 - w2
Flow index 0!) = ~ 2.2.4 Sensitivity
log,oN
1

Number of blows at water content (w1)

nR + (MU ·May 13, Dec. 13, May 16)
lex Number of blows at water content (wz)

Flow index indicates the rate at which a soil mass losses its
A cohesive soil in its natural state of occurrence has a certain
shear strength with increase in the water content.
U
structure. When the soil is remoulded, its structure is
.. - 5. Toughness index disturbed, and its engineering properties change considerably•

Sensitivity (S~ of a soil indicates its weakening due to

It is a measure of shearing strength of soil as its plastic limit
It is defined as : remoulding.
m

Toughness index.

Where, Unconfined compressive strength of

where, lp = Plasticity index undisturbed clay

Sa

r, = Flow index Unconfined compressive strength

of remoulded clay
The value of toughness index less than one indicates the soil
is friable at the plastic limit The value of 01) lies between Following is the soil classification based on (St).
zero to three. Table2.2.2
ILis clear tb.at, lesser: the value of flow index r,. higher will be
the_toughness and toughness index of the soil. Toughness
index less than one indicates that soil will crumble easily at l. < 1.00 Insensitive I Non-sensitive
p!Mtfc limit 2. 1.0 to 2.0 Little sensitive

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lil~;:'i, '::
v" v" v" ·"'' •9 •• '"'"'' .. • go• IJ au• ffi 1§&1 tips.au a
. ·•· . . . . • - .- . .
 .000
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. ft~ very small in site. very flaky in 3b~

.§ Geotec'h
n1eir part1c1e.~ w v •
d can be v1ewed Wjl>. 2 ..2 .9 Sol'
, Sen.ll.livltJI ' - • Si>ll t)i~· have considerable surface area an ••
1 Clay minernls are
2.0 to 4.0 Moderately sensitive electron microscope on Y•
3. . e nnd presence of small amount of
chemically very aclIV
4. 4.0 to8.0 Sensitive the engt· neering properties of soil
minerals can ailer
5. 8.4 to 16.0 Bxtrn sensitive Soil stro
appreciably.
6. >16 Quick . · any crystal sheets which soil pr.
Flakes of clay s01l conuun m shears·
. . structure The atomic structures of
2.2.5 Thixotropy repeaung atom•c · general
minerals are built of two fundamental crystal sheets,
Tile phenomenon due to which remoulded soil regains part of tetrahedral or silica sheet and the octahedrnl or alumina 2.2.10 Sl

l
its lost strength when it is allowed to rest without change in water
The mode of staeking of these .sheets, nature of
content.
This t:

a
forces and different metallic ions make different
sands.
2.2.6 Use of Consistency Limits minerals. out of

ev
The engineering properties of such soils can be related to 2.2.8 Characteristics of Kaolinite, This :
index properties as under: Montmorillonite and Illite Minerals
actin1
(i) Tile plasticity index of a soil is a measure of the amount of
clay in soil.
nR
(ii) As the particle size decreases, both the liquid limit and plastic
limit increase, but liquid limit increases at a greater rate.
Chemical
formula
(OH)4 Al4 Sig020
A14SiO, 0 10 • nHzO
Fe4 Fe6) 0 20
Thes
case
Thus, plasticity index increases at a rapid rate and it is a
measure of the 'fineness of the particles. (Dia
Structure 1:1 Di or tri Mostly di·
(ij.i) From plasticity chart, (Ip) gives idea about the type of clay.
type tetrahedral octahedra octahedral 2.2.11
U
(iv) Soils with liquid limit Jess than 20% are normally sands. and
They possess no plasticity and are called as non plastic (NP). octahedral
- bav
(v) The soils with high organic matter have low plasticity index. 7 A0 ' 10A0
Thickness 9.6A0
Bot
(vi) The compressi.bility of a soil normally increases with an 1 2 2
Specific 15 m /g 800 m /g 90 m /g
m

increase in liquid limit

surface
(vii) A high value of toughness index indicates high percentage of
colloidal clay. Activity Least active Very active4-7 NonnalO.S· SUI

0.3-0.5 1.3 to
Sa

2.2.7 Structural Units of Clay Minerals of soil im

and their Role in Plastic Behaviours Base 3-8 80 (meq/100 g) 40 (meq/100
n
exchange (meq/100g) g)
Clay materials are composed of tiny crystalline substances of
capacity
one or more members of small group of minerals called clay sp
minerals, which are evolved by chemical weathering. Plasticity 15 300 30 Ct
Chemical composition of these minerals includes hydrous Index lp vc
aluminosilicates with other metallic ions.
Dry Lowest Highest Intermediate
strength

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U-5"' Sem.-Civll
2-1 2
.
.r.;stlol Characlerietles of Soli
lllpe ltllq
With~
2•2-9 Sofl Structure https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
elec~ ,

of clal'
1
:I lllasa
Soil slructure is an important foetor which influences many
have ll soil properties such as permeability, compressibility and
Fig. 2.2.8 : Single grained strueture
sbear strength etc. The following types of soil structure are
f cia)'
genernlly recognized.
s. the '
sheet 2.2.10 Single Grained Structure

- · This type of structure is observed in coarse-grained soils like

sands, gravels etc. Each particle of these type.~ of soils settle
out of suspension separately and independently.

l
Fig. 2.2.9 : Ter28gbi casagrande concept of honeycomb
This settlement of particles is due to the gravitational forces structure

a
acting on the particles. The specific swface of all particles is 2.2.12 Flocculent Structure
comparatively less 'and hence the effective surface forces are

ev
This type of structure is observed in clays with fine particles.
negligible.
When there is edge .contact between the clay platelets such
These sud'ace forces are neglected for aU practical purpose in
structure occurs.
case of coarse grained soils.
The basic reason for the formation of this type of structure is
(Diameter> 0.02 mrn).

2.2.11 Honeycomb Structure

nR the electrical forces between adjacent soil particles at the time
of deposition being attraction forces.

The tendency of flocculation can be increased when there is

I This type of structure is observecl .in silts i.e. soil particles concentration of dissolved minerals in the water.
I - - bavingd.iamet.er between 0.0002 mm to 0.02 mm.
2.2.13 Dispersed Structure
U
Both, gravitational forces and surface forces play an
important role in case of such soils. Clays with tine particles are also seen in the form of

I
dispersed structures when there is face to face contact
The soil grains settle due to gravitational forces and the
between more or Jess parallel army.
surface forces at contact areas, are large enough as compared
m

to the submerged weight to prevent the grains from The fonnation of dispersed or oriented structure takes place

immediate rolling. when the net electrical forces between adjacent soil particles
at the time of deposition are repulsion.
The grains in contact are held together until miniature arches
Sa

are formed These arches are joi~ed over relatively large void
spacing which is termed as honeycomb structure.

Comparatively large amount of water is enclosed within the

voids. This structure has high void ratio.

Fig. 2.2.10 : Flocculated structure

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Saln.~

~g.lll l : Dispersed structure Plot the flow curve and find the liquid limit and the flow

Soln.: (2)
The clays having flocculent structure are subjected to heavy
From Fig. P. 2.3.2, the liquid limit w, = 65.6%. Fig. P.
load, the clay particles are subjected to bending, slipping
is the flow curve. Flow index: lp = W10 - WJOO> W1o "'
along contact surfaces, producing denser arrangement finally
w 100 =40%. The curve is extrapolated on both sides to get W 10 (3)

l
resulting in dispersed or oriented structure.
Wtoo·

a
Thus, n:molcling. compacting and consolidation tend to orient . . lp = (83-40)=43%
particles to form dispersed arrangement
'\

ev
1\.
2.2.14 Compos ite Soil Structures (4)
\
The two type of structures can be possible in composite soils
depending upon the relative proportions of fine grained
lw
';Ji1.
I
70
65.6
60
r------------ -- r"\
I
~ I
I

~
particles and coarse grained particles.

(a) Coarse grain skeleton.

nR 50
I
I
I
I "1\
I
(b) Cohesive matrix. 40
I
I
I'
In first case. the voids are filled with clay partic!es. Here, '2q
10 20 30 50 100
void means empty space in the single grained structure. The E
U
Number of blows N -
bulky particles form continuous framework. It
Fig. P. 2.3.2: Flow curve
In cohesive matrix, the clay content is more as compared to
Ex. 2.3.3
C<larse particles and hence bulky particles are not capable to
Find the liquid limit by one point method if the water
J
m

have particle to particle contact. at 29 blows is 54.5%.

Soln.:
2.3 Solved Examples
As per Lambe formula.
Ex. 2 .3.1 N O.ll
Sa

In a liquid limit test using penetration device 23.9 mm of w, = w6s)

G.l'l
penetration was recorded corresponding to water content of
w, ; 0.545 (~)
66%. Determine the liquid limit.
So/n.:
= 55.47%
W1 wx + O.oi (25- x) (wx + 15)
Ex. 2.3.4
= 66 + 0.01 (25 - 23.9) (66 + 15)
Determine flow index, liquidity index and consistency
"" 66.9% .•. Ans. given W1 = 65%, WP= 38%, Wn = 45% and number of
48 atW = 31 %.
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. . ..··. I . 2·14 PlaaUc Characterlallca of Soli

. '
l
SOin.: Soln.:

El
I
(1) Flow index, I, '" JogN2 -JogN1 (I) w. -
I
0.65-0.38 (6().66-48.321-1 ><(43.50-211.30) 100
.
• log 32 -Jog 2S • l.586 ... Ana. "' 48.32 X

(As liquid limit is for N' = 25) .. 8.7% ... Au.

low lndeJC.
(2) Toughness iodCJt, I, =
.!:!
r, -
w, - wp 0.6~ - 0.38
~ = l.S86 (2) Wben 0 "' 2.68, p4
M?Pw I 48.32 1
ig. P. 2.3,2
0.17 •••Ans. v4 -o•29.3Q-m
10 = 83%, I 1
et W 10 and (3) Liquidity index, I1 =
W"- W,
I, = 00.45 - 0.38
, _ _
65 0 38
.. w. = 1.649-2.68=21.% ... ADa.

0.07
Ex. 2.3.7
017

l
••• ADS. On oven drying of 35 gm of saturated son having volume of
0.2593 ... ADs.

a
21cc, mass reduced to 22.5 gm and volume reduced to
w, - w. 0.65 - 0.45 10CC. Determine shrinkage limit, SpOOiflc gravity, void ratio
(4) Consistency index, r.
~ 0.27
and shrinkage ratio.

ev
0.74 ...ADs. Soln.:
z, w,- w, =0.65- o.~o +' + + + +
12.6

0.27 ••• ADs.

.! . Alternatively, 11 + I,

J. =
..
I -0.26

0.74
nR Fig. P. 2.3.7
•••ADs.

0 Mass of water in soil = 35-22.5 = 12.5 gm

-/ Ex.2.3.5
If tor a soil % ffner passing 0.002 mm is 95% and W1 = 700/o .. Volume occupied by water = 12.5 cc
I WP = 24%, find activity number.
U
.. Volume occupied by solids = 21 - 12.5 =8.5 cc
Soln.:
w = Initial water content
ontent
Activity number, A = % fines < 0.002 mm
35- 22:5'
= 22.5
0.70-0.24
= 0.95 = ~;=55.55%
m

= 0.·48 ...Ans. Sr'e = w·G

Ex.2.3.6 s, =
A shrinkage limit test gave the following observations.
Sa

w = 0.5555
Detennlne the shrinkage limit.
Volume of dry pat = 29.30 ml e = 0.5555 G
~o_ns.

M~~ of dry pat = 48.32 gm From figure, . G = .!L.= W,N,

'Yw 'Yw
lnitial~volume (w!:lt) = 43.50 ml 22.5/8.5
lex, Initial mass (wet) = 66.66 gm = 1
s is 1 If G =2.68, find the shrinkage limit. = 2.647
1 10 - 8.5 =l.S cc

-
At final stage, V..,
• I
I
1
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M,. • v..Pw .. t.s s v,
w, • .!!!.. v.
I •.S 100 .. Vol. of water
M4 •22.s><
I I •.• Ans. ,. (23- V,)

0 -
0.5555 X 0 =0.5.5.5.5 X 2.647 ... w, = v,x2.73
"' 1.47 ... Ans. wt·nwaterV•
Liquid llmit = 0.45 = w1
v,-v,)
( V
a
X 100 23- v,
S.R. "' =v, x2.73

( ¥) x100 :. v. + o.45 v,x2.73 =23

= .55.55-6.66 23 =~= 10.32(;(;
;, V, '" (1 + 0.45 X 2.73) 2.2285

l
(:~) 100
'. · S.R. , = = .2.250 ... Ans. :. v,. 23 - 10.32 = 12.68" or gm

a
~ 48.89

Ex.2.3.8 w, : V 1 X 2.73 = 10.23 X 2.73 = 28.176 gm

ev
Plastic limit, liquid limit and natural water content of a sar(lple 1
Check v..,= w., = 12.68 gm
are 24%, 7g% afld 3j% respectively. If flow Index =0.6, find To1
toughness index, consistency Index and liqui~ily index. w, = 28.176
Soln. : · · ·
~ _Jb.§._45%

I
:. ok
. ...i 0.70-0.24 :. LL w. -28.176-
- . - ~·- = If =

~~ :0.7666
0.6
nR ...Ans.
I
V, is the minimum volume of soil = I0.32 cc

Ex. 2.3.10 . Sol

If ~p= 2?%: lp = ~0, Wrw.tural = 34%, find lc, 1,.

10 ~

= 46 =0.2174 ... Ans.

U
Soln.:
42.
10 36
r., = 1- r,= 1- 46 = 46 =0.7826 ...Ans.

= 0.3 •••Ans.
m

~ = l-11=1-0.3 =0.7 ••• ADs.

w,-w (25 + 30)·- 34
or ~ =
~ 30
Sa

Soln.: 21
30=0.7

t
f
Tw
--------------
---------·----
--------------
--· --·---------
--------------
--------------
--------------
--------------
-------------- 23cm
r 3
Ex. 2.3.11
If w, = 65% WP = 35%, natural water content 45%,
determine flow Index, liquidity index, consistency Index,
=

1
lni
Ys toughness index. Assume number of jerks for determinaUori
1 of liquid limit by Casagrande's method, as 48 when
content was 32%.
I Fit P. 2.3.9
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2-18 Plastic Charactertstlcs of Sol
__!!,_ .ill. 49.06
loin.: O • V;<P. • (II) • 17.4 78 ~I

M6: ~~~~-~i---
-:1.806 ... Au.

I I I
Ex. 2.3.13
If w,. 53%, w, • 30%, classify soli according to plasticity
I :
I I chart.
I I
I 1 sotn.:
~ = 53 -30= 23
Ftr. P. 2.3.11
As pe_r·A-line equation,
lf = 0.65-480.32 -Jog0.33 - 1.165
1.92 - •••ADs.
Iog 25 ~ 0.73 (W1 - 20) =0.073 X 33

I,= WL-Wp=0.6S-0.35=0.3 24.09 > Actual I, of 23

l
w-We 45-35 1 :. Point is below A-line, and liquid limit> 50.
Liquidity index: = I, = """3Q"= j' •••ADS.

a
:. Soil will be classifiP.tlac: MH.
re
.., - ons1slency
· 'dex= 1
l1l t z
-3=3 •••ADs.

ev
Toughness index
2!. 0.3
= If =I;" = 1.165 =0..26
0.3
•••ADs.

35 50
nR Fig. P. 2..3.13

Ex. 2.3.14
Shrinkage limit of clay is 23% and its natural water content Is
32%. Flnd decrease In volume of clay, It moisture rontent of
clay is reduced by 14%. Assume G = 2.65.
U
Soln.:

0 Air _j_t------i
Fig. P. 2.3.12 +++++
+ ++++
I
.09
Reduction in volume. R = 42.5-26.8 = 15.7 cc = 15.7 gm .23gm
+++++ .32 -~......;.......;.__.;.__.;.-t

+++++
m

'II reducdon in water content= 51 to 19 =32%

1 gm
Mw
w = M = o.32
•
.&
Sa

:. M. = 0.32 Fig. P. 2.3.14

15.7 49 06 ...(i) When natural moisture content will reduce from 32% to 23%,
= 0.32 = . gm
it will contain shrinkage limit Any further reduction in moisture
Initial M, in soil sample= 0.51 M, = 0.51 x 49.06 = 25.02 gm content will not cause any reduction in volume. Hence, reduction
:. Volumeofwater(initially) =25.02cc in volume from 32% to 23% is only to be considered i.e.

:. V,::: Volume ofsolids = 42.5-25.02 (32- 23) = 9%. ...Ans.

= 17.478cc ...(ii)

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Soln.:
Pig. P. '2.:l.l 5 Rhows the flow curves for soils A 1111d

From tlud"ig. P. 2.3.1 S,

(w 1)" = 38%
(wJ11 60%

(n) 38-25 = 13

(Jp)o = 60- :10 "'30

Soil B hilS a higher degree of plastlcity. Soils with Ip:> 17
highly plnstic nnd soils with Ir between 7 and 17 are 'mediiiQI
plastic', according to one empirical classification system.
WN-WP 40-25
(b) CIJ... =- 1-p =- 13- =
1.15

l
50-30
(JJ8 =· ~ =0.67

a
Soils A with lL> I is in the liquid slate of consistency and
will, therefore, 'flow' like a viscous slurry upon remoulding.

ev
Soil B with IL =0.67 is in the plastic state and will be a betlet
foundation material upon remoulding.
Soil with wL = 60% is more compressible than soil A with
wL =38%. Compressibility is a direct function of the liquid

60
wL(B)
nR (d)
limit
From Fig. P. 2.3.15, Flow index, I, of soil A = 42.0 - 32.0
= 10 (considering water contents at 10 and 100 blows)~ for
soil B = 62.6 - 55.5 = 7.1. Since (11),..> <Ir>s• soil A
at:
f8 greater loss of shear strength with increase in water content
U
(e) Toughness index,
3
3 ~ 13
I, for soil = I, =10 =1.3

I
A
40
wL(,AJ
~ 30
11 for soil B = Ir =7.1 =4.22
m

Soil B has a higher shear strength at plastic limit since a soU

10
Number of blows
25 100
with higher toughness index possesses higher shear strength
s
at plastic limit
Sa

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2·18 Plastlcl Characterist ic$ of Soli

~-
Sofn. :

a l
td

ev
nR
Flg. P. 2.3.16
U
Ex. 2.3.18 MU - Dec. 13, 7 Marks
The liquid limit of clayey soil is 56% and plasticity l~dex Is
15%. .:; . ; '
(i) In what state of consistency this material at the·waten
content cif 45%.
m

(ii) What is the plastic limit of soli. . · .

:::; 25%,
(ill) Th~ void ratio: of this soil If ~Et-~inl1nu~ ~;g,l,iroe1
COp
reached on shrinkage is 0.88. What is the shrinkage 1
=.2.71. I
(.1)
= 34 Hmit,if_itsG w_
Sa

Soln. :
Ip = 30
wt. = 56%, Ip= 15 %, w = 45 %
~ = Ip+ Wp= 25 + 30= 55 w, - (I) 56-45
(.1)- C»p (i) Ic = 15-=0.73
Ip = - ...Ans.
IL. = Ip
34-25 Soil is in plastic state and has medium stiff consistency.
= 3 ( )=0.3 , ..Ans.
(ii) Wp = ~- Ip =56 - 15 = 41 % ••• Ans.

Ic = I -I~.. = I - 0.3 =0.7 ...Ans.

(iii) e = 0.88, G = 2.71, W,= 7

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-- - - .. - .! .
- - - •. ...
ql\~ -..: ," j~
. •~<ii; _... .. • - --
jj1' ,.. ~- ~t
.' ii\..' " ••
' -. ~If!"
•
- ~- ·.: - -;. ·P-1 - ~ ·~}~11:.:11..~ _t.U.
• Jl• ~
<!
·-
s :- .! .!J _-= -. ••.
.::· jt (, .!
, _ !\71' '; ..~· ~ ~ ----~ \ , :~~- -=-~- -;_-;..: , 1::. ~ i 1: -i=- , -~-~ ~A.~--:_ ,
' ' • • : ' • P. ' ; • ~~ • ' • i -.• ' ' . ' • ; .~--·.- !'-~' I _: ': ~
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2·19

~ 2.71 x 1 .. 1 +4 g/ce
1 + c .. 1 + 0.88 .
""' I
w, - Pt- o· rnI -m1

Sol n.;

M1 29.8 gm

V1 = 17.7 cm3

l
Md = 19g m

a
vd = 8.9cm.3
m., = m 1 -m, = 29.8 - 19 =10.8g

ev
V.., volu me occupied by wate r 3
2 10.8 cm
V3 • vol occupied by soilds = 17.7 - 10.8 2 6.9 cm3
m., 10.8
w1 a Ill,t =J 9X 100 = 56.849&

0 = ..& = m_/v,= 19i 6.9

P., P..
nR = 2 .75
U
(a) We t soil pat ••
(b) Dry soil pat
Fig. P. 2.3. 19
s.9 -6.9 =2c m
m

Ood ry.mg, v,. = 3

m., 2
Shrinkage limit, w, = 11\1 =J9X 100 = 10.53
(
SR = _& :: m4/ v4= 19~8.9
Sa

= 2.13
P.., Pw (
(
VS = SR( w1 - w.) x 100 .

=98.64 (

In a liquid limit test specimen of a cert E

ain sample of clay at water content
s of 31.93, 27.62, 25.21 and 23.30%
23, and 42 blows respectively to clos required 5, J
e the standard groove. The plastic
limit of the clay Is 13 %. Natural wat
Determine the liquid limit, plasticity er content Is n
index, liquidity index, consistency
index, flow Index and toughness II
index of the soil.
(I

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2·20 PlaaHc Charaetar1atles of Son
sorn.:

l p •GI, -ep • 025-0.13 • 0.12

1t ·- ,p-·
m-op 0.18 - 0.13
0.12 •0.~2
•c •1- Jl• 1 -0..c!•0.58
a,-o2 0.3183-0.233
,,. - - • = 0.093
k)g ( : : ) log(~)

a l
ev
10
nR
0

F1g. P. 2.3.20
U
Soln.:
2.4 Solved Examples from GATE
w-w
Examination Uquidity index, It. = 2
w~.-wP

Ex.2.4.1 Here, ~= 0.5, wP= 0.25,

m

A dispersed structure is formed in clay when

(a) Net electrical forces between adjacent soli particles at
w ..
0.4
'
the time of deposition are repulsive :. 0.5 =
0.4 - 0.25 rr
WL -0.25
(b) There is concentration of dissolved minerals in water.
Sa

(c) Platelets have face to face contact In more or tess ~ WL = 0.55 X 100;;; 55%
parallel arrays
(d) All of these Ex. 2.4.3
Soln.: (d) While computing the values of limits of consistency and •
consistency indices, it is found that liquidity index has a
Ex.2A.2 negative value because
An undisturbed soil sample has a plastic limit 25%, a natural (a) liquidity index cannot have a negative value and should
moisture content of 40% and a liquidity Index of 50%. Its be taken aszero. r
fiquid limit Is (b) liquidity index can have a negative value.
(a) 50% (b) 55% (c) 65% (d) 75%

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~'11_._,.. ~ -~\fi"'MVIW:eft'tf:

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2·21

(c) the soil tested Is In medium soft state. Soln. : iJ:eeotec

w, - wa - 65- 25 =40
(d) all of these
Soln.: (b) log,o (~
N)- log,o (100)
to
Ex.2.4.4 Plasticity indelt _..!£ _2Q =0.5 3. Th•
A soil sample has been found to have moisture content of Toughness Index = Flow index - Ip - 40 lin•
40% and liquid limit 60% plastic limit of 30%. It can be said re!
to possessive Ex. 2.4.8 (a
(a) stlff consistency Two soil sample have the following limits
Ane.: {b).
(b) medium consistency Soli A Soli B
(c) very soft consistency P.l. 40 = P. L. =30 4. B
(d) soft consistency L. L .. 70 L.L.=80 a
Soln.: Then a

l
(a) Soil A is less plastic than soil B c
Consistency, Ic =

a
(b) Soil A is more plastic than soil B (
(c) Soil A is Jess oompre~ible than soil B AM.: (b
Here, w 40%
(d) None of these

ev
Explanat
WL : 60% Soln.:
w, = 30% Plasticity index of two samples A and B

... Ic = r:=~~J = n~J =0.33

IpA 70-40 30 = Fo[
Ipa 80-30=50
Since Ic< l, soil is very stiff Nol

Ex.2.4.5
nR Since lp > lpA; &Q B Is more plast.lc than A.

The laboratory tests on a sample following results :

Plasticity index : 32 %,
Liquidity index : - o.15, The liquid limit and plastic limit of sample are 65%
Activity number : 1.58. and 29% respectively. The percentage of the soi\
U
Which of the following Inference drawn ?
fraction with grain size finer than 0.002 mm is 24.
(a) The soil is very stiff
The activity ratio of the soil sample Is .... . (lES 1995)
(b) The soil is highly plastic
WQW ~,~ ~,~ ~2m
(c) The soil is active
(d) All of these Explanation :
m

Soln·. : (d)
Given, I, = L.L.- P.L. =65-29 =36
Ex. 2.4.6
% finer than 2 micron = 24
If a soil sample has a shrinkage limit of 15% ad specific
Plasticity Index Qp )
Sa

gravity of soil solids 2.5, then porosity of the soil at shrinkage :. Activity Ratio, Ac = % finer than 2 micron
limit will be
(a) 27% (b) 36% (c) 20% (d) 18% = i! = 1.5 micron Cc
Soln.: (a)
2. A sample of soil has the following ·properties :
Ex.2A.7 Liquid Limit =45%, Plastic Umit = 25%, ~lu11nkAilll
The liquid limit and plastic limit of a soil sample is 45% and Limit = 17%, Natural Moisture Content =30%.
25%. In the liquid limit test of the soil sample its water
consistency index of the soil is .......
oontent varied from 5% to 25% when number of blows
increased from f 0 to f 00. The toughness index of the soil is (a) 15/20 (b) 13/20

(a) 2(b) 0.5 (c) 0.75 (d) 1.0 (c) 8/20 (d) 5/20
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Ans.: (a)

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Plastlct Characteristics of Soli

Ana.: (.c)
BxplanaUon : Consistency of soil refers to the tesis1ance offe.red
The plasticity lndax and lha parcenlege of grain size by it against forces that tend to defonn or JUpture the soil
,. finer than 2 microns of a clay sample are 25 and 15,

-
aggregate. It is related to strength.
r&spectively. Its activity ratio Is ........ (IES 2001)
7. While computing the values of limits of consistency
(a) 2.5 (b) 1.67 (c) 1.0 (d) 0.6 Indices, It Is found that liquidity Index has a negative
Ans. : (b). Refer Q . No. 1 for Explanation. value. (IES 2003)
Consider the following comments on this value :
4. Based on grain distribulion analysis. the 0 10, 0 30
and 0 60 values of a given soil are 0 .23 mm, 0 .3 mm (1) Liquidity index cannot have' a negative value

and 0.41 mm respectively. As per IS oode, the soil and should be taken as zero.

l
classification will be ........... (IES 2001) {2) Liquidity Index can have a negative value.
(a) SW (b) SP (c) SM (d) SC (3) The soil tested is In semisolid stale and stiff.

a
Arrs"'J : (b) (4) The soil tested Is In medhJm soft state.
060 0.41
~lion: C, D 10 =0.23 =1.78 Which of these statements are correct ?

ev
fiV
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3
(D30l 0.3 X 0.3
0 95
Dw 0 10 = 0.23 X 0.41 = · (c) 2 and 4 (d) 2 and 3
For SW, C0> 6, c. = 1 to3 Ana.: (d)

~ot meeting the requirements. Hence SP. 8. In comparison to Atterberg limits of normal soils, the
expansive soils have which of the following 7
5. Lis~ l and II contain respectively terms and
expressions related to soil classifications. Match the
nR (1)

(2)
M~re liquid limit

Less plastic limit

two lists and select the correct answer using the
codes given below. (IES 1992) (3) Less shrinkage limit

I
i5o/o
(4) More volumetric shrinkage (IES2008)
soil
24. Select the correct answer using the codes given
U
5) below:
I
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
1 , Plasticity index
(21 %finer than 2 microns (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only

II A n s. : (a)
m

. • . ( ) Natural moisture oontent - Plastic limit 9. Consider the following statements : '(IES 200~)
{C) Sens~Mty 3 Plasticity index
On addition of lime to swelling soils,
Unoonfined compressive strength of undislllrbed soil sample
(4) unoonfined comp~essil'e slrength Of remoulded sdl satlllle (1) their liquid limit increases.
Sa

(2) their plastic limit increases.

Codes (a) A B c (c) A B c
(3) their shrinkage limit increases.
1 3 4 1 2 3
(b) A 8 c (d) A B c (4) their swelling potential decreases.

3 2 2 3 4 Wh ich of the statements given above are correct?

Ans,: (d) (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
6. Consistency as applied to cohesive soils is an (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
indicator of its ..... (IES 2003) Ans.: (c)

(a) density (b) moisture content

(c) shear strength (d) porosity

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J MU-S" Sem.-Civfl 2-23
(I) The liquid nmlt
·10. A soil sample has void ratio of 0.5, while In dry state.
Assuming specific gravity as 2.7, find Ita shrinkage (II) The floW Index.
limit (IES f G06) The sample of clay soli has a water ~
(e) 12.8%
4. 01
(b) 13% (c) 12.5% (d) 13.5% per cent at full saturation. Its shrinkage ~ '-
Ana.: (d)
per cent Assuming G = 2.70, dete~
.Explan.adoo: Shrinlcage UmiL shrinkage ratio. comment on the quality Of e,.
W _ ~ _ 0.5 X I 00 _ IJ S"'-
• - 0 - 2.70 . .,., A sample of clay soil has a liquid limit of 62% ~
5.
plasticity Index Is 32 per cent. What Ia the ..._
11. A clay sample has a void ratio 0.54 In dry state. The
the consistency of the soil If the soil In 118
specific gravity of soli solids is 2.7. What Is the
state has a water content of 34%. (Ana. : lc .. 0
shrinkage limit of the soli ? (IES 20Cl!l)
A soli with a liquidity index of 0.20 has a liquid

l
(a) 8.5 % (b) 1o.o % (c) 17.0 % (d) 20.0 % 6.
An•.: (d) 56 per cent and a plasticity Index of 20 per

a
What Is its natural water content and cona
--y
......_~,
.w. - 0
c 0.S4
=2:7=0.2= 20<l> index? (Ana.: 40%,10 ao

ev
1. A sample of soil With a liquid limit of 72.8 per
was found to have a liquidity index of 1.21 and
1. What do you understand by the term 'consistency' of content of 81 .3 per cent. What are its plasllc
a soli ? How do you express the consistency of a and plasticity Index ? In what region would the

2.
soli ? Dlscu$5.
nR
Explain and discuss the use of plasticlty Index to
be located on the plasticity chart ?
=
(Ana. :WP 31 .90, IP 4.=
understand the nature of a soil. 8. In a shrinkage limit test, a 9.6 c:c: content was
3. with soil slurry. The weight of the saturated soil
Uquld limit test on a sample of clay was carried. The
data obtained as below ; 7.46 g. The slurry was then gradually dried flrst 1
U
atmosphere and then · in an over at a cons
2 3 4 temperature of 110°C. The weight and the volume
64 47 44 drfed soil were 1.58 g and 5.22 c:c: res.pecUWif
8 30 45 Detennlne the shrinkage limit of
(Ana. : 121 .
m

Draw the flow curve on a semi-log paper and

determine the following :

Chapter
Sa

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I
•

Classification of Solis

l
SyllabUS :

a
I) Necessity of soil classification, Indian standard particle size classification, Indian standard soil classification system
as per IS: 1496, boundary classification.

ev
U) Mechanical sieve analysis: wet & dry slave analysis, combined sieve & sedimentation analysis, Stokes's law,
hydrometer method of analysis, relation between percent finer and hydrometer reading. Umitetion of sedimentation
analysis, particle size distribution curve I gradation curve and Its uses.
ii) Relative Density. nR
3.1 Soli Identification and At that time, these were proposed for agricultural purpose but
crassificatlon
were later accepted in soil engineering.
+
_.
(MU · June 11, Dec. 11) U.S. Bwuu of Public Roads developed a classification
U
irn<\nrts:orv~ of 9911 classification ?
_.. system of soil which was based practically on Atte!berg
limits and other simple tests.
of soDs.
Gradually, several classification systems were developed by
A soil classification system is meant essentially to facilitate different organizations/countries. Casagrande, (1948)
m

communication between different groups of engineers, widely

describes the several systems developed and used in highway
separated and may lbus be considered a language of
engineering, airfield construction etc.
communication.
The two classification systems which are adopted by the U.S.
Sa

However, lbe use of classification system does not eliminate

enginuring agencies and state departments are the Unified
the need for detailed soil investigations and testing for
Soil Classification System (USCS) and American Association
enginuring pUipOse.
of State Highway and Transport Officials (AASHTO} system.
Various classification systems are prevalent in different
organizations/ counties. Most class ificat.JOn systems used in Other countries have adopted the uses with minor
civil engineering practices owe their origin to agricultural soil modifications.
science and thus are based on grain size or texture.
For general engineering purposes, soils may be classified by
Attecberg (1905) was the first to suggest properties other than the following systems :
grain size which can be used for classification. In 1911• he

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proposed the limits of consistency for fine grained soils.

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 https://cee-book.blogspot.com/ Classifica tion of ~

w Geotechnical Engineerin g· I (MU·Stn Sem

.·Civll) 3-2
As properties of clay soils are less dependen
......
t on particle ~~
ble for coazse
Claaslftca llon of Solie distribution. this class ification is more suita
grnlned soils.
1. Particle Size Classification

2. Textu ral Classification

3. ·Unified Soil Classlllcallon and

Indian Standard Classification

Fig. C3.1 : CIIIS.\irJCation of Soils

3.1.1

a l
to the grain size.
In this system, soils are arranged according

ev
are used to indicate
Tenns. such as gravel, sand, silt and clay Fig. J.l .l: Tria ngul ar textu ral classifica
tion char t
grain sizes. nts fann ing a soil,
For given percentage of the three constitue
particle size, and
1llese terms are used only as designation of lines are drawn parallel to the three sides
of the equilateral
soil types. It is
do oot signify lbe naturolly occurring triangle as shown by arrows in the l<ey
as shown in the
preferable to use the word 'silt size' and
simply silt or clay in this system.
nR
'clay size' in place
Fig. 3.1.2.

For exampl~ if a soil consists of 35%

sand, 35% silt and 3CR.
classifications :
Following are tbe most widely used grain size lines so drawn intersect at the point
clay sizes, then the three
Hence a soil Will
§ [PJ situated in the sector designed as ' C lay·.
0

1 I be termed as clay.
U
Fine / Medium Coarse Fine Coarse ..
21 ~
Clay
{Size)
SiN
(Size)
'8
u i 3.1.3 Unified Soi l Cla ssifica tion and Indian
Gravel

,
Standard Cla ssif ica tion
Sand

on the airiield
Fig. 3.1.1 : Indian Stan dard classification The Unified Classification is base d
m

A. Casagrande.
classification system that was developed by
3.1.2 Textural Classification
and plasticity
The system is based on both, grain size
cable to any use.
properties of the soil, and is therefore, appli
Sa

Bureau of Indian
The Indian Standard lnstitution (now
m in 1954.
U.S. Public Roads Standards) adopted the unified classified syste
Classification has been developed by
is generally i3
Administration . The soil classification system IS 1498 : 1970
m, except for so~
confonnity with U.S. classification syste
minor modifications .
Standards on ~
Hence, the salient features of Indian
sand, silt and classification of soils are described below
:
The classification is based on the percentage of
clay sizes malcing up the soil.
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.....
oils

si:ze Un ified Soli Claaalflcatlon l n d Cl888111callon o l Soils

Standard craaalflcauon 1ndlan
Th~ symbols arc used In comblnotlon and designate the
(I) Coarse gralnect soils type of coarse gmln!!d !lOlls. Por example, oc mwns clayey
grnvels.
(li) Fine grained soils

(iii) Highly organic soils o-~ oth

- mlsce.~ane~s s~il matelialser ~nrc further diVided Into three sub-<liviaion.1.
(a) lnorganlc silt and very fine sands (M).
F1i• C3.2 ; Unified Soil Classification and 1 dl
n an Standard (b) Inorganic clny (C).
Clusslncation
(c) Organic silt and clays (0).
rr ClaSSificatio n

l
The nne grained soils are further divided into the following
system. soils are broadly di 'ded .

a
According to this groups on the basis of liquid limit, which is a good index of
VI IntO three
divisions : compressibility.

ev
.f (i) Coarse grained soils (i) Silts and clays of low compres;ibility. having a liquid
limit less than 35% (L).
1n these soils,
· more than half the total maten'al bY mass 1s
·
larger than 75 micron IS sieve size. (ii) Silts and clays of medium compressibility having a
liquid limit greater than 35 and less than 50% (I).
-+ (il) Fine grained soils

In these soils, more than half the total mass of material is

smaller than 15 micron IS sieve size.
nR (ili) Silts and clays of high compressibility having a liquid
limit greater than 50 % (H).

Combination of these symbols indicate the type.~ of fine

.f (ill) Highly organic. soils and other miscellaneous soU grained soil. For example, ML means inorganic silt wilb low
materials to medium compressibility.
U
These soils contain large percentages of fibrous organic Laboratory classification of fine grained soil is done with the
matter such as peat, and the particles of decomposed help of plasticity chart shown in Fig. 3.1.3.
vegetation. In addition, certain soils containing shells,
C1r Plasticity chart
concretions, cinders and other non-soil material in sufficient
quantities are also grouped in this division.
m

I. Coarse grained soils

These are further divided into two sub-divisions:

(a) Gravels (G) : Jn these soils, more than half the coarse
Sa

A Casagrande devised a chart useful for identifying and

fraction(+ 75 J.l.) is larger than 4.75 mm IS sieve size. classifying fine grained soils.
(b) Sand {S) :-In these soi ls, more than half the come The basis of classification is the relationship between liquid
friction(+ 75JJ,) is smaller than 4.75 mm IS sieve size. limit (JVJ and the plasticity indelt (I~. A line called 'A -line'
Each of the above sub-divisions are further sub-divided into is drawn diagonally across the chart.

four groups : The area above the A-line represents inorganic clay and that
below A-line represents silt and organic soils. The equation
{i) Well graded, clean (W).
of A-line is
(ii) Well graded with excellent clay binder (C).
IP = 0.73 CN1- 20)
(iii) Poorly graded, fairly clean (P).

(iv) Not covered in other groups (M). https://cee-book.blogspot.com/

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Classification of ~
m- 111
Geotechnical Enplneering· I (MU.S https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
Sam.·Civll)
Pr~ ure or Soli classll lcatJo n
Table 3.1.1 : Pll,yslcal dJifef tncet betWMn 31Uld aod
clay

(, Fino perc•htft~Je ( P,) r·

.)
LesR than 5 %. clenn gravel or clean sand, (0-~S.
LArgo: 1.00 to Minute, lesA
(n}
O.OS mm, mostJy thnn 0.00~
distinguishable nun, not ooto :\ .....
by cyo. visible to tho (b) More than so % • slltc; or clays • (C, M-, ?"> ; GO
nnkod eye.
T02 .....
1\ppeamncc of Bulky nnd rig.ld Flexible
2. (c) Fines lcs$ thun 50% more th011 12% ·GO TO 2
panicles
Scllly -likc (d) Fines between 5% and 12% : GO TO 2 OiJd 3.
3. Particle shnpo Angularnnd
rounded Double symbols, OW-OM, SP-SG etc.
4. Texture Coarse Fine
z. · PlastJclty chnrt • (Wp 1.) :

l
5. Unifom1ity Unifo nn Less unifonn
Plot below A-line (M and 0) - GO TO 4, ~ .....·

a
Small, or . (a)
6. Internal friction High tt' l-;"' .. ·"*.
negligible (b) Plot ;~bove A-line, (C)· GO TO 4 .....
<p TO

ev
7. Siz.e of pores Large Very minute (c) , Poe gravels and sands with iwes, (G.:, 5H
-

Volume of voids Relatively small, Very high, as 6:..... ~

8.
about 50% at a high as approx
maximum of the 98% of the
• •• <-- ' M-·;
total volume. total volume.
For gravel c.; more than 4, · (C., - 1
9. Void ratio Low
Small
High
nR
Large
,,
(a)
' (olherwise)'OP
.
...
:. ~).~
<>to

..
10. Specific surface '• (b) For sand C~ more than 6. (C, ~~ 1

Non-plastic Plastic
I I. Plasticity (othe rwise )- ~p
Negligible Significantly
12. Cobe~~ion
high Liquid limit (W 1) :
U
13. Sulface Low Immense
surface tension
forces

14. Capillarity Not appreciable Very high

m

15. Capillary pressure Low Great

16. Shrinkage upon Negligible Very high

d!ying
Sa

17. Swelling None Considerable

18. Expansion Practically none Most

expansive

19. Compressibility Slight Very

compressible

20 Compression Immediate Slow

when load applied

to swface

21. Elasticity Low High

22. Permeability High degree. https://cee-book.blogspot.com/

Low degree,
drains readily drains slowly

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 https://cee-book.blogspot.com/ Classification ot Soils
- - - (SIZe Gradation Analysis)
~ ~leves are liTlllgcd one over lhe other, with decreulng
llt.e from the top to lhe bottom.
1'bc perticle size analysis is JmoWTt
A lid or cover 15 plnced a.t 1M top of lar~t sieve. A =iva
as mechlllical
erp~ qua.odtatively the Pt'Opolfio Dnlli}'Sis. It
ns, by weight f known 1111 pan, which hau no opening. Is placed 111 the bottom
sUes of partielc.t pn:.sent in a soil. o Various
or the smallest aleve.
It is rep~ted graphically on a na...: .
r-vC1C SUO distrib • -+ (II) Dey lllne A.11alyals
c;arve. Tbe mec:haniccl analysis Is don • Ution
e tn two stages.
The soil sample is Ulken in suitable qWilltity. The target the
Stages or
Mechanl eal Analyal s Pnrtiele sir.c, the more Is the quantity of soil required.

The soil should be oven dry. It should be pulveriud. It sbould

not contain any lump. If it contains organic matten, it can be
used ns air dry, instead of oven dry.
(a) DIY sieve Analysis

l
The sample is sieved through the set of sieves arranged in
(b) Wet sieve Analysis descending order of their sieves.

a
The portion retained on 4.75 mm sieve is gravel fraction. The
2. Sedimentation Analysis
portion passed through 4.75 mm and retained on 75 micron

ev
sieve is sand fraction.
Fig. C3.4 : Staaes of MechanJcal Analysis
These fractions are expressed by weight of original sample to
Sieve aoalysis is meant for coarse--grained soils (particle size
give gravel content and sand content in p~:roentage.
greater than 75 micron).
The weight of the soil portion retainecl on each sieve and pan
Sedimentation is meant for fine grained soils (particle size
sma!Jec than 75 micron). Sedimentation analysis is also
nR is obtained to the nearest 0.1 gm.. Tb~ weight of the retained
soil is checked against the original weight.
known as wet m ecbanicalllllalysis.
Dry sieve analysis is suitable for cobesionless soils, with little
Particle size s maller than 0.2 micron cannot be determined by or no fine particles. If sand is sieved in wet conditions, the

tbe sedimentation method. These can be determined by an surface tension may cause erroneous results.

electron microscope or by X-ray diffraction techniques. Table 3.2.1 : Table of Observations-Sieve Analysis
U
Total mass of sample = 1000 gm (oven dried)
3.2.1 Sieve Analysis

The soil is sieved through a set of sieves. Sieves are made up

of spun brass and phosphor bronze or stainless steel sieve
m

cloth. According to IS : 149-1970, the sieves are designed by

10 80 8.0 8.0 92.0
lhe size of square opening, in millimeters or microns.
4.75 11 3 11.'3 19.'3 80.7
The coarse grained soils can be further subdivided into gravel
Sa

2.36 152 15.2 34.5 65.5

fraction (particle size greater than 4.75 mm) and sand fraction
1.18 115 ll.5 46.0 54.0
(particle size greater than 75 micron but Jess than 4.75 mm).
0.60 ll6 11.6 51.6 42.4
For gravels, the set of sieves used is 80 mm. 40 mm. 20 mm. 202 20.2 77.8 22.2
0.30
10 mm and 4.75 mm. For sands, the set of sieves used is 2.36 92.2 7.8
0.15 144 14.4
mm. 2 mm. 1.? rom, t.IS mm 600 f..l, 300 IL. 150 J.l and 75 J.L. 4.8 97.0 3.0
0.075 048
However, all the sieves may not be required for a particular Passing
soil The selection of required number of sieves is done to 30 3.0 100.00 0.0
O.D75
obtain good particle size distribution curve.

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~ Classification of Soill
~ Geotechnical Engineering- 1(MU-5~~> Sem ...Clvll) 9-8 _ . . ...,.
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Tile moterial teUlined on cad\ sieve IS weighed. dried and
1be results of the mechanical analysis are plotted to get n
onlllyzed 05
Illustrated in the table of observations, above as
particle disaibution curve. with % finer (N) as ordinate and
in case of dry sieve anlllysis.
the particle size diameter as the abscissa.
3.2.2 Sedimentation Analysis

The particles of soil finer than 75 micron cannot be sieved.

. 1e s:~a
The pa.rt.Jc ......, distribution of such soils is determined by
sedimentation analysis which is based upon Stolte' s law.

Pipette method and hydrometer method are the two

sedimentation methods in use.

l
r:r Stoke's law
\

a
\

ev
Stoke's law states that the tetminal velocity of settling of
spherical particle in suspension, varies with square ·of the
Fig. 3.2.1 : Arrangement of sieves
diameter of the sphere, density and viscosity of the fluid and
. . (b) Wet sieve Analysis
the density of the sphere, i.e.
nR velocity, v =
g (p.- P.,)
l81'\ ·D
2 (G- 1) · Pw · g · D
= 181'\
l
...(3.2.1)
11'(

Jfthe soil contains substantial quantity (about more than 5%)

of fine particles, a wet sieve analysis is done.
Shift or D = [ T Hld
(G - 1) P., .
... (3.2.2)
U
All lumps are broken into individual particles. A Where • Pa = G . p., is the density of solid sphere of diameter D
representative sample is taken using riffler and dried in an
oven. Pw• .,.,., = Density and viscosity of fluid respectively
The dried sample is taken in a tray and soaked in the water. If
v = Terminal velocity
m

necessary, deflocculating agents like sodium

hexametaphosphate at the rate 2 gm per litre of water may be = ~ , where H is distance from surface
added.

The sample is stirred and left soaking for period of at least Using G =2.67, Pw =0.9963 g/ml, 1\ = 8.36 x 10-3 poise at
Sa

one hour. temperature T =28°, Equation (4.2.2) can be simplified as :

The slurry is sieved through 4.75 mm sieve. The portion
retained on 4. 75 mm si~ve is gravel fraction. D (in mm) = 0.030 ~
The material passing through 4.75 mm sieve is sieved
Thus, at a given depth H in suspension, the diameter of !be
through a 75 micron sieve.
largest settling size D after time t. can be detennined.
The material is washed until the wash water becomes clear.
The material retained on 75 JL sieve is collected and dried in Also, at a given depth, the suspension contains particles with
an oven.
sizes smaller than D can be determined.
It is tben sieved through the set of sieves of sizes 2.36 mm,
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2 mm, 1.7 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 J.J.. 300 J.l. and 75 J.l..

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:J.2.3 Theory of Sedimentation ClaaaH\callon of Soils
lf tho ao\1 cont.al
M calcium compouoda ~d o~p~~ic: llJllllCn.
J)u.rinJ inldal stAI(e of Gecfimentati
It ahootd bo rc
wrlfonnlY dispersed throughout : · the aoU Jlllrtic:le:r IU'C p lrellt.cd befo~e adding the dlapen:ion aaeota.
· sucpcnsion lf CMJ is the llUISI Or putlelea per ml of auepenaion u dep1b
eoncentrlbon of Particles of difr. and the
. erent sizes is th
c~cpths. c same at all (H) nfter time (t) lllld CM.> II the masa of panicle per ml of
· at the> beginning or Sedimentation. lhe pet' cent
suspCntJon
Aft« oenaJn time, at a Particular de tb finer for the size (D), dcnot.cd by Stolle's law ia given by:
P • only those ·
,emain which have not settled s· Plllticles
· mce all Particles of
have the $AIDe velocity, the Partie!
~st at any level, are in the same
. . sames•ze
es of &1 ven size, if th
.

ey
%N = MXIOO.
Md
.
c:oocentmtion as 3·2.4 Pipette Method
beginning of sedimentation. at the

In short, aiJ particles s maller than a parti 1 . 500 ml of soil suspension is required in this method. AU the

l
cu ar su.e (D) will be
present at depth (H) in the same degree f quantitle.~ required for 1000 ml suspension are hnlved to get a
o concentration as at

a
. .
the llegtnmng. 500 ml suspension.

The suspension is taken in the sedimentation tube. A 10 ml

All particles larger than size (D) would h

ev
ave settled below capacity pipette is used for extraction of sample. The pipette
tha1 depth.
fitted with suction inlet.
rr Preparation of auepenalon for Hdlmentatlon The sedimentation tube is placed in a tonstant temperature
analyala nR bath at 27°C for one hour.
Soil sample passing through 7S ~ is analyzed by this method. The suspension is lhoroughly mixed in the sedimentation
About SO gm of oven-dried soil is weighed accurately and tu~ after taking out of constant tempel"otture bath.
transferred to an evaporating dish. For proper dispersion of After thoroughly milting, the tube is again kept in tbe
soil, about 100 ml of dispersing solution is added to the constant temperature bath.
evaporaclng dish to cover the soil. LS. 2720 - Part N
The instant when the tube is placed in the bath is taken as the
recommends the use of dispemng solution obtained after
U
beginning of the sedimentation.
adding 33 gm of sodium hexmetaphosphate and 7 gm of
sodium carbonate to distilled water to make one litre of The stop watch started to record the time. The constant

solution. temperature bath is kept just below the tip of the pipette.

After adding dispersing solution to soil, the mixture warmed The pipette is gradually lowered into the suspension in the
m

gently for about 10 minutes. sedimentation tube.

Tho material from evaporating dish is transferred to the cup, The samples are taken from a depth of 100 mm below the

of mechanical stirrer. surface.

Sa

The distilled water is added to make the cup about three- The first sample is taken after two minutes of the start of
fourths full. The suspension is stirred for about lO to 15 sedimentation.
minutes. The stirring period may be more for clay soils. More samples are taken after 4 , 8, 15 and 30 minutes, and l ,
The suspension is then washed through 75 J.L sieve using jet of 2. 4, 8, 12 and 24 hours. Exact time at which samples taken is

distilled water. noted.

The part of the suspension which bas passed through the The samples taken are dried in an oven atl00°C to 110°C for
sieve$ is used for sedimentation analysis. The specimen is 24 hours to obtain the mass of solids per mL
1000 ml
taken into the jar and enough water is added to make
of suspension.
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~Geotechnical Engineering- 1(MU-5https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
111 Sem.-Civll} 3· 10
The mus of water l.n tJio botl1e in grams i& equal to 1he,
Calculations : 9L finer and diamelx:r or particle Ia CAlculated u
volume of tbe pipette in (mJ) .
shown below :
. ~ laboratory method for
(Initial uniform SU$pension)
At time t eO :10 ml contains mass (M,s)
0
The pipetlC method ts a very a.:;cu .
the partlcle sir.o distribution. But app~s ~~
.
:te
.
delicate
. It ..,.,..111·.res a VP"' sensitive we~ghjng balance.
a.nd ex pcruu ve. •...., - J
At time t - t 1 at depth R : 10 ml contains~) .,
At time t =12 at deptb H : to ml contains (M,)'1 3.2.5 Hydrometer Method
(M,), The hydrometer method is more convenient for quick particle
Hence. % finer (N 1) =~X 100% • ·msU'UlJlCOt used f....
size distribution . Ahydrometer IS an v•
eM.!), determination of specific gravity of liquids.
(NI) =(~)OX 100% A special type of hydrometer with long neck is used for t.hU

l
purpose. The stem is marked from top to the bottom.
and diameter : Dt = 0.030~

a
At the time of commencement of the sedimentation, tbe

Dl =0.030~. ...etc. specific gravity of suspension is unifonn at all the depths.

ev
When sedimeotation takes place, the larger particles settle
The pipette is calibrated before use. For calibration, the deeper than tile smaller particles. This results in greattt
nozzle of the pipette is immersed in distilled water. specific gravity for lower layers of suspension than that of the
The srop cock (t1) is closed. The three-way stop cock (lz} is upper layers.
opened and water is sucked up into the pipette until it rises in
safety bulb.
nR The hydrometer measures the tpecific gravity of suspension,

The stop cock (lz} is closed and pipette is taken out The stop
cock ('z) is now connected to wash outlet to drain the excess
at a point indicated by the centre of the immersed volume is r
the same as the centre of the bulb. I
Thus, the hydrometer gives the specific gravity of the
water from the safety bulb.
suspension at the centre of the bulb.
The stop cock (tz) is then tume<J to the other way round to
U
discharge th~ water contained in the pipette into a glass 1000 ml suspension is prepared as explained earlier. The
weighing bottle. suspension is taken in a jar. It is stirred properly. The jar is
placed on the table and stop watch is started.

The hydrometer is inserted in the suspension and the lim

m

reading is taken after half minute of the commencement of

the sedimentation.

Next readings are taken after one minute, two minutes, four
Scale
Sa

minutes and six minutes of the sedimentation.

The hydrometer is then removed from the jar and rinsed with
S~dJng. carriage
distiUed water and floated in cylinder containing di.stilkd
water with the dispersing agent to the same concentration as
in the soil suspension.

Further readings are taken after 8, 15, 30 minutes, one b<JO!,

2, 4, 8 and 24 hours.

The time is measured from the beginning of sedimentaliO'I-

For each of these readings, the hydrometer is inserted abO'
Fig. 3.2.2 : Pipette method https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
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---~---------~---~~::::::~_____________jl____~(2~~~s~oc~o~n~~oo~f<~o~re~th~e~rearun~~·~g.~--------------_,.,.

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~
the read' Cluelflcalion o1 SoUa
the cylinder oootllining disliUed mg and floated .
Willet \!lith Ill A C4llbradon chlilt CM be prep.-e<J betwta~ 1bo hydtometer
read!
ofUJDC c:oac:cntnuioa as that of so'l dispei'SJng aaent
•
1 8 11
5peosiou. ng {RJ 1\J\d efrcx:Uvc: deptll (H.).
_ Before USing the h)ldrome~e~-• I' t•s ca!ibru .
As the scdlmcnt.ttlon PrD&fU!Iel. the apeclfie grnvity of the
fbe volume of hydrometer is de . tion is necessary. suspension doc:reases hydrome~er IIOC' deeper and dee{lef
. . tennined either b .
it '" a f11lduated cylinder Partly fill
. ed Wllh Wate
. Ylllllnersing resulting In 1ncreas~ In the effective depth IWd dcctease in•
!be rise to water level. Or by lakin r lllld noting hydromcler reading (Rt).
g the weight of h
fbe volume of hydrometer . Ydromeur.
IS 8pprollimatel
..,.,.~~ assuming that
weight of hydrometer in .,.__.., Y eqtJaJ to thc

s
gravity of hydrometer is unity Thi

The depl11 of any Jayer (A _ B) f,

.
.
the specific
s volume is in (ml)
Ol'lll ihe free surf
·
r p 1---,=_=---IQ

tho depth at which the specifi ace (}>- Q) is

tAI-----~8

l
c gravity is meas
hydrometer. · urcd by the

a
As soon as the hydrometer is insened in .
. . the JBr, the layei'S of
suspenston which are at level (A _ B) nse . to (A, _ B') and

ev
those at level (P - Q) rise to level (P' _ Q') The
effective depth (HJ is · refore, the
Fig. 3.1.3 : Hydrometer method

He = (H+~) -~ +~ ...(3.2.3) 3.2.6 Corrections Applied to the Hydrometer

Reading
where. VH = Volume ofhydrometer.

h .. Height of bulb.
nR Corrections Applied
to the Hydrometer Reading

A = Cross-sectional area of the jar. (l) Meniscus correction

H = Depth from the free surface (P' - Q') to the 01) Temperature correction
U
lowest mark on the stem.
(iii) Dispersing agent correction
Jn above equation. it is assumed that the rise in suspension
(lv) Composite correction
level form (A - B) to (A' - B') at the centre of the bulb is
equal to half the total rise due to the volume of the Fig. C3.5 : Corrections AppUed to tbe Hydrometer Reading
m

hydrometer.
. . (I) Menl.scus correction
Yti\
Thus, H6 = H+ z \h - A)
I (, ... (3.2.4)
~ince the soil suspension is opaque, the hydrometer reading is

The marlcing on the hydrometer stem gives the specific taken at the top of the meniscus.
Sa

gravity of the suspensjon at the center the bulb. Actual reading is to be taken at the bottom of the meniscus.
Since reading increases in downward direction, this
The hydrometer readings are recorded after subtracting unity
correction is positive.
from the value of specific grnvity and multiplying remaining
The meniscus correGtion (Cm) can be found out by imme111ing
quantity by 1000.
the hydrometer in a jar containing clear water and finding the
Thus, specific gravity of 1.018 is represented by a hydro~r
difference between the readings corresponding to the top and
reading eRn> of (1.018 - 1.00) x 1000 = 18, the graduations
bottom of the meniscus.
on the right side of the stem directlY give tbe reading CRJ.

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nf !.he rneniiCUI. 1bc ~~ep~~.,_
. . (II) ntn,.....hl'l't ('>OfUC.kw! Tile tt:AtllnJ' •• (dl!n 11 She top tbc
~"I to obclllned gl~ ~1-.
l:lf 11'18 1\yflmmerer - ·• I• •ound befote ... _ .._
11lo 1\Ydt'Oindel"l ~ IIOOMII)' CAIIbnttto<t et 11• C. If I~ -lte
con«tiOif. 'Ttlc com.,..-
(()........,On ~ I' """ .._.

twnp«11ture l'f the ~~ JUJtpeMI<)ft 1~ not 27• C. 11 temptf!IIIITC of tJ~e ~~ •nd &vety JO minute lniCrvlll. •
oon-ectian (C,) ~ld be- ~llt'\.1 to obi:"'T\1 llydromelet
At hydl'l'lnl(lef hu .,...... calibfllwi 8l l'fC 10 pve lpeclfic
.........
readin(l. the dirfCfCO¢e between the ~
1!f11vifY equal to I 000· , . .
1r lhetc.l1\f'Miture i~ more thM 27• C, me ~"~pe_n!ion the meni8CU8 Md \()()(} II IR lnapdlalie
cann nt the top o r
boromca I!J!h!m' lind the Aetu~l rclldlnjt will oo le.u thAn equal to tho compo~lte correctlon.
OOITOCrod 1'\'.Mlng. IOOO then pul~e sign is given to~
u ruding Is more than •
Hcmce. tetnpcrature correction wi ll oo posith'e. On the olher difference. For ~ample, if the bydi'Qfl'ICU:r reading is 1003,
band. if the tcrnpuatun: is Jess than 27° C. the remJ)Cf'8ture then difference will be(+ 3>·

l
cotToction will be negative. wUI be negative of
1llen the compost' te correction (+ 3)
•

a
... (UJ) Dispersing agent oorrectton beoce (- 3).
U the reading is less than 1()()(), then minus sign is given to
Addition of dispersing agent to soil specimen increases the
the difrerence. For ~ample, if the bydrome1« rcadin g •a

ev
specific gravity of the suspension.
0.995. the difference will be(- 5). Then composite COUCICiiOII
Correction c4 due 10 the dispersing agent ean be determined
will be negative of(- S). hence(+ 5).
by caking the hydrometer reading in clear water and again in
After getting corrected hydrometer reading (R). the
same water after adding the dispersing agent This coi'I'CCtion
percentage finer than (D) given by Stolc.e's law is computed
is always negative.

-t (lv) Composite oorrecdon

nR as,

%N = ( 0~ 1 ) (~)x tOO
Instead of finding the corrections individually. it is
where, G Average specific gravity of &elide.
conve.o ient to find one composile coi'I'CCtion.

The composite correction is algebraic sum of all the

R = Corrected hydrometer reading.
U
corrections. The composite correction (C) can be positive or N = % finer than (D).
negative. W1 = Shrinkage limit

3.2.7 Limitation of Sedimentation Analysis

= Corrected hydromeler reading
m

wbere, R
J\ = Observed hydrometer reading 1. The Stoke's law is applicable when liquid is infinite. The
presence of walls of jar affects the results.
C = Composite correction
Sa

2. In Stoke's law. it bas assumed that only one sphere seais

To find the composite correction (C). an identical cylinder is
and there is no interference from the other spheres. In b
tilled with cUstiJJed water and same quantity of dispersing
sedimentation analysis, ns many particles setti
agents is used as in case of preparation of suspension.
simultaneously, there is some interference.
The temperature of water with and without dispersing agent
3. The sedimentation analysis cannot be used for the particles
in both the cases must be same.
large than 0.2 mm as the turbulent condition invalids ~
The hydrometer is immersed in the cylinder (called as
Stoke's law.
comparison cylinder) containing distilled water and
dispersing agent. 4. Specific gravity of solids differ from particle to particle.
Therefore, use of average value of (G) is likely to in~
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I
I MU-slllsem.-Qvi
' S ]be sedimentation analysis .ts not ·
3-13 Classification o1 SOlis
•
smaller lhan 0.2 micmo becau se Brownl applicable for Pattic1es
. ~&0 knOWing
diameter . D 0o
1 size of a sandy IIIUI\ple. its
place and the particle$ do not settle as "" anS rnovetnents .....
-es OOeffic~ent of J)ermelb'i li IY can be approximately detenniDed
r-r toke's 1a
'Ibis method cannot be used~ W. uslog AUen Hazen formula :
. . .or chancy soils.
The sedimentation analysis iives the • . K = 2
100010 em/sec •
1.
equivalent diameter whiob is 1ess thanParticle stze in ten:ns of
the • where 0 is the effective grain si'l.C in em .
by sieve analysis, since the soil . Particle size atven
. __ , rn. • Particles are For purely gravels (CJ must be zreater than (4) and for
spbericw. \ • ue eqwvalont diamete . not perfectly
. . r IS the diam purely sand (CJ by must be greater than (6).
which falls With the same velocity eter or sphere
as the actual Particle.)
<r Coefficient of curvature (C. )

3.3 Grading of Soli ~e ~eneral shape of the particle size distribution curve is
escnbed by coefficient o[curvature (C.), given by

l
(D.-,,i
(C.) =

a
where, o30 Particle size such that 30 %of the soil is finer

ev
'lbe. results .
of .the mechanical anal ysts th$11 the size.
. are plotted to get a
particle s1ze distribution curve WI
'th "'
. , finer (N) as 1he
For a well graded soil, (CJ lies between 1 to 3. Otherwise, it
.
ordmate and. the particle size diameter as the abscissa, the is poorly graded.
.
d1ameter bemg plotted on a logarithmic scale. 100 r-----------~~----~~~--_,

.
It gives an ideal about the gradation of Sol"I· A curve Situated
towards left top comer represents relative! fi .
nR
Y ne grained soils
and curve sllllnted to the right represents a coarse grained
.
Poorly
araaeo
soil. soli

A soiJ ill snld to be well graded when it has good

representation of particles of all sizes.
U
1 IH,.uton : A soU is 8/lid to be poorly graded if it luu an
§
I1&CU8 of particles of certain sius and ckficiency of other 0 0
, ; , 01' if it ltlJ.8 nwst of the particles of about tM same Sill Sand \ ' GraOJelt · \
,;. in whkh case it is known M uniformly lfNUkd S!Hlnmm
..u.
m

Fl&. 3.3.1 : Particle dlstrlbutlon curve

A flat (S) cuNe represents well graded.
3.3.1 Uses of Particle Size Dlstrlbut\on Curve
cr Uniformity coertfefent (CJ ~ (MU ·Dee. 11, May 13)
Sa

D.Jialllon : TM uni(ormit:l of a soil is expmstd Q. Wrtte a note on uses

~Y by a term known as cHJficient (OJ curve.
Q.
c_ given by
curves.
DflO
(Cu) :;:; D,o 1. It can be used for coarse grained soils.
2. It is used to know the susceptibility of a soil to frost action.
w~ 0 = Particle me such that 60% of tho soil is finer 3. The particle size distribution curve is required for the design
60
than this size. of drainage filtm.
4. The particle size distribution provides an index to the shear
0 = Particle size such that 10% of the soil is finer strength of the soiL Generally, a well graded, compacted sand
10

lh.an this size. has high strength.

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Sometimes (D,o) is called as tbo effective size or effective

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C18&8lflcatlon of ~
.....
\
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5· 3.5
The compressibilily of a soil should alllo be jlldgcd from Its Solved ExampleS -
panicle size difitrlbution curve. A unlfonn soli Is more \
compressible than 11 well gmdod soli. Ex. 3,S.1
The following observatlon9 were taken during a pipet. \
6. The panicle sl:zc distribution curve 15 useful in w ll
analysis for the dete~lnatlon of partlcle size distribution ot ' l
stabiJiz.ation Md for the design orpavement!;.
7. soil sample : re was taken
The coefficient of permeability of n coarse gmined soil (I) Depth below the water at which eamp •
depends to a 'large CJttenl on the size of the particles. An 100mm
approximate value of the coefficient of permeability can be (II) Capacity of pipette =
10 mt
determined from the particle size. (Ill) Mass of sample when dried "' 0· 5 gm

8. (lv) Time of takin g sample = 16 minutes

The particle size distribution curve of a residual soil may
(v) Volume soil suspension In the sedimentation tube = 500
indicate the age of the soil deposit
ml

l
9. The particle size distribution curve may indicate the mode of (vi) Dry weight of soil used In making· suspension ,. 25 gm
deposition of soil. For example, a gap-graded soil indicates Take G = 2.65 and Tl = 11 .00 milllpolse

a
deposition by two different agencies. Determine o/o finer and comment.

ev
3.4 Relative Density Soln. :

D =
~ t

0.30 X 11 X 1.02 X 10 X 10
nR = (2.65 -1) X 16

•••ADs,
= 0.00113 Cll1 = 0.0113 mm
r:r Density Index or Relative density, Rd
%finer, N = ~ xlOO
The density index (Id) for coarse grained soils is defmed as •
Q2.
e.J..I,ii;A - e 10
25 X 100 = 100o/o •••AD&,

100
U
11 Ydmin- 11 Yd
. -1/yd mu.
1 /ydrma Thus, given samples contain all particles having size smaller

Maximum void ratio Ooosest state) than 0.0113 mrn.

where, em.u

ellliD Minimum void ratio (densest state) Ex. 3.5.2

m

A dry sample of weight 50 gm is mixed with distilled water to

e = Natural void ratio of soil
prepare a suspension of 1000 ml for hydrometer analysis.
ydlllOJ< = Maximum dry density The reading of the hydrometer taken after 5 minutes was 20
Ydmi.a = Minimum dry density
Sa

and the depth of the centre of the bulb below the water
Yd = .Dry density in natural state surface when the hydrometer was in the jar was 140 mm.
The density index varies from 0 to 100%. The volume of hydrometer was 62 ml and area of cross·

Qualitatively it is described as :
2
section of the jar was 50 cm • Find % finer, Assume G 2.65 =
and T\ =1.02 x 10-s gm-seclcm . 2

Soln.:
0- 15 Very loose
15 - 35 Loose The depth between (P' • A') and (A' - B') is given as 140 dlJIIo
35-65 Medium dense (compact)
65-85 Dense
85 - 100 Very dense https://cee-book.blogspot.com/

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Som,-Cfvll\ 3-15
Claaalllcatlon of Solis
......... file effective depth between (P _ Q) lnd (A ·ll) . .
V V IS 8JVen by
Ora-..4 Slll
H. - 14.0-- t + ~ 2A 14.0 -"ft
= v I-
c
8 1ncl
M F
100
6 62 olrii: """c:t I
I
.. '*'
R = 1 0 -TX";Q= 13.38cm
'
I t
eo
- D • V 0.3x n x K
(0 -l)x 1
(>.

leo 0 e1 .
u.3!;e---
o,o
N
I

I
I

i...
I

D
= V0.3x 1.02x IO::s x 13.38

-
(2.65-l)XS

0.0022 em .. 0.02.2 mm
~0

20
- -~-
-o;,h:e\mm t
OA•-ttrfft·
;*-- I
I

-
I

1::?.-.
~0 - - ~"'"'
,r.;.~

'l& finer (N)

- ( o~ t) x ~ xtoo 0
10 e 3 1 .4
--'-~
_.,! ___

.2 .1 .06

-m 2.65 20 Grain dl&mllt&r 0 In mm

l
X 50 X!()()= 64.24% ... Ans.
Fig. p. 3.5.3
-EX· 3.5.3 I~J~ ~'6'"'~t~" I.'-~,'~~(~),of
~Iii~·· ~·~ ciJ""iauvs,.~·· ·~,..,

a
~~l~ ~~J ~~~~~:' r~.:'\ ~~t¥1
! %

.
500 gm of dry soil was used for sieve analysis· Th e we1ghts ,;.., ~ Ql1,..,,. .~,,.: 1, ::~. ~ ((,~w~~ ~;,'·j/'fut

ev
of soil retained on each sieve are given below : 2.0 98D
2.00mm 2.00mm 10 2.0
-a:s.sir;J:. Welgh'tlft ~ 1.40 mm 1.40mm 18 3.6 5.6 94.4

2.00 mm 10 1.00mm I .OOmm 60 12.0 17.6 82.4

1.40 mm 135 71.0 44.6 55.4

18 50011 o.soomm

1.00 mm

500!!
60

135
nR 25011

125 11
0.250mm

0.12Smm
145

56
:29.0

11.2
73.6

84.8
25.4

15.2

7511 0.075nvn 45 9.0 93.8 62

250 I! 145
(b) Uniformity coefficie.nt (C..).
125!! 56
060 0.61 ...Am.
o,o = 0.098 = .2
6 2
U
75 J! 45
Plot a grain size distribution curve and compute the (c)Coefficient of curvature (CJ
following : 1
= co.,jl _ co.2&) _ 13 •••ADs.
(a) Percentages of gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine D 10 x 0 60 0.098 x 0.61 -
sand and silt, as per IS: 1498-199.
m

As per the value of uniformity coefficient, the soil is sand and

(b) Uniformity of coefficient. Jgo IJJ as per the value of c•. the soil is said to be well graded since
(c) Coefficient of curvature. the value lies between 1 and 3. Hence soil is SW.
Comment on the type of soil.
Sa

Ex. 3.5.4
Soln. :
What time a spherical particle of 2 micron size will take to
(a) Percentage gravel = 100 - 98 = 2 per cent
settle through a depth of 100 mm through
a water
= 98- 61.5 = 36.5 per cent suspension ?
Pen::entage of coarse sand
2
Percentage of medium sand =
61.5-22.0 = 39.5 percent (Use the relation V = 1OBSO 0 )

Percentage of fine sand

Percentage of silt =
- 22.0-3.0 = 19.0per ceot

3 percent
Soln.:

Given equation : V = 10850 0 '1

D = 2~ =0.002mm

-
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ClaaalflcaUon of ~
3-18

H • IOOmm Soln.:

Now. V • !i
I
• IOSSO 0 2

H 100
or 1 •
10~ D 1 = 108SO (0.002)1

...A ...

Ex. 3.5.5 o l----~==~~.o~~~1 .~o------12~--~5~mm

~
The grading curve of a soli gives the effective size as 0.16 Slevfl slza (mm) log scale -

mm. D30 "' 0.40 mm and 0 80 = o.ao mm. And Cu and c •. .

Fig P 3.!17
Classify the aoll.
' ., ~ . .. -~ y~ . :_.~
·~ ~ ~~· j(,r ..,eu pded'•Dcl . ' 1•.:-F• ~ . ·V )?'
Soln. : 1~, • '" ,' ..l~ (Curve A), . ,.. .: - • .,.~ (~,,~.). ·rf.

l
>~.,· ~ ' -,... . ' ' ' " '.
0 60 0.8 0 .20

a
We know, C.. :: o =o.16= 5 ... Ans. 0 10 0.6S mm
10
0.90 0.72
(DJQ)l 030

ev
and C. = 060xOJo 1.00 1.20
060

c. 060 + o,o = 1.53 6:00

::: (0.8) X (0.16)2 =l.lS ...Ana.
1
c. (D ) +060 xo 10 = 1.38 2.16
30
As c;, > 4, soil is gravel and c. is between 1 and 3 and it is
nR
well grnded. Therefore. soil is (OW). Ex.3.5.8
Gradation curve of a soil gives effective grain size as 0.16
Ex.3.5.6 mm. 0 30 and 0 80 as 0.4 mm and 0 .8 mm respectively. Fi\(1
From particle size distribution curve of a sandy sample, Cu, Cc and classify soil.
following data is obtained. Determine C0 , and classify c. Soln. :
sand.

r,.; tto.~· . - %.Fine; lh~ ' c;, = 0.16

0.80
=5 < 6
U
k ·..

0.425 mm 0.4 X0.4 l 2S

60%
0.8x0.16 ·
0.200mm 30%
:. Does not meet requirements of SW.
o.os mm 10%
:. SP =poorly graded sand.
m

Sofn. :
D60 0.425 Ex. 3.5.9
Cu = DJo = 0.05 = 8.5 (> 6) Cu
If cc = 4 and Cu · Cc = 9, find Cu, Cc, D60t 0 30•
(D30l·
Sa

0.2 x0.2
cc = DJo x 0 60 - 0.425 x 0.05 = 1.8825 (between 1 and 3) Assume 0 10 =0. 1 mm
Soln. :
For well graded sand Ca > 6 and c. sbould be between
c..
1 to3. Cc X C.. · Cc = 4 X 9 = 36

:. It is well graded sand (SW). .. (C,/ = 36

Ex. 3.5.7 .. cu = 6 .. JJ$.
Plot on semi-log paper, particle size distribution curve .. 9 9
cc = c;-=6= 1.5 •••.Afl.
showing % finer than on Y·axis and particle size in mm on
X-axls. Using semi-log scale for (i} well graded sand, D60
Cu =6 =
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(ii) uniformly graded sand and tabulate results as under : Dto

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3·17 Clanlll o.ll<ln of Soli•
040 = 0.1 >< 6 - 0.6
"""n." lh.e.a.1a Mll D••• 11 . 1:> f,l oo~·.
(D,J2 = 0 60 X D 10 X C.

D.10
=
=
0.6xO. Jxt.5 •0.09m ml
O.Jmm •.. An.1.
l
&00 ll ol dry toll wll) eub)ected to·• elave analyal
Weight Of lOll rotalna d on CIIC!t'l
I.S.
tiOYII
Weight
II I I

ts.
foltow. :
8!

Walgnt
Ttle

.. ofaoll
--------------~~
Sieve otaoll Sieve
81%8 g IIZI 8
~· s.s.1o 85
rtsfftetiVII grain size= 0.16 mm, Deo . o. 80 mm,
4 .75 10 4251-1
mm
D.10 _ o.40 mm, find C.,, Cc and classify soli. 40
2.00 165 21214
sofrt· : mm
0 eo 0.80 1~0 v. 30
1.00 100
o10 =m= s<6 mm
50

l
(Dy)l _ 0.40 X 0.40 7514
~'!Jfu· .

I
D60x o,o- 0.80 x 0.16:: 1.25
Plot·lhe grain size distribution curve and determine the

a
~ l'(.
fOllowing:
(a& Percentage of gravel, coarse sand, medium
sand,

ev
as per IS :
• fine sand and silt-cla y fraction In the soil
1
1498 ·'1970.
{
(b) Effective size
(c)
nR (d) ., .

J
Soln. :
2.12 100
The diameter of soil grain and the corres[IOndina per
cent
0.425 85
finer than, are calculated as below :
U
0.075 38
. LS.,
.
Classify the soil approximately as IS classification system sieve
Soln.: ~
10 10 2.0 9&.0
(I) Slnce less than 38% of soil is passing 75 J..L sieve, it is a coarse 4.75 4.75
m

2.00 165 175 35.0 65.0

grained soi( 2.00
100 275 55.0 45.0
(2) :. %retained on 75 J..L =100- 38 =629'0. ••• ADS. 1.00 1.00
&5 360 72.0 28.0
Since %retained on 2.12 is nil. the coarse fraction does not 425 0.425
Sa

60 420 84.0 16.0

contain any gravel i.e. it contains only sand. (= S) 212 0.212
...Ans. 440 88.0 12.0
(3) PI= 20 -12 =8. 150 0.150 20

For Wu. = 20, y co-ordinate of 'A' line of plasticity 75 0.075 40 4&0 96.0 4.0

chart= 0
The grain size distribution curve is plotted betwee n the
(PI = 0.73 <Wu.- 20). For Wu. = 20, PI= 0) in
diameter of soU grain and the per cent finer than, as shown
:. The soil lies above a line Fig. P. 3.5.12.
:. Clayey soil (Fine fraction)
;, Given soil is classified as SC.

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Cle&SiilcatiOn of ~
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m- Geotechnical Enplneering. 1 (MU·5 Sem. -Civil)
111
3·18 .. -== -~ . ··•··.. :i
(a) I.S. graln size classification IClllc IR fined on the 11b~hSR.
From Pig. P. 3.5.12.
(i) ~tage of gna\11!.1 • 100- 98 • l '9& ••• Ans.

>4-7Smm
(ii) Peroentage of coarse sand e: 98 - 6.5 = 33 '9& ... At\11.

(4.75 mm- 2.00 mm)

(iii) Percentage of medium sand = 65- 28 =37'9& •••Ans.

(2.00 mm- 0.425 mm)

Soln. : . on 7514 sieve l50g =
Cumulative mass retained
~::7.4% ... ADa,
(iv) P=ntage of fine sand = 28 - 4 =24% ... An.'!.
'Jb retained on 75 IJ. sieve = LIN"

l
(0.425 mm - 0.075 mm) SO% =:> fine grained soil c
%passing 75J.L sieve > •
(v) =4% ... Ans.

a
Pe=tage of silt-clay fraction :::: roL-rop=38-28=10 .•.ADs,
lp
(<O.D75mm)
From plasticity chart. Ip
= 10 ·

ev
(b) Effective size, D 10 = 0. I 3 mm ...Ana_
())L :: 38
Sand
Ane
Indicates that
. lies in second zone
SOl 1
Cwt. = 35 - 50) and
100

90
nR below A line so soil is MI or 01·

80
3.6 Solved Examples from GATE
10 Examination

..! co
'' Ex. 3.6.1
i• eo
A given soil sample have the following grain size analysis:
0..
40
I
U
< 2.00 mm - 80%
30 -------------·-···r·----------- < 0.66 mm- 60%
2Q

! I < 0 .075 mm- 30%

10 ---······--------···•----···--····--1·-··--········.
: : :
: : ' < 0.005 mm -10%
m

0
10 7 5 3 2 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.07 0.05 0.03
o30 Dto < 0.002 mm - 2%
Dlamoler of grain, mm
The soil is
Fig. P. 3.5.12
(a) skip graded (b) uniformly graded
Sa

Dro 1.8 (c) well graded (d) average graded

(c) Unifonnity coefficient, t; = D; = O.l 3 = 13.8 ...Ans.
2
Soln. : {c)
D30 0.52
(d) Coefficient of curvature, ce =D60 X DIO =1.8 X 0.13 Explanation

=1.1 ••• Ans. For weU graded soll, we have ~ > 6;

'(e) The ~d soil is classed as well-graded sand (SW) since ~ 0.6

Cu = Dlo = 0.005 = 120
en > 6 and cc is between 1 and 3.
'l 2'
C _ D~ = (0.075) =l
c - D 10 X 0 60 0.6 X 0.05
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being between 1 and 3.

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3-19 Classlllcallon of Soh

~.s.s.z 2. In a eoll specimen, 80%of particles are paaatng

.,.,rng two slatements are made With re
110 through 4.75 mm I.S. eleva and 40% o f particles are
fC d ssrnPI~ having the same relative d spoct to different
¢1 TRUE or FALSE. enslty. Identify If Passing through 75 11 I.S. sieve. Ita uniformity
r/111yars coefficient Ia B and ooofficlent of curvature Is 2. As
(I> poorlY graded sands will have lower friction per I.S. classlflcatlon, this soli Is classlfted as .....
angle than
1118 well
grades sands.
(a) SP (b) GP (c) SW (d) GW
~I} Th& particle size has no Influence on the 111 (IES200 2)
ol sand ction angle

(a) Ills TURE but l is FALSE Ana.: (e)

(b) Both are FALSE stateme nts Explana tion : Since 80'1& of panicles are p83sing 4.75 mm sieve,
(c} Bothe are mue statements the sample will be sandy sample i.e. either SW or SP.
(d} I is TRUE but II is FALSE

l
SOln·: (d)

a
EJt. 3.6.3
The term ' Loess' indicate s those s

ev
(A) Well graded gravels, or (1 ) Poor
(a) uniformly graded
gravel sands or no fines.
(b) poorly graded
(B) Silty gravels, gravel silt (2) Practically
(c;) made up of 50% or more sand s impervio us
and sand mixture.
(d) none of these
(C) Organic silts, organic silt (3) Fair to poor
Soln. : (d)
Ex. 3.6.4
nR clays of low plasticity.
(D) Inorganic clays of high (4) Excellent
The correct increas ing order of specific surface I.e. surface plasticity, fat clays.
area per mass of the given soils is
Codes : (a) A B c D {c) A B c D
(a) silt, sand, colloids, clay
4 3 1 2 2 3 4
(b) sand, slit, clay, colloids
U
(b) A B c D (d) A B c D
(c) sand, slit, colloids, clay
3 2 4 3 2 4
(d) clay, silt, sand, colloid
Ana. : (a)
Soln. : (d)
Diameter (of the particle) 4. Match Ust I (Soils) with Ust II (Group symbols) and
m

Explanation: Specific slllface oc

select the correct answer using the codes given
From size of the particle, it can be inferred that coUoids are below the lists : (IES 2000)

most minute followed by clay, silt, and sand in increasing order.

Sa

OH

t. A soil has a liquid of 45%· and lies above the A·line (C) Or nlcclay sc
when plotted on a plasticity chart. The group symbol (D) Sil sand (4) GC
of the soil as per IS Soil Classification is ..(IES 1997) Codes : (a) A B c 0 (c) A 8 c 0
(b) Cl (c) CL (d) Ml 4 3 2
(a) CH 3 4 2 1
Ana.: (b) (b) A B c 0 (d) A B c 0
4 3 1 2 3 4 1 2

Ans. : (c)
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ctasa ltlcat lon ol ~
l
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3 20 fated with : (IES .;;;; )
M Geotechnical Engineerfnt I (MU-s"' sem
.-Civll) •
The collal)$1ble soil is a$SOC(b) Laterite solla
\
ol) with Ust II 9.
5. Match list 1 (Soil classifieallon symb (a) Dune sands (d) Black cott on so '
II \
ct answ er us Ing
(Soil prope rty) and selec t the corre
(IES 2008) (c) Loes s
1t1e codes given below the Dsts ·
- Ana. : (c)
-..;u.t; Ust II

I
~-
... 7.
· 1 y mine rals : .
icien t> 6 10. Consider the following c a
(A) GW (1) Soil havin g uniformity coeff {2 ) llltte
( 1) Kaol inite
t> 4
(B) sw (2) Soli havin g uniformity coeff icien
(3 ) Mon tmori llonit e
of the following Is the corre ct s~
(C) ML (3) Soil having low plasticity abov e In the Increasing Of'd"
Which one 1 (IES 200e)
(D) CL (4) Soli havin g low compressibility of the minerals g ven
of their grain size ?
(c) A B C D (b) 1-3 -2
Codes : (a) A B C D (a) 3•2-1
2 4 3 (d) 3. 1 - 2
2 4 3 (c) 1-2 -3

l
B C D (d) A B C D
(b) A Ans. : (c)
3 4 {IES2Q08) l

a
2 3 4 2 Consider the follow ing state men ts :
11.
(1) Mica is a clay mine ral.
Ans .: (b) size are n<l!\-
( ) Rock dust parti cles, even of clay

ev
2
corre ct answ er
6. Matc h Ust I with Ust II and selec t the plast lc.
below the lists · (JES 200S ) (3} A parti cle of Kaol inite Is elect rical
ly charg ed.
using th e codes g'ven
I
--.::-: e are corre ct?
L&t 1;, : ~:,. .• c~\ . ...,.. '" U81,.11 ,.,:• .. ~- ." . '< -~--
Whic h of the state men ts give n abov
(b) Only 1 and 2
ML (1) Silty send (a} 1 , 2 and 3
(A)

(8) SM (2) Inorg anic silt with large compressibility

Inorganic silt with smal l compressibility

nR (c)
Ana. : (c)
Only 2 and 3 (d) Only 1 and 3

(C) PT (3)

(D) MH (4) soli with high orga nic conte nt w ith high
comp ressi bility
grain size
B C 0 1. Explain a method of determining the
(a) A B C 0 (c) A
Codes : distribution of coheslonless soils.
U
3 2 4 3 4 2
itions Is th~
C 0 (d) A B C 0 2. What is Stoke's law ? Under what cond
(b) A B
law valid?
4 3 2 4 2 3
esa and
3. A soil sample is mixture of cohesionl
Ans .: {c) method dl
m

cohesive soils. Explain and discuss a

7. The correct sequence of plasticity of m inera
ls in soil
determining the grain size distribution of
the soli.
(IES 2002)
in an increasing order is : ctions b
I - 4. Explain and discuss how some of the corre
(a) Silica. Kaolinite, Illite, Montmorillonite inated tit
Sa

the hydrometer reading can be elim

(b) Kaolinite, Silica, Illite, Montmorillonite entatkt
following a particula r procedure in the sedlm
(c) Silica, Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, Illite analysis.
(d) Kaolinite, Silica, Montmorillonite, Illite
5. of sand Ill
In a sieves analysis of a given sample
Ans.: (a)
following information was obtained.

8. The predominant mineral responsible for

shrin kage Effective grain size =0.25 mm
and swelling in black cotton soil is : Uniformity coefficient =6.0
(a) Illite (b) Kaolinite Coefficient of curvature =1.0
(c) Mica (d) Montmonllonite {IES 2003) Sketch the curve on a semi-log pape
r and c:laS
Ant .: (d) https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
soil.

oo
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526.5 527.5
2.36mm 395.0 3 97.0
850 micron 371 .7 ~.0
425 micron 372.0 465.0
126.0 57.75 78.75 36.75 36.75 425 micron <433.0 806.8
150 micron 305.4 395.5
7Smlcron 340.9 385.9
31.5
Plot the grain size curve and determine D1o• Cu and
Plot the grain distribution curve on a semi 1
• og paper
and compute the following : c•.
(Use IS: 1498 : 1970) 8. Compare the USCS and AASHTO classification

l
Pen:entage of gravel systems In terms of the probable comparable soil
groups.

a
Percentage of coarse, medlum.and tine sand
Percentage of finer fraction 9. What are numerical values on which group index is
Uniformity coefficient

ev
based ?
Coefficient of curvature
10. Ust the significant properties of coarse fine-grained ·
7. 500 g o f soil was slaved through a set In a grain size soils on which the Indian Standard Classification
distribution analysis. The weight of sieves and soil System (ISCS) is based ?
retained on each sieve are as follows :
nR ChapUT Ends...

ODD
U
m
Sa

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n~
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Permeability of Soi ls and

See pag e Ana lysi s

'

l
Syllabu s:
types of soil water, explanation of surface
i. Introduction about ground water flow : water table, types of aquifers,

a
tension with capillary rise In small diameter tubes, capillary rise in soils.
through soil, validity of Darcy's law .
II. Definition of hydraulic head, hydraulic gradient, Darcy's law, laminar flow
of soils, determinatiOn of coefficient of

ev
iii. Definition of permeability of soft, numerical values for different types
. Determination of In-situ permeab ility with
permeability of soil In lab using constant head and variable head methods
e.g. empirical equation & from consolidation
pumping out and pumping in test. Permeability from indirect methods
data.
iv Permeablllly of stratified soil deposits.
design of hydrauli c structure s. Derivation of
v.
nR
Definition of seepage and Its importance for the study of analysis &
Laplaca equation for twodimensional flow, Its analytical solution represen
Graphical representation by flow net, defini tion of flow line, equipotential
tation by stream & potentia l function;
lines, flow channel , field, characteristics of

flow net, use of flow net.

.
vi. Solution of Laplac101 equation by other methods e. g. numerical methods
U
Water is the second important constituent of soil. Its (a) Capillary water,
inleraction with solid constlwent influences soil behaviour to a (b) Structural water,
very large degree because of it's dipole character.
(c) Absorbed water.

Soli Water The structural waJer is chemically combined water in h

m

4.1
crystalline structure of the soil particles. The removal of this
water breaks the structure of soil minerals.
A temperature of 300° C is required for complete removal of
Sa

It can be classified in two categories : structural water. For most of the soil the removal of structwal
water starts from temperature of 11 0°C. The structural watet
(i) Held water and

(ii) Free water

The held water is independent of gravitational forces. It is

retained in the mass of the soil. lt cannot move under the
influence of gravity. The free water moves in the pores of
soil under the influence of gravitational force.
The free water is discussed in the permeability article. Held
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water is further divided into three types :

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1lle interconnected lnten tices of a soli m.ass act as capill.aiy

tubes of varying diameta. Tho channels Conned in ~ soil
mass are capillary tubes of varyin& diameter but not
necessarily venlcal. Tbe tubes may be inclined in any
direction,

The capillary rise is Inversely proponionalto the diame'" of

the tube. Hence:, the capillary rise is small in coarre grained
No.rmaiJy alr drying reQJOvea capillary Water and free w
• • ater, soils, but it may be very large in fine grained soils.
tbe' remaJ mng water IS approximately """ft' .......... to absodx:d Capillary rise depends upon size and grading of the particles.
water. In this ca._~ it is known as 'hygro·~~
-..p1c · water'.
The diameter of the channel in po.e passage is generally
taken as one fifth of the effective diameter (01o) in case of

l
4.2 Surface Tension
coarsed grained soils.

a
Consider a molecule of water surrounded by other molecules It is possible to divide th<O space abovP, the water table into

in the body of water. The molecule is in equili·bnum, · · two regions :

stnce

ev
force& duo to the moleculnr attraction act all round. I. Zone of fully saturated soil which is capillary
saturation zone.
But for a molecule at free surface, the pull from the air above
is smaller than the pull from the water mole<;ules below and 2. Zone of partially saturated soil which is aeration zone.
' . • it!>
the equilibrium is disturbed. Defini tion: The height to which capillary U?cif.er risiHn.-
The surfaces assumes a curved shape to maintain
equilibrium. The surfnee tension exists at interface. It acts in
nR soils is known as CapUlory Frinlle.

It includes the zone of saturation and part of woe of aeration .

the direction nonnnl to tlle line drawn on the surface. The relation between the maximum height of capillary fringe

~tfon r lt u defined as 'the force per unit kngth at

~liM'. ' ~ '
I
'
and effective diameter is :
c
(h.J.... exD (mm)
10
U
It decreases with inc~c in temperature. It is only due to
Where, C = Coostaot. depends upon impurities m1d shape
surface tension a small needle can float on water and insects
of the particle (varies between 10 to 50 mm\
can wallc on it.
e = Void ratio.

4.3 Capillary Water 0 10 = Effective diameter in mm.

m

f~,U~ .:' 'the. rain ,;ak_,. which falls on the ground

~,~It(h. the soil a,.d reaches a leuel is known as Aeration zone
~;\\~~\:' .Wilt«r table. • ·
Sa

The ground water table level is nothing but ground phreatic Capillary saturation ~one
Water table
surface. Ground water is a moving stre8Ill which flows under
gravity. It is a form offree warer.
The ground warer table is not horizontal. It takes the shape of Fig. 4.3.1 : Space above water table

topography. The water is drawn above the water table due to The soil above the ~Wary fringe may contain water in the

capillaly action. form of contact water. Here water fonm meniscus around the
point of contact Water is held with soil due to surface
tension.
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Permaablll of Solie and 841
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4-3

Porcctulllbrlum, Pv • Pd
Du& to tho tension In tho capllllll)' wnter contact pruauro ,_
developed and It presses tho partlclc:;s together. 11\e contact or (T, coAO)n.d • y.. (~tl1) xho
pressure depends upon the wntcr content nnd pruticle slu .
or
4.4 Capillary Rise In Solis w~r. Ute meniiCUI k
Par ctcnn glnu cube and pure
approximately hcmlllpherlcnl,t.e. 0 .o.
In the ~ of a glass capillary, the capillary rise cnn be
delumincd by equating the weight of the column of water In There(ore, ho •
..ffi..
Yw • d
the capillary to the force in the meniscus t llerting n upward T, .. 0.076 gmtcm, (75.0 >< 1o-8 kN/m)
Taking,
poll. Thus. in Fig. 4.4.1, at point A,
nnd
Yw = I gm/cm'(tOk.Nim'i
Upward force of surface tension in the meniscus
4 x 0.076 - 0.304 em

l
=Downward force of weight of water. . . h. "' 1.0 xd - d

a
Where, d Is in em.
The theory nppllcable to a glass ca.pillary may be roughly

ev
extended to the soil capillary. Voids in soils. having irregular
shapes and different sizes, are interconnecterl to fonn an
irregular capillary tube. for which a single radius cannot be

defined.
nR An equivalent radius, however, may be empirically
determined, as being a function of a grain size, and void
ratio. as under :

(i) Capillary size d ::::: Dto ~

or (ii) Capillary size d ::::: 0.2 Dto

U
Fig. 4.4.1 : Capillary rise in soiJs Where 0 10 is effective siz.e and e is void ratio.

H the meniscus makes an angle 9 with the wall of the glass Thus, the siz.e of capillary tube in gravels will be too large to
tube, the tensile surface tension force, T, acts at an angle 9 cause any appreciable capillary rise. Capillary rise is
m

vertical and its vertical component equals T,. cos 9, acting significant in fine sands and silts. In clays, it could be high.
on the periphery of the meniscus. Hence, but the capillary flow is too slow in clayey soils.
Fu = Upward pull due to surface tension
4.5 Permeability
Sa

(T, cos 9) 1td

Where, Ts = Surface ~nsion Permeability is defined as 'the property of a porous material

which permits the passage or seepage of water (or other
d = Diameler of the tube
fluids) through its interconiU!cting voids'. A soil is highlY
Fd = Downward force due to weight
pervious when water flows through it very easily.
of water in the tube

= Yw (n4d2) Xbc
. A completely impervious soil does not allow the water 10
flow through it However, such soil does not exist in nature-
Where, he = Height of capillary rise In general, all soils are permeable. A soil is tertned
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impervious when the permeability is extremely low.

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Th.,, the N>(ffrtl~nt by ~t7ftltabl/lry II Jejlttal 1J1 't~

>¥1t)Cfry II{ jlnw "'~''" .,..,.,Ill occur IIIIIUr •1111 ~Uc
3f'l><ll~nt'. It hu unll3 And dlmen•lon• of velocity.

'Y1IC elevation head i3 equal to the • According to USD R. the solk having the coefficieot of
'-'ertieal level diffen: ~rme.bllhy gf'CA!ter than 1~ mmfxc. ~ tenned u
))e(WCCil tho point under cons idem..~- -~.. IICC
""ft' _,..datum. p!eVIOtu And tho~ with VIIJue 10411 thaJt I(J'' ate termed U
1110 pressure head is tho level of Willer in . lmpcrvtniU. 'The~oib with In between v111u~ areclarified ~
yl the PtCUJmerer
rul» The velocity head is oquaJ to_ semi-previous soils.
2g ·

Jfowever. the -velocity head f~ now thro h . .

I
• Ug fOJ] IS CJI!remc!y
small becallse the velocity of flow throu.,., - .
6' • SOl1S lS CJtttemety

l
stnall. therefore, tho velocity head is ncglec.led.

a
4.6 Darcy's Law

-+ (MU ·May 10) Fig. 4.6.1 : Flow of water thr9ugh soU

ev
4.7 Validity of Darcy's Law
The velocity of laminar flow through bomn-"eo
- ..- us soi1 mass
is given by Darcy's.law, which states that the rate of flow or
-+ (NU- May 10)
dle discharge pee unil ti111e is proportional to the hydraulic I 9 . what are the limitations of Darcy's ~~ 7 lfi@'l{l(·\
gradient.
nR The Darcy's law is valid if the flow through soil is JaroinaL
In fine grai.ned soils, the flow remains necessarily laminar.
i.e. v oc i OR v = ki ...(4.6.1)
But in coarse grained soils U4 coar.e gravels, the Oow may
where, k = Coefficient of penneability benubulent
Hydraulic gradient For flow or water through pipe, the flow remains laminar
U
v .. Velocity oftlow wben Reynolds number is less than 2000. For flow through
soils the flow is laminar if the Reynolds number is less than
The Joss of head per unit length of flow through soil is equal
unity.
to the hydraulic gradient (i)
It has been found that the maximum diameter of the particle
.!!
L for flow to be laminar is about 0.50 mm. Thus Darcy'slaw is
m

valid for flow through clays, silts and fine sands.

wbere, h = Hydraulic head
It may not be appreciable for flow through coarse sand,
L = Length of specimen
gravels and boulders.
Sa

The velocity given by Darcy's law is Jcnown as superficial Hough gave the following equation for the velocity when
veJocity or discharge velocity. The discharge through the total flow is turbulent
aoss-sectional area normal to the direction of flow is given by, v = 1c (i)"

q = vA""kiA where, n = Exponent, with value of 0.65

q = Total discharge For ground water flow, the law is generally valid. In
A = Cross-sectional area extremely fine grained soils such as colloidal clay, the
interstices are very small. The velocity is very small. In such
In EquBtion (4.6.1), when i =1. k is equal to v.
soils, law is not valid.

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Determination of Coefficient of
Permeability
4·5

After &alllP
permeebill

Jc bas heeD
conslllllt head reservotr
steadY state. is established.
of soils and See

~ it is COllllec:ted to '"-
....,.
. a11d water is allowed to flow till
'

, Ill constant head chamber Is kept~

The water level an e .
·rnent. The head .cau5mg flow l!qu~ Ia
tlu'Ougbout the ex pen
. levels betweeD constant head teserv·oir.
the difference tn warer
and constant head charober.

The discharge is given by :

q ..
.Q.
t
=kiA
h kbA . b
q k[ A=T, wheret=L

l
qL

a
.. k = Ah
methods : Q = Total quantity of flow in time 't'

ev
Determination of Discharge through cross-sectional ll:leaA
Coefficient of Permeability q =
L = Length of the specimen
(a) Laboratory methods nR h = Head causing flow
1. Constant head method For more reliable results. it would be advisable to mearut
2. Variable head method the Joss of head (h') over a middle length (L') to determine
or Falling head method
the hydraulic gradient (i). The density of the specimen shOUld
be equal to that in the field.

I 1. Pumping out method

U
2. Pumping In method

'
Fig. C4.1 : DeWminatlon of Coefficient of PermeabiUty

. . J.
m

Constant Head Method

This method is suitable for coarse grained soils, the test is T I

conducted with constant head permeater. It is a metallic _L
Sa

mould, having 100 mm internal diameter, 127.3 mm effective

height and 1000 mJ capacity. The mould is provided with the
detachable extension collar and drainage base plate.

The soil sample is placed inside the mould between two

porous discs. The porous plates should be teo ti~es more Mea~~umet
and quantity.Q
permeable than the soil. The porous plates, mould and water
pipes should be de-aired. Fig. 4.8.1 : Constant head parameter
Constant Head Method
The soil is poured into the perrneater and tamped to obtain
Temperature (f) =....... Specimen diameter (D) =·....
required density and it is fully saturated.
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Length (L) = ..... . Constant Head (h) =..··"

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._ Sem.·Cival)
- Table 4.8.1 : Table ot O~!eotna PermeabUity of Solla ond Seepage Analysts

J. Time (t) < • • .« .,_~ ' ~ ;t, adh • - q dt (mtnw •lan tndleatea fdl of !lead)

whuo. (a) i1 cros.....sectional area or tho now through

~ Quantity, (Q)

::j,~.=jjero~~ss~·~sectf~~~o~n~~area~§~<~A;:~>~--~r_-_-_-_-i+------=l~::=-=j
S~pc :

But. q ., A x lc x I
4. Length of Specimen {L)
- s. Permeability (k) ~. Gdh - - Alddt

Correction - = -A~tcdt
- for temp. ~

Avemge : 1c ..... mls.

adh
Alcdt
lL s -h
dh

· -t z. Variable Head Method ~

TI!is method is suitable for fine •

Integrating ~ Jdt =
grained soils B b,

l
. · ecause tl
guantity of water COUected throu
gh the soil mass is very I
and caJUJot be measured accurate~ e3s ~ (~- t1 ) = +lo&~

a
I y. SIIJlle mould is used for
this lest also. The experimental setup is as shown in
Fig. 4.8.2.
k = ~log.~

ev
A stand pipe is attached to the mould. The Water. .
IS allowed to
where t = t, - t1 = time inttrvB.l during which

As bead reduces from h 1 to ~·

flow from the stand pipe through the samP1e. Water flows
.
the water level in the stand pipe falls · The lime required '
for K ::::
2
'~ log10 ~
the water level to fall from Jc:nown initial head (h ) 1 to known
Normally coefficient of permeability i; detennine d at 21° C.
final bead (bz) is detennine d.
nR The smaller diameter pipes are used for less previous soils.
=
The test is useful for soils with permeability in the range, k
I 10-1 m/s to I 0-9 m/s.

cr Falling Head Method

=.......
U
Temperature (T) = .. .. ... Specimen diameter (D)

Length (L) =...... Standpipe area (a)= ......

Table 4.8.2 : Table of Obsenat ions

.. 1 · Sr. No.·
m

h
2
,+->·.{~ ·· .'"f!! .engme~.c. 1. Zero time at start

J 2.

!4-- AreaA~ 3.
Sa

. ""::'· ·~, ~
~"ft~~ ~ ~ .: : f·~~[~-=:f \ OVerflOW 4. Head (b,)

~;·,, ·~' ;;,.<~., .~ 5. Permeability (k)

6. Correction for temp.

Fig. 4.8.2 : Varlable head method

Let us consider any instant when head is (b). For an infinitely

Average : k ..... m/s.
smalJ time (dt), the bead falls by (db). Let q be the discharge
through tbe sample. From continuity of flow, we have :

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-Permeablll ot Solis and See
4-7

The absolute velocity vu:ies from point to point. Ita ~

4.9 Seepage Velocity and Discharge
may e.Jso change. Jn fact. the problem itself is so ~~~
Velocity
hence analysis is to be done on mact08oopic SCi)~ '&
The total cross-sectional area of soil mass consists of not
described above.
only the voids but e.lso the solids. Hence the discharge
The total discharge is computed either from disc~
velocity (V) is not the actual velocity through the soil mass.
velocity (V) or the seepage velocity (V J· The ~
It is a fictitious velocity obtainw by dividing the total
velocity is more convenient to use.
discharge (q) by total cross-sectional area (A). As flow takes
place only through the voids, the actual velocity through ~4~.1~0~F~a~c~to~r~s~A~ff~e~c~t~ln.:..;g!...t::.h::e:. . .P: . . .e::...:r..:..:m..:..:e:..::a=b~Ul!!!ty_
voids is much greater than the discharge velocity. This actual
velocity on a microscopic scale is known as the seepage

l
velcciry (V,).

a
From continuity of flow,

I q = VxA=V,xA.

ev
where, q = Total discharge through total cross-sectional (A) The coefficient of permeability of a soil depends basically on
v = Discllarge velocity the characteristics of both the soil medium and the pore flUid,

v. = Seepage velocity Lambe and Whitman have grouped particle size, void ratio.

A., = Area of voids

VxA = V,xA,
nR composition and degree of saturation as major soil
characteristics, and viscosity, unit weight and pc\arlty as

VxA A major pore fluid charaCteristics.

V1 = -;;:;- <= V X A.,
For a civil engineer dealing with soils, the penneant is watet,
Multiplying and dividing by (L),
whose variation in property may be presumed to be very l~.
U
V, = Vx~
A.xL
=Vx.YL_
v. Thus, soil characteristics may have to be given m<llt

Where, v, = Total volume of soil mass importance.

v. = Volume of voids Based on Poiseuille's law for flow through a bundle of

m

v. = TJ =Porosity
capillary tubes, Taylor has given a theoretical expression for
But,
v;- flow through soil medium as :
v
.. vs = -=-
n n
ki
k = D2_:J.:... __le ·C
3
Sa

• 11.., +e •
Putting It, =!D
where, D, - Effective particle diameter
v.
C, = Composite s~ factor

Strictly speaking, the seepage velocity is not absolute

velocity through soil mass. The voids in the soil mass are
irregular in cross-section.

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4·8
PenneabUI ol Solla end Se
F'aoto.-. lmpuritlel la lhe water
Atfectlng tha Pa""••blllty
The permeability may aet rcdMccd due 10 the prcsc11C:C of
1. Shapt, or P811Jcle a forelp lmpurillet In lhe Water 0owlnalhrou8)1 lhe ao\1 IIUIU.

2. Voids ratio of sou

-+ 7. Ptopertl.. of w• ter

The coefficiem or permeability Ia proponlooal 10 the unit

3. Particle size
weight of water (y. ) IIJid lnvenely proportional to lhe
4 • StruC1ure of son mass viscosity (1'1).

There Is no much variation In the unit weight but there is a

5 · Degree Of saturation
latge vllriation In the viscosity (1'1) with the vllriatioo in the
tempenrure. Thus, the coefficient of permeability decreases
with an increase In temperature due to reduction in the

l
7 · Properties of water viscosity.

a
The peiTileabillty (k) measured at temperature 'T' in the
Fig. C4.2 : Factors Alfectf.na the p
" ermeabiUty laboratory can be corrected for a standard temperature of 28°C as
.. t. Shape of particles follows :

ev
Angular panicles have greater specific surface area as
compated to rounded particle$. The pe~B"-ili " . .
. ......._ ty IS tnversely
proportional to tbe specific surface. Hence fior same votd .

nJio, the soils with angular particles are less permeable than Table 4.10.1 : Typical values ork

-t z.
those wit.b rounded panicles.

Void ratio
nR k
(iBis)

Coarse gravel, cobbles, boulders

The coefficient of permeability varies as (l: e) Thus, flow may become tutbulent
10 :. Darcy's law may not be valid
greoJer the void ratio, tk higher is the coefficient of
Very good
permeability.
U
w-• Clean gravels
~ 3. Particle sl:ze 10-2

The coefficient of permeability of a soil is proportional to the 10- 3 Clean sands Good

square of the particle size. Thus. the permeability of coarse Clean sand· Impervious soils
gravel modified by
m

grained soil is more than that of ftne grained soil.

2 mixtures
k = co10 the effects of :

IfD10 is in mm and k in ms- ', the value of C = 1~ . Very fine fissuring Poor
Sa

sands
~ 4. Structure of soU mass Silty sands desiccation
Silts weathering
For same void ratio, the permeability is more for flocculant
Stratified Practically
structure as compared to that in the dispersed structure. clay/silt impervious
deposits
+ 5. Degree of satunltfon
10- 9 Unweathered, unfissured.,
The permeability of partially satmated soil is smaller than homogeneous clays
that of a fully saturated soil. This is due to the air pockets (Clay content > 20%)
formed in the partially saturated soil.

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Permeablll of Solis and see
4·9
biUty and uansmbslbiUty
4, Coetnclent of pume~~ .
4.11 Field Permeability

LiJ.:e all in- situ tc.~ting. field dc~erminntion of penneohllily Is

more relinble than lllbor:uory tc.•tings. c.tpccinlly when good
undistutbcd soil specimens cnnnot be procured for lc.~tlng.
The field tc..~ mny be in the form of pumping out test.
wherein the wnter i~ pumped out from the wells drilled for
this purpose. The olher type of the field tes!S are pur11ping-in
tests, wherein the water is pumped imo tiJc drilled holes.
· t of t.ransmissibility 'T' equals the field
~ Some Definitions ThUS the coeffiICICP
coe;;,cient of permeability multiplied by the aquifer

l
1. Aquifer
thickness b or He.

a
T = bk=Hclc.

Field Determination of 'k'

ev
4.12
In field, k can be determined by :

Field oetermlna1.1on of 'k'

nR (I) Pumping out test

(ii) Pumping in test

Fig. C4.3 : Field Detennination of ' k'

4.12.1 Pumping Out Test

-+
U
(MU • Dec. 15)

(a) Unconfined aquifer (Refer Fig. 4.12.1)

m

3. Storage coefficient
For carrying out a pumping out test, a test well is drilled
The water yielding capacity of a confined aquifer can be through the aquifer to reach the underlying impervious layer.
expressed in terms of its storage coefficient. Two additional small diameter perforated casings are sunk at
Sa

some distance from the test well. Water is pumped from the
main well at a constant rate.

The draw-down of water table takes place and the steady-

state water table in each of the nearby observation weUs is
In most of the confilled aquifers, the values of storage recorded.
coefficient ranges between 0.00005 to 0.005. Its value can be
The steady state is established when the water level in the
detennined from pumping tests on wells penetrating fully
main well and the observation wells become constant
into tbe confined aquifer. The storage coefficient for an
Assume the water is flowing into a well in a horizontal. yadia1
uncontinued aquifer corresponds to its specific yield.
direction. Consider an elementary cylinder of soil having
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radius r, thickness dr and height h.

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4-10

The quanUty Q In thla C8a<l la written u :

dh
Q • kiA • k·iir·2nrH.

Wh6rc. H. or b Is the depth of the tonflned a.qulfer. Thua,

lnlegmtlng between llmltofr and hand simplifying.

I
r, h,
I .!!._
rr J~
21trH. dh
·k.
rt ht
'•
·~~
1 -I (~)
,
R- 2.303 Q log 10 2.303 Q log10 ( ; ' )
l or
I Fig. 4.12.1 : Pumping test from unconfined aquJter k .. 2nH.<.h:!-hl) or 2~b(h,-bl)
Let the water J~vel fall in the observation wells at the rate of

I
4.12.2 Pumping In Teats

l
db. At the steady slate, the rate of dis..-h·-e . , d
---'~ q ueto
pumping is given by Darcy's law :
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (U.S.B.R.) has devised two

a
Q = .kiA types of pumping in tests :

where, :::::
db
(k <Dupit's assumption) Two types of pumping In 18Sts

ev
and A 2mb
.. Q ... dh
k~·2nm
(i) Open-end tests

Oil Packer tests

Rearranging and integrating
Fig. C4A : Two types of pumping in tests

21tk
Q
~
I hdh
nR -+ (I) Open~nd tests

hi A casing pipe (ISO mm), is driven into a previous layer to the

(~) desired depth and the hole is washed oul Clean water is then

,
) 2.303 Q log10
k added through a metering system to maintain gravity flow
1t ( h,2 -h.2) under a constant head.
U
(b) Con&ed aquifer (Flg. 4.12.2) : 1n case of a confined Water may also be allowed to enter tlle hole under some

aqllifer the incoming flow is restricted only to the thiclcness pressure head (Fig. 4.12.3).

H, of the confined aquifer.

m

Main or IMI-1 \ Ob~ onwet

~~~~,~~'Ji~';if;.t~~'J.{
I ;..,•. /
V.t;:
.:------~~~=-= . . -- - - y; -~- -
I J.i:.' ..... .,tt;.;t(;;;~r
~ ~-~~ I
........ ~
orawaown ----..., I ,.-
~~ I
I
CtiMI
r
', u I
I
Sa

Im~uble layer
- I
I
H
I I

I -2r.- I I
I
Ho I
PtiVious
• I Confined
squifiJ(

I'//////-Impervious
.I I
I
~////////////.
'///,
Per.mum
I - r,~.:.__.j
,___r2
R
,, teat eulfa<:e

Minor or to fnl>. 8lnl1um

Fig. 4.12.2 : Pumping test from confined aquifer
Fig. 4.123 : Open end test

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, . 5! 771' -- n,:-s
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' : . _.

T
~~~~~~~~::~~~~~~~~--~~~~_._._._!P~e:nm~e~a~b:lll~o~f~SO~~ils~an~d~S~e~e~~~~
.;
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4-11 l ~~
~
_L- sin b- 1 2L; 1 or>L~r
k ,. 2-nLH r
The pcnneabillty Is obtained a.~.
L ::: Length of tile portion of the hole~
k• ~ where.

where, Permeability o f Stratified SoU

q "' constantrate of flow into well. 4.13
Deposits
r "' radius of well

h = hud causing flow (gravity plus pressure, if any)

-+ (II) Plder tesf3

An uncased portion of the drill bole or a perforated portion of

the casing is used for performing the test In case the test is A stzatified soil deposit has number of soil layCI1! '1titb

l
perfooned during drilling, a top packer is placed just inside 'lity The average penneability either Parallel ...
different permeab 1 • "'

a
or below the casing. Water is pumped in the lower portion of perpendicular to planes of stratifications is to be determined.
the hole.
Permeability of St ratlflt:ld Soil Deposita

ev
To perform the test after completion of the hole, which can
stand without casing, two packers are set on a pipe or clrill (a) Parallel to planes of stratification .
stem keeping the perforated portion of the pipe between the
(b) Flow nonnal to the plane stratification
plugs.

The bottom of the pipe is plugged. The length of packer on Fig. C4.5 : Permeability or Stratified SoU Deposits
nR
expansion should be five times the diameter of the hole.
Testing is started from the bottom of the hole and continued
-+ (a) Parallel to planes of stratification

upwards (Fig. 4.12.4). Consider a deposit of three layers of thickness H 1• ~ ~·

Water level at l 0 The flow isparallel to the pl:me of deposits. The loss ofb~
standpipe (h) over a length (L) is same for each la)'er. Hence ~
U
hydraulic gradient (i) for each layer will be tq\lal to the
hydraulic gradient of entire deposits.
However, the coefficient of permeability (k) is different ftt
each layer, the velocity of flow will be different for ~
Layer. Let k 1, kz, k 3 be the coefficient of permeabilities of
m

different layers respectively.

The total discharge through soil deposit equal to the sum d

Packer discharge through each Layer :
Sa

q = k1 X i X H1 + kz X i X ~+ Js X i X~
But q = I<axixH
Fig. 4.12.4 : Packer test
m. = kl H, + kz Hz + k3 H3
The coefficient of permeability is determined from following kt Ht + kzllz + Js ~
~ ork_ =
expression : H
where ka = Average coefficient of permeability or ks

H = Total thickness of deposit (H=H 1 +Hz+~

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4-12

k,,lt,, ~ = Coefficient of ~nneab!Ullea of various

layers ~Upcctively

J. For any slnli.IJlcd layer, the coefficient of permeabiUty for

now pamJJel to the bedding plane is always gteakr lhall that of
.~ l '-*-
h normal to the bedding plane. (k,. :> Jt.)

---- H, -:.. 1:-::

v, -- t=:

l
K, t
• [ _- v --
' ,, -=~ - H2 :l h

r· ~:t,..,_j_,...,...._.,..~
v2 -
K2 : t::_-_-:=
--- H3
- - ----=-----------=----_-___ --- ---

l
--
v3 K3 - 1- v K1

a
~
,__
j, --=--t---.J~ H2 12 1 V K2 H

- =-~- - - _·:-:~ -:--- -_·: l

Ffg. 4.13.1 :Flow parallel to beddiQg plane

ev
-+ (b) Flow normal to the plane stratificaUon

In thiS case. the hydraulic gradient and head Joss through

each layer is 'differei)L However the velocity of the flow and
cfischarge will be same through each layer.
Let total h.ead be (b) and head Joss through each layer be
ll,.h,. hl.
nR Fig. 4.13.2 : Flow normal to bedding plane

4.14 Solved Examples

fl. b hl + h:z + 113 (I)
Ex. 4.14.1
ld But bl i1H1, I~= ~J-4. ~ = i 3H3 A constant head permeablllty test was carried out on a
e h i 1H 1 + i:!fi, =i3 H3 cylindrical sample of sand 10 em diameter and 15 em height
U
160 cm8 of water was collected in 1.75 minutes under a head
Jfk. is average coeffic.ient of penneability or~
to 30 em. Compute the coefficient of permeability in mlyear
v = k.i =k. fr and the velocity of flow In mlsec.

VH Soln. : k can be calculated as :

or b
~ k = .s. ___Q_
m

iA -i·A·t
v . v . v
= kl • 12 =~ ' ~ = k3
where, q = Total discharge
VH1 VH2 V~ 3
= - >< - - +- - Q = Discharge per unit time = 160 m
Using in (I) k, ~ kl
l<f
Sa

2
v A = 3.14x4 =78.5cm
k, or k,
h 30
= I: =is =2
Foro layers : t = 105 seconds
H1 +H2+ ·•·· +liu 160 -3
k, or k,. = §!!l k = 78.5x2x lOS =0.97x 10 em/sec.
!in
k, + l<z + ..... ku
k = =
9.7 x 10-s mlsec 3060 m/year ...Ans.

Where, H = Total thickness of the deposit Velocity of flow. v = ki.

H1, ~. H
3
, Thickness of various layers respectively =
:: 9.7 X 10-' X 2 1.94 X 10__. m/sec. ...Ans.

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4-13
Permeabll of Solis and Sae
60
2.3 x o.t >< •oslo o. 23 tog 6
Ex..4.14.2 = ('l 31)
" 4 -
= 22
-::;x7
In faiUng head permeability test on a sample 12.2 em height
and 44.41 cm 2 In cross-sectional area, the water level In the
staM pipe of 6.25 mm internal diameter dropped from a
height of 75 em to 24.7 em In 15 minutes. And the coefficient
of permeability.
al h,
k= At log, h;
Soln.:

log40
a= c/s area of flow, A - IRll. l • length of sample =7 Iog6

l
a = 1t X (0.62St
4
-- 0 .307 eml
=...g = 16- 7 c~~~) =~88

a
t = 15 x 60 =900 seconds "' 1.26m
( 25 )

--
lc _ 2.303 X 0.307 X 12.2 I

ev
- 44.41 X 90() 0810 24.7
Ex.4.14.4
The void ratio for sand deposit varies from 0.4 to 0.85. The
El'·
specific gravity of sand Is 2 .87. What is the range of crli~
A9l
hydraulic gradient ?
51'1"
Soln.:
nR Q::.l
l +e
10C
rna
t\01
For e = 0.4
sc
i. = bll::J..-
1 + 0.4- 119
. ...An

e 0.85
U
For
2.67 - 1
He 20m. 2rl> = dia =0.5 m i. = I + 0.85 =0.90 ••• Ana.

rl = 10m, a = 60m Ex. 4.14.5

hi = 4 m. h2 =3m A sand deposit Is made up of three horizontal layers of equal
m

Q = 0. 1 m3/sec thickness. The peiTI'Ieabllity of top and bottom layer Is

4 1
2 x 10- em/sec. and that of middle layer is 3.2 x 10·
em/sec. Find the equivalent permeability in horizontal ard
Sa

vertical directions.
20m Soln.:

Ho ~ = Coefficient of permeability in horii.ontal

--
..... .....
direction

k,. = Coefficient of permeability in vertical diJectiOI

klHI +~~+ Jc.,R.J
~ = H

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(k, + ~ + 11:.) H J Ex.4.14.8

Jc. • H 'J•3(kt -+ka,. k,) Excavation with dewatering It can1od out In aubrnorged
Jc. ~ 2x i ~ X2-+32X J ~ax!
4
eancty layer, using •hoot plio, reac:hlng a depth of 10 m
3 below grotJnd aurtace . Normal water ~able Is 3 m below
ground aurtac:e. What will be the maximum depth ot
· metre dopth of water lo atwaya malnlalned
excevaUon If one
above the depth of excavation, to avoid quick sand.
Soln.:
I -• +

I
H , (. 1 a 1 :"\
3 x to- 2 x _~
\ 2 x 10
10 3m
_!_ + I
10- · 3.2 )( J0- 2
10m
•
+n=10031.25
100

l
li
10
---- ------ -.
::::::::::::::::::::
1m

a
_f.
10031.25

ev
••• Aas.,
le
V ! EX.UU J!l&. P. 4.14.8

Aglacial clay deposit consists of a series of thin layers of silt, Let H be depth of water above the bottom of the sheet pile.
5 mm thick. after every 1.5 m thick layer of clay. The silt is Upward force .. Downward force
1oo
I times more permeable than clay. Assuming both
materials to be hydraulically Isotropic, find th e ratio of the
horizontal and vertical permeabillties.
nR (10 - 3) 10

where Y. =
lOx 1 +(H -1)20

10kN/m
1

Soln.: H = 4m

I = 1
Consider two adjacent layers : H 1 = 150 em,~= 0.5 em. y1011 20 kN/m

~ (silt) = 100 k 1 (clay) Hence depth of excavation = 10 - 4 = 6 m ••.Ans.

U
1.329 k,. ~= 1.003 k, Ex.4.14.9
1.329 k, Calculate k for the sample of sand given the following data :
l.OOH:, - 1.325 ••• Ans.
Diameter of permeameter = 75 mm
Loss of head on 200 mm length =83.2 mm
m

Ex.4.14.7
For a weir on previous foundation, the exit gradient does not
Water collected ln 1 mln 66.8 lit.=
excesd 75% of the gradient causing quick condition.
Soln. : Q = Aik = A · ~k
Determine maximum exit gradient if porosity n = 40%. 66.8x l0- 3
Sa

60
Soln. :
7
n 0.4 067 •• k = 6.057 X 10- mm/sec. ••• Ans.
e = r=o=y:QA= .

i Q.::l_ 2.7-1 =1.02 Ex. 4.14.10

-e = 1 + e I + 0.67 Find the average horizontal and vertical permeability of a soil
mass made up of three horizontal layers. The first and
But~ should not eltceed 75%.
second layer has same thickness of 0.5 m each. The third
•• .ADS. layer is 1 m thick. The coefficient of permeability of first,
Thus, 1118lt. ~ :: 0.75 X 1.02 = 0.76 - 3 em}
second and third layers are 1 x 10 sec.
(2 x 1 0-~) em/sec., 5 x 10-~ cmtsec. respectively.

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T I ~
Permeablll of Soli& and See
4-15
~GeoteChnical
Ex. 4.14.13
Soln. : A Yeft8e lloriwniBI permeability '" Jc,. ts of three layers of thiclmess equ.s to
A 8011 profile consI11 - •
Ztk, + ~k:J+ Z,~+ ........ Z..k. d 6 with k as 2 x 1 o ' 3.5 x \ o· i
•. k,. • z 2 m, 4 m an m . nd ~ '
1.5 x 10-' cmtsec. respectively. Fmd k, a .
(I X JO"') 50 + (2 X 10- ; .SO+ (5 X 10-•) 100
.. t,. .. 200
10-3) ~
Soln.: --,200 ·H3.5 )( ur">
400 + (l.S X

.. ~<.= GxiO- - 1200

= 1.95 X 10- ~ cmf~ ···AD..

1200
200 400 ~+ 600 -"'J
~ = AYg. vatical. permeability)
zx !0-"T+ 3.5 X lO- 1.5 X 10
200
= so so

l
Jc,. ~ ... Ana_
'}.354 x 10- s em/sec-
tx i0_ 3 + 2xl0_1 + 5xto- •

a
4 ••• Ans.
• 9.876 X 10- em/sec. Ex.4.14.14
esenting a sand has been tested In constant
A sampeI rep r .

ev
Ex. 4.14.11 head test for 'k'. The Inside diameter holding the sand Is 102
A stratified soD deposit consists of 3 layers. The upper and mm. The head loss 'h' over a distance L = 125 mm betw~n
lower layers are equal in thickness and the middle layer is two piezometers is 860 mm. The amount of water colla~
twice as thick as the upper layer. The coefficient of during the time of 2 minutes Is 733 mi. Calculate k.
-4
permeabiUty of upper, middle and lower layers are 4 x 10 , Sotn.:
1o- 2 em/sec. Determine equivalent coefficient
2 X 10- 2, 1 X
nR
of penneability If thf flow is (i) in the direction of layer (kJ, Given : d = 102 mm, b = 860 mm, Q = 733 ml, L == 125 111n1,
t =2 minutes.
(II) perpendicular to the direction of layer (kJ.
Soln. ; k can be calculated as :
JL _ ..Q.._ Q XL
Assume thickness of layer (upper) to be= Z k = iA - iAt- hAt
(4x IO-~Z+O x w-1z+czx JO- )zz
733 X 12.5 mJ
=
U
~ 4Z
= 860 X 1t (l~.l) X 2 X 60 C sec.
= 3.6 X 10- 3 em/sec.
4Z = 1.08 m/sec.
Z Z 2Z
+ 2+
4x to-• 1 x 10- 2 + 10- 3 MU - Ma 10 . 10 Mark s
m

1.11 X 10- 3 em/sec. ••• Ans.

Ex. 4.14.12
Sa

A stratified deposit consists of 4 layers of equal thickness.

The coefficient of permeability of second, third and fourth
layers are 1/3, l2 and twice of the k of the top layer.
Computer the average permeability in horizontal and vertical
direction.
Soln.: Soln. :
1 l
kXZ+2kXZ+ j'kXZ+2kZ
4Z -0.958k

~ = z z z z =0.615 k •••A.ns. 0.17

I+-t +1- +21c
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~ = 0.06 0.06 0.05
-2 k -3 k 3 X 10-S + 4 X 10-S + 6 X 10.:.!

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PermeabUi
2.303~ ~ nut H, .,
At 1081oh HJ .. ll • .t!.
2.303 )( 2 )( 10".
• ' 3
k•+ko+k,
21.8 x to·• x- log 0.2.5 k., ..
l 10'0:1 H ><~
t ,.
364.63s~.
I
3(1c• + k;,+k~
I
a 'J(4X 10"' +6X Hf1 +4>< 10"')

= 0.020 em /sec

2.0 X 10' 1 cmJs

H
k., .. !!t+~ !h

l
k, k, + kl
mk. = Ht(~

a
1 1 :'\
4 xt() +6xto· 1 +4x10·•;
3
k; "' (2500 + 16.67 + 2500)

ev
I
k. ; 1672.22

k = 1.06 x 10" 2 c~s 5.980 x 10· 4 cmlsec.

velocity of flow, V =
.Q 500 0.020
A=~ =25.47m/s

}Y _
v
4(5)

-1t
4.86 X 10-J kN
2
nR
4(5) X 15 X 10· 6 m3

16.5 kNtm3
= .21Jr. 2.68 X 9.81
U
e Yd - I = 16.5 - 1 =0.593

e
n 1 + e = 0.372 or 37.2%

v 25.47 Q = 18.7 2mlhr=

3 18.72
x =5.2x10-3 m/s
3
Seepage velocity, vs = ;- =o:372 60 60

= =l.8 m,k = 3.8 x 10-4 rnls

m

(i) R1 15 m, h 1

~ = 50m, h2 =?

2.303 Q log10 (~)

Sa

k =
1t (hl -h:)

3
2.303 x5.2x 10' xlog10 { ~~ )
1
1t [ ( h:- (1.8) ) ]

Soln. :
= 3.84 :X 10·•
~"' Coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction
•••Ans.
Coefficient of permeability in vertical direction ~ = 2.91m
~ =
k1 H1 + ~ H2 + k 3 H3
H
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Parmaablll of Solie and See

4. Th& now Is steadY·

4.15 Seepage s. Tho now i8 two-dlmenaional.

w~r and soil arc Incompressible.
6.
4.15.1 Definition of Seepage Let us consider an element of soli is d:x, dz tbrougb which
flow is taking place. The third dimension of an cleme11t it
lt is defined as the flow of fluid (water) due to hydiau.lic
taken as unity·

1clz

l
If the seepage forces are large enough to erode the soil
partic.les. piping ean initiate and progressively lead to a

a
structural collapse. Soils most susceptible to piping by l
erosion are sands and silts.

ev
4.15.2 Importance of Seepage

The seepage forces are considered important while studying Fig. 4.16.1 : Two-dinlensional now
erosion of soil, failure of dams, retaining wall failure etc. as Let the velocity at inlet and outlet faces be V. and
they are strong enough to reduce the effective stresses of soil
(vx+ ClaV: d:x) in X direction and V, and (v,+o;z ·dz)
and lead to several disasters.
nR in z direction.
Control of seepage and seepage forces can be achieved by
providing a cut off wall or a trench using impervious As the flow is steady and soil is incompressible, the
materials. discharge entering the element equal to that leaving ~

Also use of proteCtive filters prevents erosion and reduce element.

U
uplift pressure. ThUS, vI dz. +vz dx =(vI+ a;; dJt) dz +(v1+a~; ' dz.) dt
4.16 Laplace's Equation or \.Tx + ~)
rav. az. dx. dz = 0

o+ (MU ·May 10, May 16)

av. av
-- +~ = 0
or ax az ...(4.16.1)
m

Equation (4.16.1) is the C<Jntinuity equation for tn

dimensional flow.
Sa

Let (h) be the total head at any point. The horizontal and
vertical components of hydraulic gradient (I) aR

respectively :
The flow through soils is generally two-dimensional. Hence
simple method of construction of flow net cannot be used.
The Laplace's equation can be used in such case.
Negative sign indicates that the bead decreases in the
Following assumptions are made to derive Laplace's
direction of flow.
equation:
From Darcy's law :
I. Darcy's law is valid.
2. The soil is fully saturated. v. = -~~
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Soil is isotropic and homogeneous.

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MU-s"'sem.-c1v1
4-18
Permeablll
subStilllting in (4 .16. 1) :
q•q.-~-q~· ­
a1, ill q1•q2•q_1 · - ·
-"'·~-lc.a;r= 0 H•Ah,•At7.... AI't~-+ ­
a\ kz ih2
t,.. a;s+ a" 0
t.l"li• 61'12• Ah,· -

SiDCC: soi~ is &S$IJ.IJled to be isotropic.

kz :: ~

.U+ a\
~,:~. al
- o
- ... (4.16.2)

Equation (4.16.2) is Laplace equation.

m terms of head (h).

l
If velocity potential ifl = - kh

.
~ v.=-k~= ~-v&=-k~

a
and

Substituting in equation (4.16.2),

ev
ilrb ;l
ld
a;r+~ :: 0 ... (4. 16.3)

) .equation (4. 16.3) is Laplace's equation in terms of velocity

potential (Q).

4.17 Solution of Laplace ~quation • Flow

nR 4.17.1 Properties of Flow Net

Net Q. Write a note on characteristics of flow nel

1. Discharge q 1, 'h· 'h· .... througll each flow path are equal and
total discharge, q = q 1 + 'h + 'h + ....
U
Laplace equation expresses the fundamental relationship for 2. Potential drops h 1, ~. ~ . .. between any two adjacent

steady state potential flow in isotropic soils. equipotential lines are equal and total drop. b = h1 + ~ + ~

For the two-dimensional case, solution of this equation + .....·

represents two families of orthogonal curves known as 3. Flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal, i.e. they
m

streamlines or flow lines (111 lines) and potential lines intersect each other at right angles.
4. Flow lines and equipotential lines form "square figures". i.e.
their corners are at right angles and median distances are
Sa

equal.
5. Flow lines do not intersect; similarly potential lines do not
intersect except at boundaries.
Thus. flow net is a graphical representation of the solution of
Convergence of flow lines means concentration of flow and
Laplace equation for two-dimensional flow. 6.
increasing hydraulic gradient, and divergence of flow lines
Flow lines cr•. f2. f3.....) trace the flow of a particle of water indicates decreasing hydraulic gnulients.
and equipotential lines {p1• Pl• P3• ....) are the lines joining

points and equal potentials. '

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6
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4-19
(I) RJcbt angles : Flow lineS and cquipolcntial lines mun <:nltt
4.17.2 Construction of Flow Net at right angles.

{II) Sq~~MC blocks : 11le areas formed by in~necdng flow li~

and equipotential lines mu.s t be as near square as possible i.e.
the central dimensions should be equal. A useful ~ i& to
visualize whether a circle can be placed inside the block 111111
The flow net can be obtained by any one of the following
touch all four sides.
methods:

I. Solution of Laplace's equation (Analytical method). (W) Boundary conditions

(a) Permeable boundaries : A - 8, D - B, P - Q and

2. Electtical analogy method (Experimental method).
S - T are permeable boundaries. There sutfaces have
3. Graphical method.
constant head and hence ate equipotential lines.

l
Since graphical method is widely used. it is explained here.
(b) Impenneable bouodariM: F- G . B-C-D and P -

a
Graphical Method T are impermeable bouaadaries. There is no flow acro,8
4.18
these boundaries, and \If is constant. Thus, there arc

ev
The coDlJliOnest procedure for obtaining flow nets is a flow tines.
grapb.ical. trial and error skelching method. for seepage problems (lv} Nonnally four to five flow channels are sufficient
with well defined boundary conditions. Reasonably good flow oets
(v) The entire now net should be observed and not a part of it
can be obtained by practice and by adhering to the correct
(vi) The curves should be roughly parabolic or elliptical in
boundary conditions and use of square figures. The following
nR
,,
poiniS may be observed to obtain a reasonably good flow net shape.

y '
-
• v
-
-
(vU) The flow lines (stream lines) and equipotential lines should
be orthogonal and form approximate squares.

(viii) All transitions should be smooth.

U
(I) .RJgJif 111g.Jes (il) Squre bloda (ix) The size of the squares in flew c~l sho~tld chanxe
gradualJy from the upstream to the downstream.

(x) The qiUJIIJity of waJer flowing through each channel is 1anu.

E~
Flow lines ~ 'Fiow rnes (Jd) Same potential drop occurs between two successive
m

Aowlines equipotential lines.

(iU)lmpenneable boundaria (iv) Permeable boundary I eatry
(xll) SmalJer the dimension of field, greater will be the hydraulic
Fig. 4.18.1(8) gradient and velocity of flow through it
Sa

{xill) The hydraulic boundary conditions have a great eff~t on the

shape of the flow net
A 8 D :;- E

c 4.19 Examples of Constructing Flow

F
/) // /) /) ,;> // /?
G Nets

(i) S beet pile waiJ (ii) Earth dam Following two examples of constructing fiow netS are
illustrated below :
Fig. 4.18.t (b)

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Permeabltl of Solla and See
UQ nnd TV .
nra potential boundaries with known heads.
QRST 11Jld XY
, nra flow line boundaries because tbe6e are
'.. ampetviOU! surf
aces GCross which water cannot paM. Plow
(l i) Earthen dam ·
Unes will e .
merge at nght an&les from UQ and end at right
fjg. C4.6 : Examples or Constructtn angles at TV B
IFlowNeta · ecause of symmetry Oow net will be
symmetrical, abo'Qt vertical nls.
. .1 Sheet Pile
4 19 ~ Stapa
pQR is a sheet pile driven in a previa
us 1ayer of depth d th (i)
Make, a scale drawing showing the structure, soil mass, the
deplh of embedment QR being d'. [Fig. 4 19 ' e
· .l(a). (b), (c)]. previous boundaries and the impervious boundariea.
(ii)

l
Sketch the ftrm.lrtal flow line as f 1f 1, emerging at right angles
at UQ running round the sheet pile and meeting TV at ri&}lt

a
angles.

Sketch the first equipotential line PaPa so as to make a square

ev
figure with the flow line f 1f 1 and the boundary QR and

ending at right angles to the boundary flow line XY.

Now sketch the second flow line f1f1 , again emerging at right
angles with UQ, making square figures with p 1p 1 going round
nR , the sheet pile parallel to the ftrSt line £1£1 and ending ai right
angles to TV.

Sheet pile (iv) Then sketch the next trial potential line. emerging at tight
angles from QR. making square figures with neighbouring
flow lines and meeting XY at right angles. Continue
U
sketching to complete the flow nel

(v) Now, check (by drawing circles touching all the sides of the
square) the square figures and orthogonality everywhere in
the flow net. The first attempt can hardly produce a good
m

flow net Make a second, third and if required more attempts,

till a reasonably good flow net has been sketched.

4.19.2 Homogeneous Earthen Dam

Sa

Fig. 4. 19.2 shows, the dam selection ABCD has FC as

blanket filter and ENJ as top seepage line (also called phreatic line.
melhod of drawing top seepage line is outlined in sec. 4.20) BC
represents the rock line.

ImperviOUS
~ Steps

(c) Flow Det for double sheet piles (i) Boundaries : EB and FC are potential boundaries and ENJ
Fig. 4.19.1 and BF are bound flow lines.

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-4-21

k 1 d l tan<:O from top seepage line and elida

rar, thnl emerges trom BB Ill rightnngiH. run8 eep na A *t liJle.
(li) Slretch lhe first trial now line

boundary at right angles.

~'ii.ti) S'-~L ... ..... ~.-. nnd meet the boundJI)' flow linetl 81 rigbt angles ·and ronn len~
,_
\' "'"""' cqaipoll:lltial lines p 1p 1, PlPl• ........so u olll u,..y em-.,-

If 1111 y figures are found to be "non-squ~" 84J11et

. '
(iv) Olcd the onhogonallty and squnre figures. In Pig. 4.19.2 pqrs Is o non·llqlla.re. m
the biaJ flow line and st:eteh new equipotential lines. Three or more such trials wiU yield a reasonably good flow net.

In <:a$C of earthen dam one flow line (f1f 1) may even be adequate as shown in Fig. 4.19.2(a).
End adjustment

_s.

l
6-

a
ev
nR
U
Focus
(b)
Fig. 4.19.2 : Flow net for earthen darn

Construction of Top Seepage Line

m

4.20
of Earth Dam
Sa

Fig. 4.20.1 : Casagrande's method of detennining phrealk liDe

in a dam with horizontal drainage filter
The phreatic line or seepage line is defined as 'the line
1. AB is the upstream face. Let its horizontal projection be I.
within a dam section below which there are positive
hydrostatic pre$sures in the dam'. On the water surface, measure a distance BC =0.3 L. 'Ibcn
the point Cis the starting point of the base parabola.
The hydrostatic pressure on the phreatic line is atmospheric.
The following is the procedure for locating the phreatic line 2. The directrix of the parabola is located by utili1ing ~
graphically. principle that any point on the parabola is equidistant froJI
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the focus as well as from the directrix. Hence with point Cal

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. D "- IOeuttheb • Parmeabtl of Sob and See e

thlOUBh CB lD
Jjtll' · ..,,.w a Yenic.J Ott:tonU~J
. co lllngent to • L _ Fidel 1 'llle
1'P 11 D. S111cc = CP. Hence, lht Yerti u"' Cllfve ponJon ~'-11 two ewxeaalvc now linea aod
• c:aJ line DH o succeastve
equ,potcntJ~ linea (IWdled portion).
0

~· ISthc

petweeD P and H, the last point 0 of the

,. Patabota WiU r
To locate ~ ln_rennedia1e P<>ines on lht Je.
4- -flteiple lhat tts distances from the ~ P<lrllbo!a, the
....·- ocus and dirce .
be equal will bo used. For example t trill tntut
0 1
draW vertical line QP at any distance• froocate any point P.
x mP M
with P as the centre and QH as the _ _., · easure QH
•OIUIUS, draw Ill)
. these
\'Ciiical line throuib Qat point P.
Join all points (C, P, G) to get the b
arc to cut
Let I •
Fig. 4.21.1 : Flow net

Length of the field

l
5. ox parabola.
Bnt!)' point correction : The phreatic li .
b = Width of the field
6· ne 18 a flow line it

a
must start from B and not &om c and .
It should be
' Ah • Head d1op through the field

perpencllculll! to the upstream face AB hi" h . aq • Discharge passing lhr<>ugb the flow channel
. . . • w c IS a 100%

ev
eqUJpotential line. Therefore, portion of the p"--"' . H ~ Total hydraulic head
"-'....uC line atB
is sketched free hand in such a way that . It Starts <r From Darcy's a.w
perpendicularly to AB. The base patabQla should also meet
the downstream filler perpendicularly at o. 6q
6h
= k·T·(bx l)

assuming thickness of field as unity.

uses of Flow Net
4.21

+ (June11, May 13, Dec. 13, Dec. 15, May 16, Dec. 16)
nR If N4 = Total number of potential drops in
complete flow net,
H
.wnar·are the applications of flow net? Then, 6h
Nd

~.....,......
..~ ~ t....,

briefly uses of flow net

June 11. f\la

Dec. 13. Dec. 15

13
Hence aq - k-; 0)
U
4

the.use of flow net. The total discharge through complete now net

A flow net chart can be used for the foUowing purposes : q = l:Aq = k ~
0 0) X N1

Purposes for uses of flow net chart where N1=Total number of flow channels in the flow nel
m

N b
q = k.Hif·l
d
1. Determination of discharge
Since field is square (b =1), hence
2. Determination of total head
Sa

q = kHNd
!'1
3. Determination of pressure head
This equation is valid for isotropic soils <kx = k, = k).
4. Determination of exit hydraulic gradient
For anisotropic soils, kx Icy *
·Fig. C4.7: Purposes for uses of flow net cbart So, q = k'H!!L
Nd

.. 1. Determ.ioation of d.lsdtarge where k' = ~ kx icy

Flow channel : The portion between any two sucx:essive
flow lines.
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Permeablll

Soln.:
... 2. DetenntnaUon of total bead

The ln.•s of hend from one cquipotontlnl line to ne~t

equipotenlial line is NH. The totnl head (!-\) nt ony polnt am Assuming square field, b • I
d • N,
q = kH-
Nd
be detemllned as :
3.5
H, .. H-(nx;) : 1.5X 1~ x20 Xg
7

where, n = The number of the equipotential drops.

7 3
13.1 x 10- m /t;ee. ...Ana,

-+ 3. Determination of pressure head Ex. 4.21.2

1l1e pressure at any point equals to the head minus lhe The flow. net for a sheet pile gave 3 fiow channels and 7

l
elevation bead. The downstream water level is talcen as equipotential drops. Determine the quantity of seepage per
datum. meter length of the sheet pile per day, if coefficient of

a
= 5
permeability k 0.7 x 10- m/sec. and head loss is 5 m. (il
~= H, - (- HJ Soln.:

ev
N,
~ = H, +H. q = kH -Nd
where, f\, = Pressure bead
0.1 x to-' cs>~
"'
= Total bead
I
H,
6
q = 15 X 10- litens per sec/m length
He = Elevation head
I
nR 15x 10- 6 x24x3600

,
Thus, 1he pressure bead at any point is the height of water q

column in the piezometer at that particular point. = 1296 Uters pet- sedm length .... Ans,

-+ 4. Det.ennJnatJon of hydraulic gradient Ex. 4.21 .3

The average value of jlydraulic gradient for any flow field is For the dam of Rg. P .4.21.3, draw the flow net and
determine the following :
U
given by :
(i) The quantity of flow
(ii) The seepage pressure in the middle of square B
(iii) The upward pressure at the point B.
where, .111 = Equipotential drop in the last field
(iv) The exit gradient at point A.
m

Length of last field

The coefficient of permeability is 4.0 x 1o- rn/s.
2

The hydraulic gradient and hence the velocity at exit is

maximum where length (l) is minimum.
Sa

4.21.1 Solved Examples

Ex. 4.21 .1
The depth of water on the upstream side of a zoned earth
dam is 20 em. The coefficient of permeability's of upstream
and downstream
-
zones are 1.5 x 10- 7 rn/s an d
7
6.0 x 10 m/s respectively. Determine the quantity of
seepage per unit length through the dam. N, = 3 .5, Nd S. =
Fig. P. 4.21.3

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 ~,..:
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fbe JloW oel is drawn as in Pig. P. 4.2 1.3 .
J'luJIIbeT of floW channels, N, .. s
f'atnbd of poiCildal droJ)l. N4 .. 16
Ex. 4.22.1
Jlelld Joss • 10m.
In a thrao 111
H 10 · Yer&d aoll water ftow. parellol 1o that of top and
fOIII'IIial drOP. All = N4 ""16 .. 0.62S bottom laye Th
r. • coelflclenl of per rneab11lty o1 middle layer
(2k) Ia twice the
~quanti I)' of now I of top and bottom layer (II). What Ia the
(I) N, average coottlclent of permeability lor thlo flow ?
q = lcH1fd (a) k {b) 1.33 k (c) t.Sk (d) 0.66 k
4.0x 10- 5 3 Soln. : (c)
or q = 1000 x 10 Xj6
Ex. 4.22.2
= 1.25 x I o- • m3/ttec.Jrn length.
A soli has a discharge velocity of 3 x 1 o- 7 rn/s and void ratio

l
(d) 'fhe pottntiol head at B is
ol O.S. Its seepage velocity Is

a
h1 = H - Ndt.h (a) 6 x 10- 7 ·rnJs 7
(b) 12 x 10- m/s
10 - 6.5 x 0.625 = 5.94 m (c) 7
9 X t 0- rn/s (d) 7
18 x 10- mls

ev
seepage Pressure, P, = h, Yw =5.94 x 9.81 Soln.:

• 58.27 kN/m 1 Given: w, • 15%, 0 = 2.5 S ~ I

(tii) 'l'be upUft pressure head, h.. = h; - z. Consider the Now wO = eS

downstream waJer level as datum. wO

- = e • - 1- =0.15 x 2.5 =- 0315

and uplift pressure. u,..
h.. 5.94+ 11.6= 17.54 m
17.54 + 9.81
nR
•••Ans.
v_ = yn
e 0.5 l
172.07 kN 1m 2 •••Ans.
Where, n = 'i"'+e .. TI =3
Ah 0.625
Qf) !Wt gradient, ic = -~- ="0:60 = 1.04. •••ADs.
113
- 9 x 10- ' mls
3 x 10_, mls-
U
fl, 4.21 .4 Ex.4.22.3
The following data pertains to the conditions on the The Fig. P. 4.22.3 below shows two flow lines for seepage
downstream side of an impervious dam on previous across an Interface between two soil media of different co-
foundation : ·etficient of permeablllty. If entrance angle a., = 30°, the exit
Potential drop, Ah =0.2 m
m

angle ~will be
Average length for drop, ~L =0.2 m k1 =1 .0 x 10-7 mls
G•2.67, e =0.65
Aow Is vertically upwards.
Sa

Find whether quicksand condition can occur.

Soln.:
~ _2:1 _1 ...Ans.
I. Hydnwlic gradient (i) = M. - 0.2 -

G- 1 2.67- 1
2. Critical hydraulic gradient (ic) ~ = =1+ 0.65 Fig. P. 4.22.3
(b) 14.()30 (c) 66.59° (d) 75.96°
...Ans. (a) 7.50°
= 1.012
Soln. : (c)

- & i:: ~. quicks and will occur.

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4·25
Pe~eablli Or Solis 8nd Se

· ex.4.22.7
EX-4.22.4
If during a permeability test on a soli sample With a fal""g
A stratified soil deposit has three layers of thickness : z, .a 4,
head permeameter equal time IntervalS ere noted for a drop
z2 - 1, z3 • 2 units and the corresponding permabllltles of k, of head from L1 and 4 end against from 4 to then wtllcll !-a·
= 2, k2 =1 and ~<:, =4 units, respectively. The average of the following relation will hold good 7 '
permeability perpendicular to the bedding planes will be (a) L: = Ll Lz (b) L: ,. Ll La
'
(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) B (d) 16 (c) L: =~ 4 (d) (L1 -I....J) = 4- La
..SOin.: (b)
Soln. :
Ex.4.22.5 Ak
ax<~-t,) = log~~
h
A flownet of a Coffer dam foundation has channels and 18
equipotential drops. The water lost during seepage is Sm. If
=:::;> (1:1- t 1) oc Jog0 G:!}

l
5
coefficincy permeability of foundation is 4.10- m/mln.
log., t = log.~

a
Seepage loss per m length of dam will be
2 3
(a) 2.16 x 10- 2 m3 day (b) 6.48 x 10- m day =:::;> Jog., L 1 ~ Jog.,~
2 3
11.52x10- 2 m3 day

ev
(c) (d) 34.56x10- m day = Jog0 ~-log.~
2
Soln. : (c)
=:;>Lt~ = L2
Ex.4.22.6
Ex. 4.22.8
A soil deposit has three layers having same thickness each A horizontal stratified soil deposit consists of three layera

from top
nR
but the permeabilities of the layers are in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 4
to bottom. What is the ratio of average permeability
In the horizontal direction to that in the vertical direction ?
each uniform In itself. The coefficients of permeabilities of
these layers are 8 x 10~ m/s, 50
m!s and their thicknesses are 6rn, 4m and 10m respectively.
x 10~ mfs and 10 x 10~

The effective average permeability of the deposit in the

(a) 7:2 (b) 14:6
horizontal direction will be
(c) 28 : 24 (d) 49:36
(a)
8
13.6 . 10- m/s (b) 17.4 x 10~ m/s
Soln.:
10~ 10~ m/s
U
(c) 3.2. m/s (d) 12.5 x
As welcnow. Soln.: (b).
I layer, k, H
Ex. 4.22.9
1I layer : 2.k:, H In a recuperation test of an
the specific yield was
open well
found to be 0.5. If diameter of the well
is 1.0 m and it is under
m

m Jaye.r : 4k, H
a constant depression head of 4.0 m, then discharge from
the well is

Hk+2Hk+4Hk 7Hk (a)

1t
2 {c) 2 n (d) a:
Sa

3H = 3H
Soln.:
12k
=T
~ 3H 3
1<. = !J. ~ Z:\ =ifH= I I 1 Ex. 4.22.10
k1 +~ + Ki' k + zk £+'k+ 4k A loose uniform sand with. rounded grains has effective grain
:. Ratio of avemge penneabiliry, size of 0.05 em. Coefficient of permeability cf the sand is

~ 7k 7 49 (a) 0.25 em/sec (b) 0.50 em/sec

~ =3 X 12k =36 (e) 1. 00 em/sec (d) 1.25 em/sec
Soln.: (a}
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q•KH!!.,_
N•

., 10·S X 4 X 6 X.!_
12

----~;:;------=~~1l~x~l:O~~
Ex. 4.22.15
m~/m~m~--~-------
q Flownet drawn for a .
P<>tentiaJ Weir, total head loss Ia em, number ol
droPS Is 10 and length of the flow palh lor the last
square Is 1 T
rn. he exit gradients Is
(a) 0.6

l
{b) 0.7
12.96 )( 10~:& (c) 1.0
(d) . 1.6

a
Soln. :
~. ..~.12
.,...
,,_
now net for an earthen dam With 30
• m water depth i.e. Ah Potential drop in last field
e average leng1h in last sequence

ev
GOfl
slsts of 25 potential drops and s flow c hannals. If this
-~harge per metre length of dam Is 0. 00018 s
di
liY'' • • m Is, then
Q&
1 -06
- •
wnat is the c~~fflclent of permeability of dam materials?
{a) 3 x 10 em Is (b) 6 x 10- 3 cm/s
Elt. 4.22.16
2
(c) 3 x 10- cm/s (d) None of these Which of the statements given are is {are) correct?

sorn.:
k
nR {a) Hydraulic gradient required to initlat4:1 'quick' condition
is independent of the ratio of volume of voids to
volume of solids in a soil mass.
I8xl0.5 25 (b) Initiation of piping under hydraulic structures can be
= :30 xT
prevented by increasing the length of flow path ol
water.
"" 3 x 10-s mls =3 X 10-3 em /sec
U
(c) Seepage pressure is independent of the coefficient of
ex. 4.22.13 permeability.
Properties of flow net is /are (d) All of these
(a) Flow lines are perpendicular to equipotential lines. Soln.: {d)
(b) No two flow lines or equipotnetial lines start from the
m

Ex. 4.22.17
same point
A strata of 3.5 m thick fine sand has a void of 0.7 of G of 2.7
(c) No two flow lines cross each other
for a quacks and condition to develop in this strata, the water
(d) All of these flowing In upward direction would require a head of
Sa

Solo.: (d) (a) 7m (b) 5.56 m

Ex. 4.22.14 (c) 5m (d) 3.5 m

If a flow net of a coffer dam foundation had 6 number of flow soln. :
channels and 12 number of equipotential drops, with the
4 ic = ~-Ll=..l-1
1 + e - 1 +0.7 -
head of water being 6m, through a foundation having k "" x
10-6 m/mln, them seepage Josslm length of dam will be :. H = 3.5m
-5 3/ .
(a) 24x10...om9 min (b) 18 x 10 m mm
...o 3/ I
jc) 12x10-sm9 /min (d) 9x10 m mn

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Jl A~
,
I
~ Gaotechnleal
Ex. .f..22.18
If porosity Ia denoted
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by n and apeclllc gravity of aoll aolld 18

~ ~~;-'
O· dlf11'
tl'l'
(Ill
0, then hydraulic gradient or deposits to develop bOling of
(O)
sandIa given by,
0 - 1 G- 1 • (d)
lc • ;-=;; '• • 1+ii

I
(a) (b)
,;· A
(c) 1, • (0 - 1) (1 - n)
Soln.:
0· 9 "'
c;!
l
~
= .2.=..1
1-e p
where, 0 = spceific: gravity 1:

l
e • void ratio,

n = porosity

a
e
.. n = l+e

ev
e e Fig. 2
1- n = t-r:;:e =J+e
zn kh dh
dr
-r =
1. = (G - 1) x 1 !e• (G- 1)(1 - o)
Q

k -

ConftDed aquifer : A = 2n r =Area of Flow

nR a = Effective pressure = a- u = Y.., • h-y,.h
~· ·:
o.5
2 n~ Jdb
~~ Q.
(~ : :) Yw- Yw= (~~!) Yw
~ = critical hydraulic gradi ent h (G-1
=t:= T+;)
U
Yw Ant
capillary rise in soil = e ~
Q, l
10
m

Ar
I
I Q. 1 A sand deposit has a porosity of 0.375 and a
I
I
a
Sa

I I specific gravity of 2.6, the critical hydraulic gradient

I I
I I for the sand deposit is (IES 19~)
I I
(a) 2.975 (b) 2.225 (c) 1 (d) 0.75
,..__ _ r
.j j. dr
Ans. : (c)
Fig.]

Q = ki·A
Explanation : e = 1- n
n
=1 0.375
- 0.375 =0.6

k = 2.3 a·L I
-:;r- ogJo ~
E.!. ic = ~~!
k = J&. = 1 =Critical
h· A

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"·z ...,-.flons are k, and
uow~
k, res""' lv In lC end y P~elb411 of Soite llld
"' ,....ct ety In 0. 6 A
.Lmenslonal flow, The effectlve P8 a two 8 111d the fOllowing eteternonta :
"' 1Ylleebllity ., ( 1) Th
!1!8 soil Is given by ·-.q lor 0 tep!jl8ty preeaore held above the w ater
(QI\l"E ,...... ~ble
(B) 1<,. + ~ (b) k, 1 k, "••) resulta In attrac11va tore.. between the

~+ ~ P8rtldoe ano Ia known .. IIUCtlon preesure.

( 2 2) 112 12
(a) (d) (k, k,)' (Z) Seepage Prauure Ia due to ITictlonaJ force
·(d)
""". A soli mass has coefficients of h . 3
acting on the surface of grains.
d~reaae with the dispersed day
a.s 0
vertical penneabllity as 9 x 10- ., Crn/ 1l2ontal and
( ) PormeabHity

l
structure.
S Blld 4 X 10- 1
cmJs respectively. The transtoiTTied . Of the above
. COeflictent of
,..nneability of a n equival ent isotrop· . (a) (1) and (2) are correct
,...- tc SOil mass
is .... (b) (2) and (3) are correct
7 (GATE 1995) (c) (3) and (1) are correct
9X 10- Cm/s

l
(8) (b) 4 >< 1o-7 Crn/s
7 (d) ( 1), (2) and (3) are correct.
(c) t 3x 10- cm/s Ane. : (d)
(d) 6 x 1o- 7 Crn/s

a
.Arl' ·: (d) 0.9
In a falling head permeameter a soil sample with 75
gsp!JDIIdon : k = ~ = ( " 9 X 4) X 10- 7:::: 6 X10-7 C:IJl/s mm In diameter and 55 mm In length was tested. At

ev
the commencement of the test the Initial head was
a. 4 Aoc:ording to D arcy's law for flow through porous
80 em and alter one hour, the head was 40 em. Find
metdle, the velocity is proportional to ...
the coeHicient of penneability 11 the diameter of
(a) Effective stress (b) Hyd raulic gradient stand pipe Is 1 em.
(c) Cohesion (d) Stability number. Ana.:

a6
A,_· : (b)
nR In case of a falling head permeameter we know,
Piping in soli occurs when.....
(a) The soli is highly porous
(Gate1998)
k c A2(~ ~~) lo&to 00
(b) Sudden change In permeability occurs
Here, L = S.S em;

A = ~ =~. 18cm1
(c) Effective pressure becomes zero (d) The 4
U
soil is h ighly stratified. h1 :::: 80cm;~=40cm
An•.: (c) a = 1t4x l l =0.7854cml
o. 6 The upward movement of a soil is called ....... ~- t1 60 minutes = 3600 sees
(a) Heaving (b) Swelling Substituting the values in equation (i), we get
m

(c) Creep (d ) None of these 2.3 X 5.5 X 0.7854 l ( 80)

k= 44.18x3600 x og10 40
Ana. : (a)
= 1.88 x 10- 5em/sec.
0. 7 The following data were obtained when a sample of
a. 10 For practically impervious type of soil, the coefficient
Sa

medium sand was tested in a constant head

of permeability Is determined using
permeameter : (IES 2001)
2 (a) Variable head test.
cross - sectional area of sample : 100 em
(b) Constant head test.
Hydraulic gradient : '10
(c) Consolidation test.
Discharge collected : 10 eels _
(d) Pumping test (1ES 1992)
The coefficient of permeability of the head sand IS
Ans.: (d)
(a) 0.1 m/s (b) 0.01 m/s
a. 11 Consider the following statements regarding
(c) 1 x 10- • m/s (d) 1 x 10-a m/s
4na.: {b) confined aquifers : · (lES 1:994)

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,.. I

Perrneablll at Solie and See

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minutes under an effective eon...
down In 10
r1 (1} Tho aquifer Is bound at top end below by
Impervious strahl.
t~ead o f 40
weights 495 ·
em
·
g Taking the specific graVity
.
·~~
on oven drying tho test &P6(:j t
~
01 'QQ
I (2) The pressure of water Is
etmosphorfc pressure.
greater then
ends as 2 • •
as calculate the seepage ve~tv.:..
.....,'Y Cll
water during the test.
(3) A tub&well sunk In such an aquifer starts (U.P.S.C. CIVIl Servlcea Exam, 1&eoj

I
flowing always by Itself.
(4) Tho aqUifer Is tully saturated. Ans. :
O f tile above statements. Gll'en :
Discharge (Q) = 430 ml =430 c. c.
Time (t) =10 x 60 =600 seconds,

'
(a) (1) , (2) and (3) are correct.
l
cross-sectional area (A) = 50 em •
(b) (2). (3) and (4) are correct. ,
(c) (1), (2) and (4) are correct. Length of specimen (L) = 6 em •
(d) (1 ), (3) and (4) are correct. Effective constant head (h) =40 em.

l
Ans. (a)
We know that in case of constant bead penneamet.er

a
0. 12 ~ 20 mm diameter well fully penetrates a confined Q L I
' I. k = t ·ii ·X ...(iJ
aquifer of 30 m ,depth. For a pump -age of 35 liters I

ev
second tile steady drawdowns at 100 m and 300 m Substituting the "alues in equation (i) we get.
distances from the well are observed as 3.2 m and 430 6 1 -8
k = 6oQX 4(} X SO= 2.15 X 10 em/sec
2 .5 m 'respectively. Estimate the coefficient of
3
permeability In rn/day and transmissibility of the 2.15 x 10- x 60x 60x 24
2
= 100 = 1.858 mlday
aquifer In m per day. Estimate also the drawdown

An•. :
Glven
~~~L ~~1m)
nR Again, the velocity of flow,
discharge
v = Area of Cross Section
.Q.
A

3 430 -2
Q = 35/ps = 0.035 m lset;, r 1 = 100m, r2 =300m, 600 x 50 :;: 1.43 x 10 em/sec
s.z = 2.5, s1 = 3.2. ~ 495 3
pd = V =50 x 6 = 1.65 gfcm
U
H = 30m.
r.
2.3 Qlog..!l. e = \ Pd -
(G Pw t) =2.651.65x 1 - 1 : 0.606
.

We know, ! = r•
2 1t .H: (s1 - Sz) e 0.606
n = 1+e 1 + 0.606 = 0.377
= 2.3 x 0.035 x Iog10 (~) · y !. 1.43 X 10- 2 _
m

Seepage VeIoctty, 1 :;: n:;: . 3.8 x 10 2 cmJsec,

2 7t X 30 (3.2- 2.5) 0 377

= 2.911x10- mls
4 0.14 An acquifer of 20 m average thickness is overlain by
an impermeable layer of 30 m thickness. A test wall
T kb=2.9.1 Jx10- 4 x 30
Sa

of 0.5 m diameter and two observation wells at a

8.7330 x 10-3 m2/s distance of 10 m and 60 m from test well are drilled

= 8.733 x I0- x 60 x60 x24

3 throug~ the acquifer. A filter pumping at a rate ol a
0.1 m /sec. Wells : first observation well, 4 m;
2
= 154.87 m /day second observation well, 3m. Show the arrangement
n,~--L.iJj' f T 754 87 in a diagram. Determine the coefficient. of
.n.. W<iGU ty o the acquifer, k =b:;: ~ :;: 25.16 mlday penneability and the draw down in the test wei.
State the validity of Darcy's Jaw. (IES 1995)
0 . 13 Calculate the coefficient of permeability of a soil Ans. :
sample, 6 em in height and 50 cm2 cross - sectionaJ Thickness of acquifer = 20m
area, If a quantity of water equal to 450 ml passed Diameter of test well = 0.5m
0.1 m /s~
3
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Discharge =

QWg 611
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2tos(t)
(~-)' ~

l
Fig.l·Q.14

a
i) ,6J1'811gement of well.
3
Here. Q = 0.1 m /sec

ev
r1 10m

r1 60m

~ =· 4m

s1 = 3m (d) Homogeneous-clays (4) 10- 4 to 10-o

WeJcDow that. Q
nR Codes:
A B c
D
(a) 4 1 3 2
Here. tn(7J In (f~) = /o (6) =1.79 (b)
(c)
1
4
4 3 2
1 2 3
(~- s1) = 4- 3 = 1.0 m (d) 4 2 3
U
Ans.: (d)
Q ·In (7;)
.. T = 21t (s2 -s1) a. 17 A soil mass under seepage has downward flow of
water. Which of the following statements are correct
0.1 X 1.79 z
:. T = 21t x J.O = 0.0285 m sec
with regard to stresses at any point in the soil
mass?
m

Now, Penneability of acquifer, (1) Effective stress is decreases by an amount

T 0.0285 l0- 4
k = i) =3Q"""= 9.5 x m/sec. equal to the seepage force.
{2) Effective stress is increased by an amount
Sa

Q. 15 In a falling head permeability test on a soil, the time equal to the seepage Ioree.
taken for the head to fall from h0 to h1 is t. The test is (3) Total stress will change.
repeated with same initial head h0, the final head h' (4) Total stress will be unaltered.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
is noted in time t/2. Which one of the following
below:
equations gives the relation between h', ho and h1 ?
(a) (1) and (3) (b) (2) and (3)
(a) h' = h0 I h1 (b) h' ={hoI h1
(c) (1) and (4) (d) (2) and (4)
(c) h' = h0 h1 (d) h' =~o h1
Ans. :(d)
Ana. :(d)

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Parmoablll of SOlis and See
.. -31
.f Q:2.1a - 1.2861.
I I &planatloa ' Jn lho case of downward now or water lho ~ = 0.7 .... ....

I pore preuure Is ~ and ctrocdvo atrcss locrused. Torlll Ct, - t.> = (t.286- t> t:·0.286~
Slre$S runaias unaltenld in the Oow.

Q, f 8 Conaldat the following stBtements :

(1) Coarsa sand Is more than a million times Consider the following statements about lht
Q . 21
permeable than a high plasticity clay. properties of flow nets : (IES 1994)
(2) The permeabitity depends on the nature of (1 ) A ow lines are perpendicular to equipotential
soli and not on properties of liquid flowing lines.
through soli. (2) No two flow lines or equipotential lin&$ stall
(3) If a sample of sand and a sample of clay ftom the same point.

l
have the same void ratio, both samples will (3) No two flow lines cross each other.
Of these statements

a
exhibit the same permeability.
(4) Permeability of soil decreases as the effective (a) (1 ), (2) and (3) are correct

stl'l!ISS acting on the soli increases. (b) (2) and (3) a re correct

ev
Which of the statements are correct ? (c) ( 1) and (2) are correct

(a) (1 ) and (2) (b) (1 ) and (3) (d) ( 1) and (3) are correct.

(c) (1) and (4)

(a)
(d) (2) and (3)
Ana. : (c) Q . 22 A Oownet Is drawn to obtain (IES 1995)
Es:pla!utfoa : Coarse sand is more than million times (a) Seepage, coefficient of permeability and uplift ~·
penneablo than a high plasticity cloy.

11 '" co: (I :e) (~)

nR (b)
pressure.
Coefficient of permeability, uplift pressure and
exit gradient
(c) Exit gradient, uplift pressure and seepage Q.
Q . 19 Consider the following statements:
quantity.
(1) Organic matter increases the permeability of
(d) Exit gradient, seepage and coefficient of
soil.
U
permeability.
(2) Entrapped air decreases the permeability of a Ana.: (c)
soil.
0 . 23 If the flownet of a Coffer dam foundation had six
Which ot these statements in I are correct ?
number of flow channels and sixteen numbers of
(a) (1) only (b) (2) only
equipotential drops, with the head of water lost
m

(c) Both (1 ) and (2) (d) Neither (1) nor (2). during seepage being 6 m through the foundatkln
Ane. : (b) 5
having K = 4 x 10- m/min., the seepage loss
3
0. 20 Due to rise In temperature, the viscosity and unit (in m I day) per meter length of the dam will be .....
(IES 1993)
Sa

weight of percolating fluid are reduced to 70 % and

90 % respectively. Other things being constant, the
(a) 2.16x 10- 3 (b) 6.48 X 10- 3
change in the coefficient of permeability will be...... (c) 12.96 X 10- 2 {d) 25.92 X 10- 2
An a. (c)
(a) 20 % (b) 28.6 %
Explanation: K=4x 10- 3 mlmin,
(c) 63 % (d) n.a % (IES 1996) H=6m,
Ana.: (b)
N,=6, N4 : 16
1a
Bxp18llatfoa : k oc
j.L q = k. H. ~ l 6
Nd =4x 10- x 6xl6
i.e. Peaneability is inversely proportional to viscosity. : 9 X 10-S m3/min
Let, kJ "" 1a 2
= 12.9x 10- m3 / day.
j.L
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~~ntcal En. lneerin -I MU-s"'
t;IC! Sem.-crvu
• noWnet for an earth darn 011 1 4-32
t' ,.. lllPervio
0· c;ellslsts of 4 flow channels Bnd 1S us foundation
roPs· The full reservoir level 1 &qulpotenuar
d . 8 15 Ill bo
ownstream honzontal filter Gl a lie the
d -e . ven that h
...,~bllity is 9 >< 10 m/s and 11 Orll:ontal
.,- • - 8 ml ertlcar P9
1 >< f o s, the quantity of se tm&abillty
15 . ~~eh
d8l'" WJII be .. .. .. ough the
Given,
L = 90m
(e) 36 mVs/m (b) 25 mVstm
(cl 20 mVslm (d) 15 mVstm Q '" q·L .. 7.8x to- ~ x90m3 tsec

7.8x I0- 6 x90x60x60><'24

~,.:(11)
'I A nownet of a Coffer darn found t' 60.65 & 6 1 m1/da.y
a)5 a JOn has 6 fl
chaflnals and 18 equipotential d
rops. The head
ow a. 27 Aft
ow net Is drawn for a weir. The total head loss Is

l
water loSt durtng seepage is 6 m If th of 6 m, number of potential drops Is 10 and the length
. e coefficient of
permeability of foundation is 4 )( 1 5 o-

a
''
mlmln., then of the flow path 1or the last square .ts 1 m. The exit
the seepage Ioss per m length of dam o f Wlllbe
•
_ gradient is ....
2 3
(a) 2.16 x 10 m /day

ev
-2 3
(a) 0.6 (b) 0.7 (c) 1.0 (d) 1.6
(b)6.48 x 10 m /day .A na.: (a)
-2 3
(c) 11 .52 x 10 m /day
-2 3
(d) 34.56 x 10 m I day
0.28 A homogenous anisotropic e~rth dam which is 20 m
(IES 2000)
high, Is constructed on an impenneable foundation.
J.(ll·: (c)
!if H=-4x lO-s x60x24x -6 x6
= kN The coefficient of penneability of the soli used tor
EIJllanation : q
d
1
11.52X 10- m 3/day
18
nR the construdtion of the dam, in the horizontal and
vertical directions are 4.8 x w- a mls and
1.6 x 10- mls respectively. The wat~r level on the
8
The proposed dam shown in the Fig.1-0.26 below Is
Q,26
90 m tong and the coefflolent of permeability of the reservoir side Is at 18 m from the base of the dam;
soli Is 0.0013 mrn!second. The quantity of water (m3)
downstream side Is dry. It Is seen that there are 4
that will be lost per day by seepage is (rounded to
U
flow channels and 18 equipotential drop in a square
the nearest number) : (GATE 1998)
flow net drawn in the transformed dam section.
(a) 55 (b) 57 (c) 59 (d) 61
Estimate the quantity ol seepage per unit length in

m3/s through the dam. (G~TE 1994)

Ana.:
m

Coefficient of penneability of soil in the horirontal direction,

k. = 8
4.8 x 10- mlsec

Coefficient of penneability of ~oil in the v~rtical direction,

Sa

k. = 1.6 x 10- 8 mlsec

Isotropic equivalent coefficient of penneability.
Fig.l•Q.26
K ;;;; {kx ·~ =~(4.8 X 10-~ (1.6 X 10-~
Ana.: (d)
8
k · H1 ·Nl = 2.77 x 10- m/sec
Explanaoon : q =
Nd In a square flownet drawn in tr.msformed dam section,
3
~ k = 0.0013 mm/sec - 0.0013 X 10- mlsec
Number of flow channels. Nr = 4
= 6
L3 x 10- mlsec Number of equipotential drop. N~ = 18

---. --~~~=~9-~6:m~--------~------_l--------------~---------------
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Permeablll of Solla and See .•

q "' kH ·it
N
::r2 X
-1
10 X
4
20 X.\6
waw level on the reservoir side. 11 "' 18 m
. . Quantity of~ 1 unit Jenat}l of dam, .. lO X 10-7 m'tsec.
4
q = ~c' h*=2.77xJ0" 1 xt8xii
7 3
:: 1.108 x 10" m /scc

0. 29 From a flow net which of the following Information 1.

Consider the following factors pertaining to 1\ov,
through soil :
can be obtained ?
(1) Hydraulic gradient
(a) Rate of flow
(2 ) Grain size
(b) Pore water pressure
(c) Exit gradient (3) Void ratio

l
(4 ) Cross-sectional area of the sample 1·
(d) Permeability (JES 2007)
Of these, the factors affecting permeability include

a
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below: (a) (1) and (4) (b) (2) and (3)
(a) (1 ), (2), (3) and (4) (c) (1), (2) and (3) (d) (2}, (3) and (4)

ev
(b) (1 ), (2) and (3) only
2. Consider the following statements :
(c) (2), (3) and (4) only
(d) (1} only ' ( 1) Hydraulic gradient required to initiate "quid<;'
Ana. : (b) condition is independent of the ratio ol
volume of voids of solids In a soli mass.
o. 30 A flow net constructed to determine flow through
dam which is homogeneous but anisotropic, gave
nR (2} Initiation of piping under hydraulic structures
can be prevented by increasing the length of
tour flow dlannels and sixteen equipotential drops. flow path of water.
The coefficient of penneability in horizontal and
(3) Seepage pressure is independent of the
vertical directions are 4 x 10- 7 mls and 1 x 10-7 mls coefficient of permeability.
U
respectjvely. If the storage head was 20 m, the Of these statements,
seepage per unit length of dam in m% would be ... (a) (1 ). (2) and (3) are correct
7 7
(a) 5x10- (b) 10x10-
7 7
(b) (1) and (2) are correct
(c) 20x10- (d) 40x10- (IES1997)
(c) (1) and (3) are correct
Ans. : (b)
m

(d) (2) and (3) are correct.

Explanadon : Given :
3. For practically impervious type of soil, the coeffiCienl
Number of flow channels, N1 = 4
of permeability is determined using
Number of potential drops, Nd = 15
Sa

(a) Variable head test (b) Constant head test

Storage head, H = 20 m
(c) Consolidation test (d) Pumping test.
Coefficient of permeability,
4. A bed of sand consists of three horizontal layers of
K.t = 4.0 x 10- 7 m/se<; equal thickness. The value of Darcy's k for the upper
Kv = 1.0 x 10- 7
mJsec and lower layers is 1 x 1o- 2 em/sec and that for the
middle layer is 1 x 1o- 2 em/sec. The ratio of the
Now, k' . = "kH • kv =·V4 X 10- I X l X 10- ?
permeability of the bed in the horizontal direction to
= 2 x 10- 7 m/sec
that in the vertical direction is
Seepage disclwge pez: unit length, (a) 10.0 to 1 (b) 2.8 to i
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--------------------------------~----~(c~)__2=.0~t=o~1------~(~d)~~1t~o-10_._____
___

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~lgnt of peroolaUng fluid ero r&d ty lind unit Pef111eeb!ll of Solie and See
UC9ct to 7()% 9.
90" respecttvely. Ottter things bel lll'1d Conlldor lho follow!
ng COnata~ ng atatemen111 regarding 1he
dlllnge In coefficient of PGrmeablllty WID be -n, the 'OOpQge In t ollo.
(1)
C•J 20.0% (b) 28.S% . ·•····· Tho Preuuro of the pore water at lhe water
(c) S3.0% (d) n.a% tablo Ia olmoellf'lerlc.
(2) w&ler tAbto lo also called phroallc eurtece.
.-n upward hydraulic 9radlent 131
1
magnitude wiU Initiate the phenoma of a c:ertaIn Artesian conditions exist If an Inclined soli
non of boiYn layer of low permeabllty Is confined locally by
granular soils. The magnitude of this 9 in
9r&dlentls an overlaying layor of high permeablfrty.
(a) OS ISO.S {b) O.Ssis .0 ...... 4
1 ( ) The attraction of tho partlcloa by pore water
(c) 1::1.0 (d) 1 < 1< 2 . above tho water table Ia called soil suction.
Of these statements,
consider the following statements .

l
f, regaramg (a) (1) • (2) and (3) are correct
anisotropic soils
(b) (2). (3) and (4) aro correct

a
(1) The coefficient of permeability ha (o) (1), (2) and (4 ) aro conoct
s maximum
value In the direction of stratification. (d) (1), (3) and (4) are correct.

ev
(2) ~e coefficient of permeability has minimum 10.
Consider the following statements regarding the
value In the direction normal to the direction permeability of soils.
~ of stratification.
(1) The coefficient of permeahility is the ratio of
lf
(3) The coefficient of permeability has same discharge velocity and hydraulic gradient.
value in the both directions. (2) The pressure of a small percentage of fines In
Of these statement,
(a) (1) alone is correct
nR (3)
a coarse grained soil raises the permeability.
The coefficient of permeability of a soil is a
function of Its void ratio.
(b) (1) and (2) are correct
(4) In stratified soil, permeability in the direction
(c) (2) and (3) :are correct
of stratification is less than that in
(d) (1 ), (2) and (3) are correct.
perpendicular direction.
U
8. Consider the following statements regarding the Of these statements,
factors affecting penneablllty of soils .•• • (~) (1), (2) and (3) are correct
(1) Permeability varies approximately as the (b) (2), (3) and (4) are correct
square of the grain size. (c) (1), (3) and (4) are correct
(2) Permeability Is directly proportional to the unit (d) (3) and (4) are correct.
m

coefficient of water and Its viscosity.

11. Consider the following statements regarding the
(S) Permeability is greatly Influenced in fine
coefficient the permeability of soil.
grained soils.
(1) For coarse·grained soils, the constant head
Sa

(4) Permeability is reduced in the presence of

permeability test Is performed.
organic matter.
(2) For fine grained soils, the falling head
Of these statements, permeabifity test is performed.
(a) c1), (2) and (3) are correct (3) For homogeneous coarse-grained soil strata,
(b) (2), (3) and (4) are correct well pumping test is suitably employed.
(c) (1), (3) and (4) are correct Of these statements,
(d) (1), (2), (3) and (4) are correct. (a) (1) alone is correct
(b) (1), (2) and (3) are correct

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 permeablll of Solis and See
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( ) , (2 } and (3) are correct
(G) 1
( ), (3 ), (4} are correct
(c) (2) and (3) are correct (b) 2
( 1), (3 ), (4) are correct
(d) (3) alone Is correct. (c)
( 2} and (3) are correct.
12. Assertion A : The temperature at which water (d)
An•wers
treaz9S In tha pores of a soil depends on the pore 4. (b), S. (a}, 6. (c), 7. Ol),
I. (b), 2. (c), 3. (a),
size. 11. (b), 12. (c). 13. (c), 14. (a).
8. (c}, 9 . (c), 10. (a),
Reason A : The smaller the pores tM higher the
freazlng temparature In soU.

Codes:
(a) Both A and R are trua and A is the correct
explanation of A.

l
(b) Both A and A are true but A is not the correct
explanation of A.

a
(2) Relationship between phY8ical
(B) Darcy (1 956)
(c) A is true but A is false. permeability and Darcys
(d) A is false but A is true. coefficient of permeability.

ev
Match Ust I with Ust II and select correct answer by (3) In laminary flow the discharge
13. (C) Polseulli
using codes given under the lists :
per unit time is proponlonaJ to
the hydraulic gradient.
List I List II
Continued formation · of (D) Muskat (1937) (4) In turbulent flow the paths are
A. Soils of very low 1.
irregular and twisting, crossing

8.
permeability
Higher soil suction 2.
ice lenses
nR
Temperature lower than
and recrossing at random.
zero
Codes: A B c D
c. Frost heave 3. Decrease in the
(a) 1 2 3 4
magnitude of frost heave 4 3 1 2
(b)
D. Decrease in 4. Restricted development (c) 3 2 4 1
U
saturation of soil of Ice lenses (d) 4 2 3
Codes:
16. The upstream slope of an earth dam under steady
A B c D
seepage condition is
(a) 2 3 4
(a) Equipotential line (b) Phreatic line
(b) 4 1 2 3
m

(c) Flow-line (d) Seepage line

(c) 4 2 1 3
17. In the schematic flownet shown in the given Flg.1,
(d) 3 2 4
the hydraulic potential at point A is
14. Consider the following statements : (a) 5 m of water (b) 12 m of water
Sa

(1) A fully saturated soil may be compressed if (c) 15m of water (d) 25m of water
some water can escape from the voids.
(2) In partially saturated soil, reduction in volume ~--~--_: ___ _
occurs due to compression of air voids.
18m
(3) Shear stress can be resisted only by the
skeleton of soil particles. L FUter

(4) Water tilling the voids also withstand normal

stress by a decrease in pressure. Fig.l
Of these statementsI
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0110~nlc81 En . - • _5 .Sefl'l.•CIII!I
consider the following stat - • · 4-3e
nelS In seepage flow in SOIIa
. &fl'len~~98rdlng-~~::1i:---~:::-::::~~~~~~~~~~~
the flow '
4. "-
(1) Every Intersection 0 f .....,rive two-c~
8
equipotential Is fll&d flow line and aaep11ge fo lrnenatonQI Leptace'e equation for
e at right angl an 5. rrn Oflho Itret principle.
98
(2) OlfferenGe in flows [A • EXptatn With die
adjacent flow Jines is th 1j1) between any tw clay sella in th gram 8 method for determining k tor
' a sefl'le o e laboratory,
(3) D~erence in. potentials [A <ll; b 6. Elcpialn a mathod
adJacent equtpotantials. 9 1ween two k and - by Which you can datormlno bo1h
capillary h d I
(4} The flow lines and I 7. ea s muttanaously.
equlpot ~Plain and .
curvilinear rohmbuses. entlals form metho . discuss the validity of laboratory
Of these statements, ds for determining k.
8
· What are th .
e venous factors that affect coefficient of
(8) • (1). and (2) are correct

l
permeability? Discuss. ·
(b) (2) and (3) are correct 9.

a
Explain and discuss the borehole method of
(c) (1 ), (2) and (3) are correct determining k.

(d) (3) and (4) are correct. 10.

A falling head permeability test was performed on a

ev
sample of silty sand. The time required for the head
19
. In a flow net h is the difference in total h
ead between to fall In stand pipe from 60 em ta 30 em marl< was
the first and last equipotentials N 18 th 70 min · The sect'tona1 area of the stand pipe
• was
' d• e number of
equipotential drops, each represent\ ng the same 1.25 sq. em. If the height and diameter of the
total head loss £\h and . N, is the nu be sample were respectively 10 antl -9 em, determine
m rofflow
channels each carrying the same flow -q· " Th e total
discharge per unit time [per unit dimension in the y-
nR 11 .
the value of k. (Ans. 1.!34 x 1o- 3 em/min.)

A constant head permeability tes\ was carried out on

a sample of sand. The diameter and length of the
directlon] is given by :
sample were 10 em and 20 em respectively. The
N, k N,
q =kh -N
3
(1) (2) head of water was maintained at 35 em. If 110 cm
d q=ii'N:
of water is collected in 1 m and 20 sec. compute the
U
Nd k Nd
(3) q =kh 'N, (4) q =h 'N, coefficient of permeability of sand.
(Ans. 1.0 x 10-:1. cml sec.)
Out of these statements,
12. Obtain the functional relationship for quicksand
(a) (1) alone is correct
·t· . G -1
(b) (.2) alone Is correct
=
cond1 tons as '• 1 + e .
m

(c) (3) alone is correct 13. What is capillary rise ? Explain with a sketch how

(d) None is correct. would you calculate the same.

14. Explain with neat stretch mechanism of quick sand.

Sa

15. For a homogeneous earth dam as shown, determine

the seepage per unit length, it permeability,
I. Explain the practical application of flow net.
k"' '1.56 x 10- 4 m/s (Slopes: 2.5 : 1), also sketch
2. Prove mathematically that there is the same quantity the flow net and determine maximum exit gradient
of seepage flow between any two adjacent flow and factor of safety against piping.
channels.
3. Explain and discuss the merits and demerits of
different methods of sketching flow nets.

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M Geolactlnleal Engln::r!ng: I (MU.S" Sem.-CMI) 4-37 Permeability of Solie and 2:faa:i ~
Steady rate of pumping • 100 liter I min.
Levalln observation well A • 0.75 m
Leval In observation weH B • 1.50 m
Distance of observation well A = 50 m

r--- ---2 55 m -----~

Distance of observation wei B .. 25 m
Depth of Jmpervfoua layer below norma)
.. 15m
.VV. T
(An•. k = 24.44 x 10- m3 t&)
.

Flz.l-Q .15

18. Detenn/ne the field permeabUity or confined aqulrer

10m thick, given ttie following data :

a l
ev
nR
U
m
Sa

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Effective Stress Principle

l
1. Definition of geostattc stress \
es, vertical stressttotal stre
fi. Effect of water table fluctuati ss, neutral stress/pore water pressure, etfectiw s\TMS.

a
condition. ons, surcharge• """'"ill
.......- ary action, seepage pressure on effective stress;. qulclt sand
I

ev
5.1 Geostatlc Stress and Vertical Loads are applied 81 tbe surface through tootings, rafts, pile$,
Stress
piers, dams etc. on ftnite areas of different shapes.
In solid mechanics, stress 0 is defined as f;orce .mtenstty
• per Such loads induce stresses within the soil in addition to
unit area of cross-section as, 0 = ~ (kN!ml
nR geostatic stress.
This stresses can be detennined using different theoriC$ and
Where, Q = Load acting on plane area, A
making assumptions.
Stresses are induced in a solid mass due to
5.2 Effective Stress and Total Stress
(i) Self weight (Geostatic Stress) o, and
U
(li) Swface loads or surcharge o._ Soil differs from other engineering materials in one very
important aspect. that it is a par1icula1e three-phase-system.

The void spaces enclosed by solid grains, are filled either

5.1.1 Geostatlc Stress fully by air (dry soil), fully by water (saturated sol\), or
m

partially by both (moist or partially sanuatcd soil).

Wben the ground surface is horizontal, there are no shear
When a soU mass is externally loaded. the network of
stresses on the horizontal and vertical planes and the vertical
particles tends to deform.
stress.
Sa

A dry soil under compressive loading deforms

On any horizontal cross section area of unit magnitude is the
instantaneously by compressing or expelling air in the voids.
weight of the column of soil it carries. This stress is known
A saturated soil also under a compiCSsive loading has a
as the vertical geostatic stress. tendency to compress the pore water or to expel it
At depth z, geostatic stress. av ='Y. • z Expulsion is usy if the soil is highly previous. The soil
Where, 'Y. is the unit weight of soiL network undergoes compression only when it shares 1he

If the ground surface carries a unifonn surcharge of intensity• external load.

av = yz+'lo
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EtfaC11Ve Straaa p
5·2
Effective St re• • concept
6.2.1
DeftnftJoil r If the Hll 1$ im~roioW,~ ,,.. uru:Utu:Y ~
~Prft•·tU •porf lllt'ltllr, rvMch 1.& incompN•"ib'- roOWd
lM:ul to thwlopm~mt ofilllcrttol p~ll/'4 IIIIDCJIU> Anown
ai'Porw -"er .P"u•n (-.,.).
Development of pore wnter pre.~urc has no effect in
compressing the soli mass. Hence, it is also known 1\S nLutml
<•>
pnesru~.

N o soil. however, can be ideally Impervious. Development of ..M,l...........~ c

pore W01CT p!Wsurc within the void spaces creau:s hydmulic

gnuilent and water swts flowing out o~ the network of soil
groins. wl..,rloce

l
paulnO tiYOUQn Clllltactl
The rare of flow of water. as stated by Darcy's law depends (e) Wavy surface tre:ttecl u equlnleot to a plaoo

a
. on the hydraulic gr.tdient and coeffi~ient of permeability. f'IK· S.Z.Z
For a given hydraulic gradient. a highly previous soil causes
Consider a wavy surface Y•Y through a saturated S<>il

ev
the pore water to flow very fast. giving scope for
(Fig. 5.2.2), which pass throUgh tbe points of contact without
compression of soil network, under the given external load.
cutting across the particles.
ln the ease of impervious soils, the rate of flow is very small
and compression is gradual. At the contact points, the stress intensity is so very bigb

With the escape of water from the soil networlc, the pore (even under small finite interpaJticle forces), that the points
nR
water pressure dissipa1CS. Dissipation of pore water pressure
transfers the load through particle contacts, to the soil
of contact yield or crush and develop small areas of conta:t
(Fig. 5.2.3).
slceleton, in the form of intergranular pressure and is effective
The nonnal and tangential forces at the cootact poinlS m
in causing tbe soil mass to undergo compressive deformation.
therefore distributed on the contact :uea.c.
Hence, the intergranular pressure is known as effective stress
If the wavy surface is projected on a horizontal (or vertical)
aace the notations used for effective stress.
U
(a'), where a' or
plane, the total area A, co~prises of the contact area. A,. and
The externally applied pressure is known as applied or total
area of water, A. together taking the vertical component. v.
stress, (a).
It is easy to see that the contact area, ~ is very small
The soil nerwork undergoes compression only after it shares
compared to the total cross-section, A.
the external load, in the fonn of effective stress. The time
m

dependent relation. In a saturated soil, on a horizontal plane as shown

aora' = a-u.. . ..(5.2.1) V = aA =N + u · A.,

Is known as effective strtsr equation (Fig. 5.2.1) where, a = Average applied stress or total stress.
Sa

N = Total force carried by the particles at contact.

A., = The area of plane passing through water.
A = Total projected area= ~+Au·

u = Pore water pressure (= u..,. for saturated soil).

.. a N
= -+u· -
A
Aw
A '
Soil skeleton

Fig. 5.2.1
But contact.area being very small, ~ O, A =A,. =
N ...(5.2.2}
a = A +u=a'+u
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Ettecrtlve Stteea Prine! •

.vberC = A. •s• the stre&$ canied b
'1 p&Jticl~ a.t eont~~e~ I. 1lftcctlve atrcM equals lhe 10181 •llell• mlnut pote
kJ10Wil as effective ~- The ~s At Pftrti I pn:4turc.
would beN/A,. = NI(A _A,.) wh•A... 1
• c: c Conb\c:l'
"'' " very lai"R b
linle p!I~CIIl meaning. It is the s-·-
• l. Bffectlve suus controls aheari.n g stren81}1 of soil.
c ut ha•
~_, calc:ul.atcd ,
of total area A and not on the M on the bmts 3. Effective Stn:&S governs volume: changu in soils.
~ntact area. A,..
'Jbe applied or total stress a . ,__ 5.2.2 Effective Stress In Dry or Drained
, IS =own from lh
Joadin& (weight of soil, surface load) and e ellternal Condition
can be actually mc:asun:d or detenn· pore water pre.~ure
- tned. Effective s~ _, In dry soils, pore water does not e7-iSt. Hence, thete is no
(or a) is computed as, • s v
pore wAter pressure.

l
a' = a-u, a' =a _
" •
•
u, 0 h "' a, - u •. .(5.2.3) Naturally, effective stress o', in dry soils is equal to the total

a
stress. CJ, (o' = CJ - u = o), u being rero. where acrually pore

x-·k fiS-x pressure consists of pore water pressure and poro air
pressure, u = u,. + u,. in partially satutated soils.

ev
In saturated sandy and gravelly soils, the permeability is so
high (10-l to IO..s mls) that usual application of load does not
Sah.lrated soil
develop any pore pressure, because drainag~ is faster than the

~~~0~ rate of loading.

Solids cut by pJane x-x

nR Hence effective stress, C1' equals applied stress,
(a'=a;u=O).
a,

5.2.3 Importance of Effective Stress Concept

Water The concept of effective stress has great significance in

U
geotechnical problems.
Application of stresS cannot produce instantaneous strains in
soils, as in the case of steel or concrete.
Contact points and contact areas Application of an external load to a saturated soil develops
v=a.A
m

pore pressure, which is dissipated and converted into

l l I l l l I I l JI I l I I A=Am+Aw intergranular or effective pressure, with some time lag. The
..J.AJ. Aw .1 Am=o
A=Aw rate of dissipation depends on the type of soil.
tF =a-Am 1u.Aw The problems of pore pressure are more severe in the case
Sa

clayey soils than in sandy soils.

Fig. 5.2.3 : Effective stress concept
Even in sandy soils, shock loading and vibration can develop
The effective stress concept was first introduced by TenaghL
pore pressure resulting in problems like liquefaction.
lt is a very important principle in soil mechanics.
Liquefaction means turning of a saturated fine sand or slit
Many properties such as volume change, shearing strength. into a fluid mass due to loss of particle contacts under an
permeability. compressibility etc. depend on effective impact loading. Shear strength and volume changes in soils

stresses. are functions of effective streSs.

To summarize. the principle of effective streSs may be stated

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~-
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-...me always acts in clirection of flow

~~~~-- .
BquaJ lnause In IOUII ~ and pore pi'CS$UI'O (Aa • Au) . _.._cu.c (PJ in tbe soil mass il gi'IQl by .•
1lle effc:cUVO 1''--.
(keeping effective stress conswnt) would not cau.'e change i.n
Po "' Ly' ±P,
volume. However, inen:asc In effeclive SireS! causes soil
panicles to shift inro den ser packing. Hence. stability
p
•
• L•l ±iLY,.
iL
arutlyses and seltlement compulalions have to make use of For downward flow, P. = Ly' + Y.,
effective stre$Se$.
For upward flow.Pe = Ly -iLY,.
Rate of meariog is an important consideration in
Quick san·d conditi on
developmc:.ot of effective sUes$. Failures of earth structl.lfeS
- 4~~~~~~~~~---------
~5~
are usually progressive and may require even several months.
The seepage Is responsible for the phenomenon of llllic4

l
In such cases, pore pressures may not play any significant
sar.d. This condition occurs when the flow takes place in ~
role. On the other hand foundation loading on a soft clay,

a
develops pore pressure under poor drainage. direction.
· When floW tokeS p/Dce in an upward direaion, rhe tfffcti-.e

ev
5.3 Seepag e Pressure pressure gets reduced since the seepage pressure also IICII ill
upward direction. When tbe seepage pressure becomes CUctly
1llere is an energy !r311Sfer between the water and tbe soil due
equal to the submerged weight of the soil. through which the flow
to the viscous friction exerted on water flowing through the soil A!
is taking place, tbe effective pressure becomes 2.eru. 1n this case.,
pores.
the soil with Jess coheSion loses all its shear strength and soil thi
nR particles move up in tbe direction of flow. This lifting of soU (Y
particles is known as quick sand, boiling condition or qllicl tr
condition. During this condition the effective pressure ~llet$ _, 8
It is given by :
zero.
P1 = by.,
PC = Ly' - P,=O
U
b
P, = [xLr., P, = Ly'
or iLy., ::: Ly'

where, h = Hydraulic head i y., = y'

,
m

L = Length over which the head (h) is lost ::; L

Yw
= Hydraulic gradient
But,
,
y = < o-t>x.
'Yw = Unit weight of water l+e
Sa

Seepage force (F,) is given by : Thus, = ~

F, = P,·A G-1
= T+e
= i · L · y.., ·A
The hydraulic gradient of the quick sand condition is knO'tW
Where, A = Total cross-sectional area of soil mass
as critical hydraulic gradient (iJ. Thus, quick sand coodition is the
The seepage force per unit volume is given by : particular flow ·
C<mdition . occurs when effective ~
whlch
i·L·A ·y,.. reduces to zero during upward flow.
Fs = L·A·

= iy,.,
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r !Join. : (Refer Pig. P• .5.$.1)

J Tlnlt (I) Totlll etreee dl•tl1butlon Fig. p , s.s.1(b)

r AtA,o • 0
AtB,o • 17.1 x2.S•42.7SkN/mn

l l
AtC, 0
At D. 0
~ 17.1 ><2.5+20.65 X 1 • 63.40kN/m1
'" 17.1 x 2., + 20.6S X 2.5 = 115.03 kN/m
1

(II) Netul'lll etreee Fig. P. 5.5.1(c)

l
At A, u =0 At B. u =-H,X'Yw=-1 x9.81 = -9.81 kN/m~

a
2
AT C, u " 0, AtD, u =2.5 x 9.81 = 19.62kN/m
Fig. SA.l : Quiet S&lld CODdiUon
(Ill) Etfec:tlve etreee Fig. P. 5.5.1(d)
In the above Pig. 5.4.1 can be adjusted.

ev
a' a- u
5.5 Solved Examples
At A. a' 0

ex. 5.6.t AtB, a' 42.75kN/m,

1
A sand deposit consists of two layers· Th e top layer Is 2.5 m and a' 42.75 - (- 9.81) = 52.56 kNim

(Y..t = 20.65
3
thick (Y = 17.1 kNim ) and the bottom Iayer .IS 3.5 m thick
3
~N/m ). The water-table Is at a depth of 3.5 m
nR AtC, a'

AtD,a'
63.40 + 0 = 63.40 kN/m
1

115.03 - 19.62= 95.41 kNJm

1

trom the surface and the zone of capillary saturation is 1 m

abOve the water table. Show In a dimensioned sketch the
variation of total stress, neutral stress and effe c11ve stress.
U
A
3
E y= 17.1 kN/m
1.1)
co;
W.T
v
m

E
~
3
y8111 =20.65kNJm
Sa

(b) <r· d1agram (e) u- diagram (d) d ·diagram

(a) Soil protue
Fig. P. s.s.t

Ex.5.5.2
Compute the total, effective and pore pressure at a depth of 12.5 m below the bottom of a water body. The water body has

5.0 m storage of water. The bottom of water body 40o/o Take G 2.65. =
Soln.:
(a) Water ron tent. w081 =40%

Specific gravity of solids, G = 2.65

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Effoctl\le S1reaa p~
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ijrGeotecl'lnlc41 enprnee11np- I CMU-5" Som.-CMI!
' 2

Void n1Uo, e • w,. X 0 • 0.4 X 2.63 • 1.06 2m \ o ry y =17 kNim

.. - ----- --~"MOisii'-;:zo··--------
(Q.:u) .. 2.6S-t 1.06 x 9.81 kN/m 3
Y.,. • 1 .,.
0 Y. (I + 1.06) -- 11mm ~-------------------
-----···, ., -~ =(20- s .atl
• • ub- ...
• J7,7 k.N/m3 ••• Am-

T'olal ctrea at 12.5 m ~low tile bottom of a wat~r body

=20 kN/ m3 (Saturatad)
a .. s.ox 9.81 + IZ.S x 17.67 =49.05 + 220·88 1

1 ••. Ans.
• U9.93 kNfm
Neutral stress at 12.5 m below the bottom of a watu body
Fig. p. 5.5.3
1
u = J7.5x9.8 1 = 17J.68kNim ••• Ans.
Ex.5.5.4

l
Effective stress at 12.5 m below the bottom of a water body ts of 8 surface layer of clay 4 m thit~~
2 A soli profile cone18
a' • 269.93 - 171.68 = 98.2.5 kN/m , / 3) followed by a sand layer 2 m ltllcl(

a
(y = 19.5 kN m
The p.ressure diagrams are shown in Fig. P. 5.5.2(a) Total o, overtylng an Impermeable rock. The water.
(y = 18.5 kNI m I
round surface. If the water level in a
pressure. (b) Neutral pressure, (c) Effective pressure. table Js at the g

ev
n into the sand layer rises 2 m above 1he
standpJpe dri ve _
...... plot the values of a , u and a . Also
ground surfa.....,, •
determine the Increase in effective stress at top of the rod(,
when the artesian head in the sand is reduced by 1m.
nR
171.88
1<11/m.
Soln.:

(a) Total pressure (b)N.P. (c) E.P.

Fig. P. 5.5.2
U
Ex.5.5.3
A layer of saturated clay, 5 m thick, is overlain by sand 4
deep. The water is 3 m below the top surface. The saturated
3 3
unit weights of clay and sand are 18 kN/m and 20 kN/m ; l wX8
I• ol I• o1
respectively. Above the water-table, the unit weight of sand 2
5&.37 kNI!n'
m

3 58.88 kN/m
is 17 kN/m • Calculate the effective pressures on a horizontal ( Totalslr&$8) =(Pore pi'9SSUrll) + (EIIec:dve &111m)
plane at a depth of 9 m below the ground surface. What wi.ll
!
Fig. P. 5.5.4
0

be the Increase In the effective pressure at 9 m, H the soil

(a) a-diagram :
gets saturated by capillaty up to height of 1 m above the
Sa

water andY.., = 9.81 kN/m .

3
At A, cr = · 0 kN/m1

Soln. : Refer Fig. P. 5.5.3 At B , cr = 4 X 19.5 = 78 kN/m2

H the soil gets saturated by capillarity, then At C, cr = 78+2 X 18.5 =115 kN/m2
= 2Y...t + 1 Ya~,lllld+y~ + Y~ (b) u-dlagram :
o' atA
1
= 2 X 17 + 1(20) + 1(20 - 9.81)+ 5(18 -9.81) At A, = a= 0 kN/m 2

= 34 + 20 + 10.19 + 40.95 = 105.14 kN/m 2 AtB, u8 = 9.81 x 4 =39.24 kNJm2

Increase in pressure= 105.14- 102.14 = 3 KN.Im2 AtC, - =
(J
115- 58.86 =56.37 kN!m2

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5-7 Elfecttie Straes Prlnd a

aatC .. 4 XI9..5+1(19.$-1> 8 I) I
. + (18.5-9.81) 19lt .. 102.95
= 96.38 kNim'
... (A) x • S.4lm ..........
IJ Wbea die: artesian head In the cand Is _..

--
' ""Oced by 1 rn 1f the depth of c~cavadon is 8 m, rcmunin& thlckneas of clay
,en. aatc = 4y,.Cl01 +1y.. _ . 1
will be(8 -S) i.e. 3m
4 X 19.5 + I x 18.S + l ( t 8 .5 _ 9.81) Thus, 3 Yu t

105.19 kN/m1

l
... (B) 3 X 19.0 hx9.81

IncJe&Se in effective stJess at top of the rock= {B)_ (A)

a
57 9.81 h

10.5.19- 96.38 = 8.81 kNtm' ... Ans. h 5.81m ... Au.

ev
£)(. 5.5.5 Ex. 5.5.6
stiff saturated clay 8 m thick (y =19.0 kNJm3 ) is underlain by A 4 m thick soli stratum has coefficient of pgrmeabllity ol
rayer of sand. The sand is under and artesian pressure of 5 3.5 x 10- 7 mlsec. A separate test gave porosity 41°k and
m. calculate the maximum depth of the cut that can be made bulk unit weight 21 kN/m3 at a moisture content of 32%.
without causi(lg a heav e. ' Determine the head at which upward saepe.ge will cause
quick sand condition. What is. the flow required to maintain
Soln.:
nR critical condition ?
Soln.:
Stiff saturated clay = 8 m thick e
n 0.41
"j':'ji "'<t-0.41) = 069
,
· ~
Let, the safe depth of excavation = x m;
G '14 (1 +e) - (l ~~ ( 1 +e)
Yw w
Thickness of caly underlain sand stratum = (8- x)m
=2 .749
U
21 X (I + 0.695)
(I+ 0.32) X 9.81
Bottom of excavation remains stable as long as the upward
pressuiC due to artesian head does not become equal to the ic = Q.::l. _ 2.749 - 1
l+e- 1+0.695
=1·o:n =!!.:L
downward acting total stress due to the clay structure at 0 m. •••Ans.
He ic. L= 1.032 x4 :: 4.128 m
S.Oyw
m

Thus. (8 - x) Yat(clay) k ic A= 3 X 10-1 X 1.032 A

Now, Qc =
3
Yw = 9.81 kN/m 1
3.096 x 10- A
3
m /sec..
(8 -x) x 19.0 = 5.0 x9.81 7 3 1
Flow = 3.096x 10- m /seam area of son
Sa

152- 19x = 49.05 stratum. ... Ans.

-19x: := 49.05 - 152

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Effacllve Stra•e Prt~~e~e!:,.
m- Geot.chnlcal !inglnMrfng- I (MU-5"' S.m.-CMI)

Sor11-:
2 .111'0 y•.UkNimJ

Si r
Jn 7 . 18 kNim'

Gr•vet
2M
,. = ~0 1<1-l'm J

Stress diagram before p 1• clng fill

a l
ev
St.res d lagram after placing fill
nR Fig. P. 5.5.7

Soln.:
I
U
e = 0.6, G = 2.65, S, = 0.5

+ S, · e
( G1 ) __ (2.65 + 0.5 x 0.6) 9.81 =18.09 kNfm3
Y = +e Yw 1 + 0.6

= (~)
2 65 0 6
Yt~~ J +e Y, -- ( + · ) 9.81
·1 +0.6 =19.91 kN/m3
m

2.5m 0) Tc
Sa

3.5m

r.,= 19.91 kMfm 3

til) ·

(a) Soil profJ.Ie (b) cr diagram (c) u diagram (d) cr' diagram

Fig. P. 5.5.8
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&5 d J
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Elf~a ~ Prlnd •
(i) roealstnl$$ dlltrlbulion, a

AtA,a • 0
At n, a .. 18.09 >< 2.5 .. 4S.13 kN/m~
At C, a = 1809
• X2.5+ 19.!>1 l<3.5o 114.91 kN/m~
(ii) Pore pressure. u (neutral pressuno)
AtA,u=O AtB,ucO At C. u = 3.S >< 9.81 =34.335 kN/m,
(oii) ~ve stl'e$S, r:l

At A, r:l = 0

a l
ev
Sf= SO%, He .. 1.2 m, e"' 0.6,

G = 2.65, Yd = r:;e=16.25
Gy., kN/m'

Yw. = ( O1 +e)
+ e r<»= (2.65+
1.6 0.6 ) . 9.81 =19.91 kN/m
nR 3

y= 16.25 kNtm3
4m
U

D
29.43
(d) a' diagram
m

(a) Soil strata (b) a diagram (c) u diagram

Fig. p .5.5.9

(I) Total stress distribution, CJ

Sa

AtA.a = 0
2
AtB,CJ = 16.25 x 2.8 =45.5 JcN/m
1
16.25 X 2.8 + 19.91 X 1.2 = 69.39 kN/m
At C, cr = l

AtD,cr = 16.25 X 2.8 + 19.91 X 3 = 105.23 kN/m

(U) Fore pressure, u

AtA, u = 0 2
AtB, u : -He xy01 = - 1.2 X 9.81 =- 11.772 kN/m

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M Geotechnical EngiMerfr:g. I (MU-5" Sem...CM? 5-10

AID, D = 3 X 9.8 1 a 29.43 kN/m~

a' e a- u At A. a'= 0

AtB, a'= 4.S.S-(-II .m)=S7.27kNfml

2
At C. CJ' = 69.39 kN/m2 AI D. a' = 105.23- 29.o43 • 15 ·8 kN/m
r.1u - r''" 1o. 1o 1\l,u ks

a l
ev
10m

(a) Soil strata (b) cr diagram (c) u diagram (d) cr' diagram
nR F11• P. s.s.to

OJ Total stress cnmtbudon, p:

AtA, acO, AtB,a=17x 1 =17kN/m2

AtC, a=l7xl+20x1 = 37kN/m2

U
At D, cr = 17 x I + 20 X 8 =177 kN/m2
(ii) Neutral stress, o :

At A, u::O, AtB, u=-Hcxr.,=-1 x9.81 = - 98.81 kN/m1

u = 0, At D. u = 8 x 9.81 = 78.48 kM/m2

m

At C,

(ill) Eft'edlve stress, r:l :

AtA, cr'=O, At B, a'= 17- (- 9.81) = 26.81 kN/m2

Sa

2
At C, a'= 37 kN/m , At D, a - 1 =177-78.48 = 98.52 kN/m1
MU ·June 11. 10 Milrk s

Soln.:
Void ratio, e = rosa~ G =0.4 x 2.65 = 1.06

Yat = (?::) Ym =c·~! ~-~ ) 9.81 =17.67 kN/m 06 3

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vv W vv . ~ .. ·~~liR§JiiJ OBI Jiingel'fips. ooo .

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rotal sue..,. a1 I 4m below tile bottom 0 f 1

t.lce With s
m~t-oorw~t.
a .. Sx9.81 • 1-4 ">< 17.67 •·
.. 49.05 + ~7 38
· ,. 296.43 kNtm•
l'fcutmlslre$S, u .. 19 >< 9.8 1 ::: 186.39 kNtm2

a l
ev
Fig. P. 5.5.11

5.6 Effect of Water Table Fluctuations

5.6.1 Soli with Capillary Fringe

nR
A A
Dry or moist
SOlly
8 8
Capillary
U
fringe
c 'VWT c
ed
Submetged c •
soil
0 D
.\. .\. ~ w
m

~
(yz3+ Yw• z2) yz2 tz, 'fwZ'
o · diagram o' • diagram u • diagram
Soil mass with capHiary fringe
=
Sa

Total stress l Effective stress} ~ (Pore pressure)

Fig. 5.6.1

(Refer Fig. 5.6.1)

AtBB
a = yh1
U = -Yw~
.. o' = (a - u)="{h1 +'Ywhz

AtCC

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me Geoteohnlcel EnglnMrtng- I (MU-.6"' S.m...CM?
5-12

•• a' • (a-u)•y.,.h,+yh,
At DO
a • y.. ~ +y.,. ~+yh1
u • Ywbl h + Y ~+Yil t
a' • (o-u)•(y.. -y.) h,+Y,..~ +Yha sy.,. l ""

5.6.2 Partly Submerged Soli

At.BB
0 = yb,,
u = o.
.:_ _______

l
--------

a
ev
=

rl· diagram u • dlegram

nR a-diagram
Tolal slrell =
(etrectlv• stress)- (Pote Pfe8SUI'9)

FII. S.U .

At CC
u = y.,hz
U
c; = a-u= <r.. - h:t +Yht) - Y., hz= yb, + hz <r.-Y..)
5.6.3 Fully Submerged Soli Mass with Water Table at Top
------------
m

= (+)
Sa

a - diagram a' · dlagnm u - diagram

Total stnm = (Effec:tlve stress) + {Pore water pressure)

Fig. 5.6.3

AtBB

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......-· -· Eftectlve Strea. Prtncl le

I
o '-dlogram ". "'•Q<am
Pore water)

l
;;;; Etfective) +
( stress a ' ( pressureu
Flg. S.U

a
Let h:l be depth from bottom of excavation to the starting of
sandy soil

ev
u Depth of water table above bottOil\ of excavation

a' - = 0'-U = O h1 • Depth below G.L. at which ooTL is met.

Pressure exerted by saturated clayey strata for depth ~ will

At BB
be stabilizinglw.;isting formation of cracks. Higher this depth better
Total pressure a
- Pore pressure u = - y., (hi"'+~ -
nR stability is achieved.

Destabilizing pressure will be caused due to water bead of

Effective stress a' = a - u ~+~

= Yaath:t+Yw hl- Yw~-y... h, ~

:. 'f....ChJ> 'fw~+h:J
Depth· of sandy strata below G. L. i.e. (h1 + h 1 + b:J is
~ (Yut -Yw) hl =y' Zt
U
constant.
5.6.5 Permeable Sandy Strata Below Let us examine effect of increase in saturated density of
3
Stiff Clay clayey strata from 17 to a 19 kN/m assuming Yw =as 9.8

Excavation i n stiff clay strata below which, penneable sandy Let h, + hz+ h) = \0 m (flxed)
h, 4, h)= \ , hl 5 =
m

strata exists as in Fig. 5.6.5.

.. Yaat x h1 = 17 xs =85
'fw (hz + h~ = 9.8 x (6) = ss.g < 85
Sa

:. safe
Let h1 = 1, h1 = 8, h3 =1
1
'fsat X (h2) = \7 X 8 = 136 \<N/m
Yw(hz + h~ = 9.8 X 9 = 88.2 < 136 kN/m
2

Clay
:. stable
when y., (h2 + h~ will be more than 'f13"' (hz)
9.8 hz + 9.8 h3 = Ysa1 · ~
:. 9.8 ~ = ~ C:fs:~t- 9.8)
Fig. 5.6.5 : Permeable strata below stiff clay

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 u
https://cee-book.blogspot.com/ Etfecllve Streaa Prt
O.Otechnlcal E a-14 1
• 2.6 - ( l. 4X l) •l.2t I m
Bffeadvo p, I2
:. R AI I0 Of
offectl\16 p, to toUl p,. • 0.46 f.6 •
• I , h,• ~
7,2 • 1.;\lim
,. x Q,S . _, ex. s .7.3 P 57 3 ... _
l r "'
'") • .... h, . 2 1.2 ., ..,.
.. hown In Fig. . . · u,.. water lab141 ...
•
For tho aoll strato a
· by 2m ond II the top 2m thtd< ellty a.~~
red by drolnago ~IQ
It will be - . , thAt. by l~ng dt pth of hl/ filling trench 1owe action even alta
~·~u 1 rated by capillary r
With watu \1.,11 i~ scabllhy. stratum table the Increase In effective ve~
lowortng of water '
1 mid-height of clay layer will be
5.7 Solved Examples from GATE pressure In kPa~·-~~:-:::;------:
Examination Fill motorial r~.... = 21 kN/m3
3m """'
9G~ s
Ex. 5.7.1 3
'Yeat = 20 kNim

l
G
Water Is ftowing at the rate of 0.1 cc/sac in an upward 4m

a
~
direction through a sand samplo with k • 2 x 10 em/soc. Silly sond
Thickness of sand sample Is 1Om and sectional area Is
2 3 3
·50 cm • The effective stress at middle of sample If y..1 = 21m Yaat = 18kN/m

ev
Clay -~ 2
is 10m mv=2.2x10 mlkN
2
(a) zero (b) 1.0 t/m
2 Fig. P. 5.7.3
(c) 2.0 t/m (d) 1.5 t/m2
Soln.: ...!L - 0.1 - 2
(a) 0.2 (b) 2 (c) 20 (d) 200
Ak -50 X 2 X I 003 I em /sec

Effective stress (upword).

nR Soln•.: (c) E
Ex. 5.7.4
a = z Yu- i. z. y., =0.05 X I - I x 0.05 x I = 0
In the given Fig. P. 5.7.4, total p ressure at a point p·, 3m
Ex. 5. 7.2 below, the bottom of barricade trench will be
The ratio of effective pressure to total presenoe at a point 'A'
U
given In the Ag. P.S.7.2 is
--·:?fr.:::::::: ·::::::::::::::::::::::::r:-·-·
................. -··· --·-··-·· ------ - - ·2.0 m----

···::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::J::---
.. Unit weight of water= 1.0 gmlco
-
:··=f·----·
-· u.~!~~l!~~~!-~t~-~~~-~_1_::;: _1_.~9~~~=·-~-~-~---·
m

......... -........ -- ......................... .................. -- .... ---.... ------- ..........

... .... .. .. .............
.. .. ...... ---...........
.............. .... .. ---- ...... --
·--~-- ..... --- .. ---- ........ -------.... -- ..----·
-- .. ---- -- ..................
............ -- .... -- .... -- .... --- .............. ---......... -. . .. --- .........
A
Ysat = 2.5 gmlcc Fig. P. 5.7.4
Sa

Fig. P. 5.7.2 2
(a) 1.40 kg/cm (b) 1.77 kg/cm
2

{a) 0.35 (b) 0.46 (c) 0.52 (d) 0.32 {c) 1.27 kglcm2 (d) 0.77 kglcm2
Soln. :
Soln. : At point A
Totalpr atA = Ya~~+Yu· h 1 =2.5x 0.8+lx0.6
p = 3
10- (500) + 0.9 X \0-3 X 300
= 2.6tlm 2

= 0.5 + 0.27 =0·77 kgfcm1

Chapter Ends ...
oao
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Compactio n of Solis

Syl..bUS :

l
I. Theory of compaction, determination of •

a
laboratory by conducting the 11 h 0phmum Moisture Content (OMC) &. Maximum Dry Density (MOO) In
9 t lllld heavy compaction test
ii. Factors affecting the compaction elf
• ect of COmpaction on properties of soil, relative compaction.
ii. Necessity of soil eXploration method

ev
·
I' be ' 8
of ~nvestigatlon, methods of boring types of soil samples, soli samples
samp lng, num r and spacing of bore holes, depth of bore holes. •
iV. Penetrometers tests: SPT, SCPT, and DCPT.
(~ v. Representation o f data w ith borehole logs.
~

~ 6.1 Compaction
nR
~,, ~tioa: Com.P.octjo,. ts.a·proceu oflltGbilizinB loose fiOil by ckMi/iJ;ation., ra(ng eUher .tat«: or dynamic effort.
The p~5 involves permanent reduction in the volume of air voids, at constant water content. Compaction is the common most 8Dd
cheapest method of soil improvement. l t generally increases the shear strength of the soil and hence the stability and bearing capacity.
U
6.2 Mechanics of Compaction

/YT;-~ =-=­
\ -'\
m

(i) Breaking of aggregate (ii) Orientation

Sa

(lv) Bending and rupture of Oakes

(Ui) Rearrangement
Fig. 6.2.1 : Mechanics of compaction
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the density decrensc:s with in~ .
r 0110e ngnln. '"
When a networt;. of soli particle~ Is subjcdecl to "" oxternnl 111erenfle • e of compactive offon has 11\lleh l1:4s
ontent. rncreos
effort, the particles slide ovet one another nnd reJIIT'I\ngc to occupy wRtcr c: of cohe.1ion less soil~ than on cohesive SO\!a.
effect In tl1e e~~se
more stable pO!:ilions. resulting in n deMer packing. 1110 prou~~
'd rc.d to be the be3t method suitable f<l{
lnvolv«:li basically the following ttfte medlMics Fig. 6.2J · tion jg consl e
Vtbm . solls, which are either fuUy dry or
.
Breaking or eruchlng of large ~~ggregntcs i.nto smaller ones. enslfylng coheston1e5S .
beCause the srresses at the S01l wa~er
J.
d
1
fully saturated. This s . .
Z. DisiOClllion and reasmngement of particles causing collapse vent fu Uden&tficatton.
of structure, or I'COrientation ()(flaky particles.
menisci tend to pre
. r density index is invariably Used to
3. Bending and rupture to Olllcy particles. AI o relative dens•tY o
s ' tion or densification of sand.
indicate relative comp:u:
A combination of these mechanisms under an external effort
leads to volume reduction which is due to one or more of tlle between Compaction and
DlfferenCe

l
following:
6.3
c onsolidation

a
1. Compression ofnir.

2. Expulsion of air.

ev
3. Solution of air in soil water.

There is no removal of water from the soil.

.,.. Compaction of Sand

The compaction. characteristics of cohesionless and freely

soils.
nR
draining sands are somewhat different from those of cohesive Compaction is an entirely different process than
consolidation, even though both the processes cause a
A typical pattern of the moisture..(fensity relationship for a reduction in the volume. In compaction some dynamic load is
cohesionless, freely-draining sand from a laboratory test will
applied for small interval of time and compaction is achieved
be somewhat as shown in Fig. 6.2.2.
U
by the expulsion of air from the soil mass.
R (100%
saturation)
In consolidation, steady load is applied for long time and in
f
the process water is expelled from the saturated soil
.i?;o
·;;;
c:
Q) (Fig. 6.3.1).
m

'C
i!'
o Q (Point of
minimum
density)

Wafer content (%) -

Sa

Fig. 6.2.2 : Typical moisture-density relationsltip for sand

Small moisture films around the grains tend to keep them

apart and can decrease the density up to certain.water content. (a) Compaction (b) Consolidation
The point Q on the curve indicates the minimum density.
Fig. 6.3.1
Later on, the apparent cohesion gets reduced as the water
content increases and is destroyed ultimately at 100% The difference between consolidation and compaction is
tabulated below :
saturation of sand. Thus, the point R on the curve indicates
maximum density.
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Com action of Solie

Wlln fultMr incruse 1n water content, 11\t. air voids do not

de<:rca'<>, but the lola! voids (air plus wuter) lnc~"CMC and the
dry density decreases.
z. Water Water is not
expelled. Thus' the hi"h
..,.er d ry density Is achieved upto the optimum
3. Load and Dynamic load is Sta · load is applied. It water content due to forcing air out from the soil "oids. After
. tic
Time applied. It is the opti mum water content is r~ac:hed, it becomes more
IS RqUifed to be
npplied f or a short appred difficult to force air out and to furtller reduce the air voids.
1 for n long time
duration. Load
lo attain tOO%
application is by Soils compacted at a water content less than the optimum
consolidation. Load
artificial or human water content generally have a flocculau:d structute,
application can be by

l
agency.
Datura! or artificial regardless of the method of compaction.
agencies.

a
Solis compacted at a water content more than the optimum
4. Saturation Soil is partially Soil is fully saturated.
water content usually h ave a dispersed structure if the
saturated.
compaction induc~s large shear strains and the flocculated

ev
5. Soi l type Appli es to Applies to cohesive
cohesive and structure if the shw strains are retativ~\y small.
so ils only.
cohesionless soils. ' ',<Zero air void line

6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction \

1
\ \
nR 1
1
1
1
I
1
\
\
\
'.
\
'
o ~--------~
1 0~M~c~--------
wt~.er content (%)

. (a)
Dispersed
U
Flocculated structure structure

1. Water content of soil

2 . Compactive effort
m

3. Type of soil

Fig. C6.1 ; Factors Affecting Compaction

Water content(%) -
Sa

.. 1. Water content of soil (b) Effect of water content on soil structure

At low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more Fig. 6.4.1
resistance to compaction. As the water content is increased,
In [Fig. 6.4. 1 (b)) at point P which is on the dry side of the
the soil particles get lubricated. optimum water content, is so low that the attractive forces are
The soil mass becomes more workable and the particles bave more predominant than the repulsive forces.
closer packing. The dry density of the soil increases with an
This results in a flocculated structure. As the water content is
increase in the water content till the optimum water content is increased beyond the optimum, the repulsive forces Increase
reached. At that stage. the air voids attain approximate~Y a
and the particles get oriented into a dispersed structure.
constant volume.
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s.oo~
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Geote chnic al E

It the compnctivc effort is in~ there

la a corresponding
d
eoheSionl~ soils. 811 there fore. the optim um ""*' CCM!te.t
\
increase ia the orientAtion or 1he plll11clea is hish·
11nd hlgh~ r dry
densi riet :1t0 obr.in cd, AS shown by the upper higll plasti city bavc very low clry cleas;t
curve. Heavy days of very y
ond very high optim um water cont.cnL

With lneru sc in the eompi'Clivc: elTon. dry Claye y grave l

dcn•iiY or soil
·increases and opllmurn moisture content decrc&
SC3. Claye yaand
However, it may be mentioned lha1.. nuxim
um dry density
does not go on increasing, with increase in Silty SOil
compaction effon. '
Finally a stage is reached, beyond which
IJiere is no funher
increase in dry density, witll an increase
in IJie compaction
Claye y SOli
elTon.

l
-+ 3. Type or soU
wate r content(%) -

a
The dry density achieved depends upon the
type of soil. The
maximum dry dcnsiry and the optimum conte . Fl~r. 6.4.2
nt for different

ev
soils are shown in Fig. 6.4.2.
6.5 com pac tion Tes ts (La bor ato ry Tes
ln general, couse-grairied soils can be comp
acted to higher
t)
dry density than fine grain ed soils. With
the addition of even
The laboratory rests that are nonn ally
a small quantity of fines to a coars e-gra used for determining
ined soil, the soil
the optim um moisture conte nt and maxi mum
attains a much highe r dry-density for the dry densicy of a given
effon .
same compactive
nR soil are:

Compaction Tests (Lab orato ry Test)

Howe ver, if the quantity of fines is incre
ased to a value more
than that requi red to fill the voids of the
coarse-grained soils,
the maxi mum dry den sity decreases. 1. Standard Proctor Compaction Test

A weU grade d sand attains a much highe

U
r dry densi ty than a 2. Heavy Compaction Test or Modified Proc
torTest
poorl y grade d soil.
3. Moisture Content·Dry Density Relations
Cohe sive soils have highe r air voids.
hip
Thes e soils attain a (Standard Proctor Compaction Test)
relatively lowe r maxi mum dry density
as comp ared with the
cohesionless soils. Such soils require more Fig. C6.2 : Compaction Test s (Lab orato ry
Test)
m

water than
6.5.1 Standard Proctor Compaction Test
Sa

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0
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- G~cal Engineering. I (MU-s"'
, Sem.·Civtl)
Comp:ction of Soila

TWo lugs
brazed on
Oela~ble
T h
w
Ramer
base Plaia

a l
5mm

(b) Compaction apparatus

ev
Compaction Hmm Wkg
Light
310mm 2.6
Heavy <450_rflrn 4.89
nR
Guide length ot
traver of rammer Rammer
210mm (Adjust to make
total weight
381.5 2.6 kg)
U
60, 12 holes
l
'
1.5 mm thick
rubber gasket
l
'
l
'
I
m

(d) For heavy compaction

,• (c) For light compaction

Sa

Fig. 6.5.1 : Proctor compaction test equipments

About 3 kg soil, passing 4.75 mm sieve is mixed with water

Indian Standards light compaction test specified by lndian
and compacted in the mould in three layers, each layer being
Staodards is equivalent to Standard Proctor test.
given 25 blows of the drop hammer. imparting an effort
This test was first devised by R.R. Proctor. It uses a standard 3
equivalent to 595 kJ/m •
3
cylindrical mould, 945 x IO..o m in volume ( 3~ eft) and a
Dry density and water content are determined for several
trials using more and more water content to obtain the
drop hammer weighing 2.5 kg (5.5 pound lb), with a drop of
moisture-density curve from which MDD and OMC are
305 mm (12'') (Fig. 6.5.1).
found out

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6-6
a.sure the dimensions of empty l'llOuld,
6.5.2 Heavy Compaction Test or Modified 5. Clenn. dry Md me:
Weigh the empty mould to the nearest one gram <M.,). P\q~
Proctor Test
•• and tho elttension coll ar.
the bose pIn~
This leSt us~.s a mould ot 1000 ml Cllproclty. The soil Is
ed son-water mix into eight equal pa..u,
compacced in five lriyel'$ eoch tnt.ing 25 blows of a drop 6. Divide the process
hammer dropping through II height of 450 11\nt.
Take one pw•
z - kg)
1
• .. · ( about 2 of the processed soi( llllcl
7.
The drop hammer hBS the face diameter of SO mm ond the • • the mould in three equal layers. eacb layec I·
tot:ll muss or 4.89 t.:g. compact tl tO 10
• ..,< blows from the rammer. weighing 2.6 kg,
Standard Proctor test hss been used ror field compaction being gwen "-'
. f heJnht of 310 mm. AUow tbe blow to be
control of rood and nir field pavements, embankments ond dropptng rom a b '"

fills etc. Higher. compaction is needed for hC<~vier trnnsport . .. 'formiY in each layer and score each layer With

l
distribut~ um
nnd military nircrnfts. a spatula before putting the soi l for the succeeding layer.

a
The modified proctor lest was developed lo give a higher •... •Allor Qlld r.Rrefully level off to the top of the
8. Remove u"" ~
standard of compaction. Results of a lab compaction test are mould by meat~S of a straight edg~. Weigh the mould.
tabulated in observation table (Table 6.5.1).

ev
. Eject the soil from the mould, cut at the middle and take
The compactive energy delivered is of the order of 9
representative samples for water content determination.
2700 k1/m3, which is aboul 4.5 times thai of Standard Proctor
TesL IO. Repeat steps 7 to 9 for 5 to 6 samples, using a fresh part of

6.5.3 Moisture Content-Dry Density the soil specimen each time. for adding a higher water content
Relationship (Standard Proctor
Compaction Test)
nR that the proceeding specimen, so that at least two readings
each below and above the optimum moisture content are
cr Aim available.

To detennine the relation between the moisture content and cr Computations

the dJy density of soil. Compute the volume, (Vm) of the mould from the height and
cr Procedure
U
diameter of mould. Mass of wet soil in the mould is M ,

I. Take about 25 kg of air-dried soil passing through 50 mm IS

sieve. Sieve the soil through 20 mm and 4.75 mm sieve and
Bulk density, p glee =( D
find both the fractions passing and that retained in each sieve. Dry density, pd glee = ( 1 + :fl(lO)
Reject the fraction retained on 20 mm sieve.
m

I. Sample type. 2. Mass of empty mould (M,).

2. From the soil passing 20 mm IS sieve, find the ratio of soil
fraction retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve to the soil fraction 3. Volume of mould (V m). 4. Test type.
passing 4. 75 mm sieve. Observation Table 6.5.1 : (Laboratory Compaction T est)
\
Sa

3. If the frnctjon retained on 4.75 mm £S sieve ismore than 20%

maintain lhe ratio of such material to the material passing
4.75 mm IS sieve. Take about 20 kg of the material in the
calculated proportion. as mentioned above. If lhe fraction
retained to 4.75 mm IS sieve is Jess than 20% then directly
I
takes about 20 kg of soil passing 20mm IS s ieve.
1.
4. Add enough water to bring ils moisture content to about 7%
2.
(for sandy soils) or 10% (for clayey soils) less than the

estimated optimum moisture content- Keep the processed soil 3.

in air-tight conlaine.r for about J 8 hows for moisture 4.

equilibrium. https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
5.

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aeo technical En lneerln 1 MU -s"

Sern.·CIVft
S 4 Com par ison bet wee of Solie

S. • Com pac tion and He : Lig ht npa ctto n ,.- .....Q

2..:ee- &_ . •.(6.S. l)
Vy Cor p4 a
I+ I ... ~ (S,- <- • w ·0 .)

1"•""' 652 : Com~ bd~l'al llaht eo.n~C1011 and heavy s,

eoanpact lon
• •• l ion A.
Por Sa
r •--.vo uon (6.S.l) r<.ducet to equa
t ()()% oft

a l
Ugtrt coms:>action or
, Slafldard proc l« lOst
2.6 kg 4.89 kg '

ev
OMC (HJ
Wile r content (~) -
3. Helgllt of fAll of 3 tOm m 450 mm
f ig. 6.5.2
rammer
: OMC
8.5 .6 Op tim um Mo istu re Co nte nt
4. no. of layers 3 s compacted to a mw mum
lt is found that a given soil can be
5. no. of bl ows per
layer
25
nR
2S degree only at particular mois
compactive effort.
ture conl.eot. for a given

ion of a soil. A plot showio.g

It is a characteristic of liner fract
U
dry density is known as
the relation of water content with
which shows maximum
moisture thnslry curve. Fig. 6.4. \(a)
dry density at the OMC.

6.6 Effect of Compaction on Soli

This C4ll be obtained as und er:
m

Properties
G·pw ( 1- nJ
pd = I +w ·G

Tfl Where, n, = % air voids

Sa

I w = Water content of soi I

is lo improve some
to 'w' The main aim or compacting a soil
pd = Dry den sity corresponding suj:h as reduction of
desirable properties of the soil,
permeability, increase
Wben, "· = 0 compressibility. water absorption and
and change in swelling
G ·P., .. .(6.5.1) in soil strength, bearing capacity etc.
Pd "'r :;; G
and shrinkage characteristics.
line or saturation line.
This is an equation of zero air void However, the effect of compaction
on soil properties very
relation between water ned by the soil during
Alternatively, a line showing the much depends on the structure attai
stant degree of saturation S, is
rolllent and dry density for a con compaction.
obtained from :
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Com
.,r.. 9~~p6
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6-9 t1 ~~~tc til"
- hi~her than optimum, the soil at points b
At water content IY' •
urves Is more onented than at point • ' ~I ~f)·rlofl

,,
d D of the two c n.
on ture Is more oriented at C than at A. I J,fP j\i
However, the.slfiiC rr tO
1. Change In Structure ol Soli \ ~~!'lab'
2. Penneabllity yott
/ ed
s~
, ~eto9

5. Pore pressure Low.c:ompactlve

effort
/c
,dt.
6 . Compresslbltlty
water content ("A.) - ~'I·
~0

l
, Effects of compaction on structure or clay I p0!0 pi
Flg•6•6•1 .
(after Lambe, 1958)

a
Fig. C6.3 : -EITect of Compac:don on Soil Properties .t 6-
~ 2. PermeabilitY

ev
s~
~ 1. Cl{angein'StructUreorSon The following points are notewonhy ;
tl!Ote
The structure of a soil during compaction depends upon : (i) As the dry density increases due to compaction, the ~vii
voids go on reducing and hence the permeability goes cptil
(i) Type of soil,
on decreasing.
Moulding water content and '{bi:
(ii)

(ill) Type and amount of compaction.

nR (ii) For the same density, fine grained samples compacted
dry of optimum are more permeable than those
noc
For the putposes of discussion, let us divide the soils into
compacted wet' of optimum. This is so because
three types : \it
thesesoils have fi?Cculated suucture when compacted
(i) Coarse grailled soils with little or no fines, ot
dry of optimum, and· have dispersed structure (i.e.
U
(ii) Composite soils. and 0
parallel orientation) when compacted wet of optimum.
Purely cohesive soils (i.e. clays).
(iii)
(iii) For a given voids ratio, greater the size of individual +'
The soils of first type (i.e. coarse grained soils), maintain a
pores, greater is the permeability.
single grained structure at any possible voids ratio or water
(iv) As the compactive effort is increased, the permeability
content
m

of soil decreases because of the increased d.ry density

However, the structure of composite soils, after being
and better orientation of particles.
compacted depend upon the relative proportion of coarse
particles and fmes and their structure can either be coarse -+ 3. Shrinkage
Sa

grained skeleton structure or cohesive matrix structure.

For the same density, soil sample compacted dry of optimum
In contrast to !hese, the structure of compacted clay is
shrink appreciably less than the sample compacted wet of
complicated. At the same compactive effort, the soil structure
optimum.
becomes increasingly oriented (i.e. dispersed with increasing
water content This is so because the soil particles having dispersed structure
When compacted dry of optimum, the structure of clay is have nearly parallel orientation and can pack more efficienUy.
always flocculated. Fig. 6.6.1 shows two compaction curves
for a clay-one at lower compactive effort and other at higher
compactive effort.

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---IEIC=----=-,,,,,,,,,,,.,~.,e!'lJ,,,g,;hrJ,ePJte~nr-il·nrfl§ftO~J"''"'i'~tJltl~"'.,fii~·,,,,gl71e~'trHip~s~
. . ~ooe~o:r----••s•ll
 .
- ' ,j,
G_
~:~
" '1
s-dlln&
0 Sam.· Civtl)

, yeY soil sample compact~ dry or. opli

•
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:J E~n:g:ln:ee:n:np:·:I·(M:.u~-s~~~=:~~....-!~~~--=---
0
8·0
...

8.
..............~:l~~~~~
S'-r lltrtn- L
"'"
Comp :etlon ol Solie

·•· , ~ 1\. Bt o <:Onlpoc:t.ed clays dc""n<

mum Wller 'The 5 ren h r l upon (i) drv
cent 118S hlgh water deflcie nc" ~ nnd mote r· .,
""nllty , (li)
(;l1fl
1"1\ndom mouldin& W&t.e r eont.ent. (Ill) soli ~urc (lv)
,;engstion and hence exert sreatec SWelling
0
cll higher water conten t thnn tho P~sun : nnd rnet110<1
•
or eompact1on (v) &train uud to define stren&th. (~I)
s" 10 sample or th d ~M&e cond'tl on lllld <~II) type or soil.
I
""' e Slltne
-'tY obtnined from wet side comp•-uon.
tJI:D>• In gencml • at low strains. strength of c:obealvc 11011&
compacted drv · m is higher lhaa those comp¥t.ed
., 0f opumu
Wet of optimum• PI &· 6.6.3 shows lbe failure envelope of two
satUrated sample of clay, compact~ dry or opumu.
rn tend t . one compacted dry of optimu m lllld
samples of the same soli,
, . o
lower pore pressu • compacted
dc:\oeJop subsWtllally re at low Strai the other compacted wet or lbe optimu m, but both
~ed .shear test than the sample of the u.me soil ofnstheIn
nt the snme density.

l
.
¢JlC densrty and warer content. compacted wet of Optimum.

a
,
However. at higller sttnins, both the samples e•"'b'
"'u It the same

pO~ pteSSW'C·

ev
.. . . L COIIIp ressib UUy

.
. um IS
Sa11Jt2ted sampl.e of clay, compacled wet side of Optlm
re compressible than another sample of th e same soil
1110
having the same voids ratio. but compacted dry of
~
Fig. 6.6.3 : Failur e envelopes
opnmum. wlleo the applie d pressure is in low pressure range.
~ 'Ibis js so because the sample compacted dry of optimu
re to
m bas
cause
nR However, at higher strains, the flocculated structure of the
same compacted on the dry side is broken, giving rise to
nocculated structure and requires extra pressu
ultimate strength for both the samples.
parallel orientation of particles.
1lle manner of compaction also influences !he streng
th of soil
cted dry
However, in tile high pressure range, a sample compa
cted wet sample compacted wet of optimum.
of 0ptirnum is more compressible than the one compa
U
It is interesting to note that the clay cores in earth dams
ate
of the optimum. e large
usually compa cted wet of optimu m to tolerat
.. 1. St~-strain characteristics settlements without cracking.
has
For a given soil, a sample compacted dry side of optimum
modulus 6.7 Field Compaction
a steeper stress-strain curve and hence has a higher
m

of elasticity, than the one which is compacted

wet of 6.7.1 Placement Water Content
optimum (Fig. 6.6.2) at the same density. ~ (MU ·Dec. 13, Oec:. 16)

~~~~~~~~~~~~~=~~~~~!~
Soil compacted wet of optimum have brittle failure
while soil
-
Sa

stJUcture.
compacted wet of optimum, and having dispersed
continue to increase in strength even at highe r strain s.

t and
For a given soil, the laboratory, optimum water conten
upon
tbe field optimum water content may differ, depending
of
the type of the compaction equipment used and type
Axial sJrain - stJUCture to be constrUcted.
.Fig. 6.6.2 : Stress-strain curves
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MU·S"' Som.·Civll S·iO
611011111 r1nll

l \
1g \
Control of quality of field compaction is necessary to ensure
that engineering properties assumed in the design of soil
structure5 are actual ly accomplished uniformly during
Needle point Water contem(%) _
(b)
\
construction. (a)

Quality control is exercised by controlling thickness of Fig. 6.?.l: Field compaction control by proctor needle

l
compacted layer. dry density and water content, besides
-+

a
involving choice of quarry material, thickness of lifts, number 2. Water content
of passes, and choice of rollers (heavy or light; kneading or -+ (a) Oven drying m~tbod
vibratory).

ev
'The oven drying method of determination of water content
Specifications state that the soil should be compacted to 95
takes 24 hour&. Hence it is not suitable for the field. In the
p.c.. of the maximum dry density, at a water content ± 2 p.c.
field. the water content is detenni ned by using the sand bath
of OMC as obtained in a standard compaction test.
method, alcohOl method, calcium carbide method or nucleai
Relative compaction (RC) is yet another controlling factor
tbnt may be specified.
~~~~~~~~~~~~
nR -+
method.

(b) Proctor needle method

The water content can also be determined directly using a

P~tor needle. The Proctor needle consists of a rod atuched
The RC values should range from 90 to 105 p.c.
to a spring loaded plunger [Fig. 6.7.l(a)). The stem of the
Compaction control is achieved by measuring the dry unit
U
plunger is marked to read the resistance in kg. The equipment
weight and the water content of the soil compacted in the
is provided with a series of needle points of different cross-
field. sectional areas (0.25, 0.50, 1.0 and 2.5 em~. For cohesi~e
soils, the needle points of larger cross-sectional areas are
Compaction control
required and for cohesionless soil, those of smaller cross-
m

sectional areas are used.

1. Dry unit weight
To use the needle in the field, calibration curve (Fig. 6.7 :l(b)l
2. Water content is plotted in the laboratory between the penetration resistance
as the ordinate and the water content as the abscissa. The
Sa

(a) Oven drying method

laboratory penetration resistance is measured by inserting the
(b) Proctor needle method Proctor needle in the compacted soil in the Proctor mould.
The penetration resistance corresponding to various water
Fig. C6.4 : Compaction control
contents is thus noted at the end of each Proctor compaction,

-+ 1. Dry unit weight and a calibration curve is plot1ed.

This may be used to determine the placement water content

The dry unit weight is measured commonly by using the
The penetration resistance of the compacted soil in the f~Cid is
core-cutter method and sand replacement method.
determined with the Proctor's needle and its water content is
read from the calibration curve.
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1
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Com not SQII8

s-1·' ·f{eJtlllt types of compacting equ ipme ... (II) Pn eumaUc or rubbtr \yrcd rolleno
J)J • ; nts have bee
~-'h·coos!fUCU00.1heequtpment may be b n Used ln
~ ~~- roadty classified lPneumatic
00 roll ers rue comparad~ly h!!avy (lS.OOO to
preSsure ty~ : Smooth Wheel roll as; • .000 kg) and nre towed type or propeller type. The tyre
I· J(Jitadlng type : Sheep's foot roUere::n~matic tollefs. " f rom 450 to I 000 kNim'. The rollers bave a
Pressure ran•es
z. ' Pmg roller. number of wheels • so arranged on two axels. as to give ~ge
3- !IIIP"ct type Rammers
. and tampers, drop weight. coverage on a pass. The coverage is about 80 pereenl .
Vibration type : Vtbratory rollers vibrati .
J. • n 8 plates. · b le £or both coh"'!i ve as well as non·
The rollers nre su1ta
'Jbe·cboi~ of equipment depends on the nature of . b cohesive soils· Kneautng
••• .
acuon . prov1ded
1s . by wobbling
. ~3Jl(l economy. Vi~ratory and press JO ' type wheels and lyre grips.
of $(If1' • . • ure type equipment .
-""'eSive sotls, while )cneading type is b . suus
oon est SUited for cohesive The performance depends on the contact area. tyte pressure

l
and number of wheels. Rubber tyred rollers are more popular
~i!s·
r:r because they are more economical and more efficient than

a
Rollers
s mooth wheel rollers.

ev
Each foot has about 300 to 800 mm1 area and projects about

Types of Rollers
nR 200nun.
The tapered or clubfooted steel studs penetrate into the
ground under high foot pressure. Large and bard clay lumps
(I) Smooth wheel or Iron tyred rollers
are crushed, mixed and compacted under a kneading action.

(ii) Pneumatic or rubber tyred rollers . Remoulding of the soil under the foot is causes by bearing
capacity failure and causes densification. Several drums are
U
(Iii) Sheep-foot rollers
ananged side by side or one following another and are towed

(iv) Tampers and Rammers together by pneumatic tyred tractors.

Sheep-foot rollers are most suitable for cohesive soils but are
(v) Vibratory rollers used for other soils also, (exc.ept clean sands and gn.vels).
1
m

Light rollers have foot pressures of 400 to 2000 I<N/m and

Fig. C6.5 : Types of Rollers 2
heavy type have pressures greater than 2000 kN/m . Rolling
.. Q) Smooth wheel or iron tyred roJJers is continued till the roller walks our after six to eight passes.
Sheeps-foot rollers ensure good bond between successive
Sa

Smooth wheel rollers are self-propelled and give I 00 p.c.

compacted layers.
coverage below the wheels, with a contact pressure of about
400 kN/ m2• These are particularly suitable for cohesionless ~ (iv) Tampers and rammers

soils and are commonly used in road construction. Tampers and rammers are impact type devices, used for field
compaction in narrow restricted areas, such as· comers of
The depth of compacted layer depends on the mass of roller
retaining walls and abutments, trenches etc. where the use of
{5,000 - l5,000kg) and ranges between 100 nun and 450 mm.
rolling equipment is impractical. Tamper is a heavy mass
Smooth wheel rollers are also used for finishing operation. which is lifted in the air and dropped onto the ground surface
Pressure rolling may be combined ~tb flooding and
repeatedly.

- vibration in non-cohesive soils.

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6-12
most effective in sandy soils, ....__
Vibrations are -•oq)

CompBCilon is 9Chiavro by shetuing a<:llon under I e 1·mpact ·

1> . II between 1 8 and 25 g or when frequency .
nccelerauon eJ tt
A hand mmpcr consists or a block or iron, srone or wood close to reoonan
cc: but have little effect on COhesive soi•·
"'-
10
weighing about 3 to 10 leg, falling through a drop of 100 'brotora (aboUt 15,000 kg) ate very effective ill
Large drum VI
250 mm. Pneumatic tampers are much faster. Jumping
compacting broken rock.
tampers and vibrating plates o.rc similar lllmping devices.
" Suitability of rollers
Compactio11 wet of optimum yields good results. R(lftinlers rush the aggregate by shear weight 3J\d ai<l
are pneumatic or internal combustion type devices weighing
Iron tyred roII ers c
. P mntic rollers have two-fold ad'Vantage of
about 20 to 80 l:g. Drop weights o.rc heavy masses dropped compacllon. neu
crushing and kneading.
through 2 or 3 m on tbe ground surface, ot close spots. over a
large area, to achieve compaction of the surface layer. Sheeps-foot roller provides kneading' and ~ng action

l
• • artt' Iarly useful i.n coliestve sotls. Highly
Compaction dry of optimum yields good results. whtch ts P cu
• • c001 pressure is applied to the lift at varying depth,

a
1ntenstve •·
-+ (v) Vibratory rollers
till the roller wallcs our.
Light rollen; are attached with vibratory or impact devices for As such sbeeps-foot roller gives a more uniform compaction

ev
more effective compaction of granular soils. A vibrator than a rubber tyred roller. Vibratory roUers are most suitable
consists of two eccentric masses rotating at a speed of 1000 to
in non-cohesive soils.
2000 rpm and produci11g repeated impulses. Vibratory rollers
are available in both smooth wheel and rubber tyred models.
nR 6.8 Solved Examples
Vibrations combilled with weight of the roller break soil
aggregates, bring about collapse of the soil structures' and at Ex. 6.8.1
high acceleration and impact, rearrange particles in optimum A laboratory compaction test on a soil having specific gravity
3
packing positions. 2.7 gave a maximum dry density of 1830 kglm at the
moisture content of 17%. Find the degree of saturation, air
Layers from 300 to 450 mm thick can be compacted to I 00%
content and percentage air voids at the maximum density.
of standard proctor density, in one or two passes of the
U
Soln. :
machine.
G·Pw
r:r Compaction by vibration We know, pd = G·W
1+-s,-
Non-cohesive soils are greatly influenced by vibrations. Light
surface vibrator compacts loose sandy soils to a limited (i) Degree of saturation
m

sba!Jow depth of Jess than 0.5 m. With the use of a large 1830 X 2.7 X 0.17
number of passes, compaction upto 1.5 m depth may be
(S,) = 2.7 X 1000 X 1830 = 0.96 or 96% ...Ans.

achieved. (ii) Air content (a.,) = 1-Sr= 1-0.96= 4% ...ADs.

Sa

The basic principle underlying vibratory compaction is the G·pw

reduction of frictional resistance due to vibration, causing the
(iii) P4 = 1 + G . w (1 - n,)
particles to slip and occupy closer position. pd (1 +G. w) _ 1830 (1 + 2.7 x 0.17) _
or
G 'Pw - 2.7 X 1000 - 0·98
The compactive effort of a roller is amplified by two
revolving excentric masses, within the roller drum. Pile D1 =2% ... Ans.
driving is an effective method of compacting non-cohesive Ex. 6.8.2
soils to great depths. Controlled explosions are also useful in
The following observations were noted during Proctor
compacting loose cohesionless soils. compaction test with a soil :

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9.6 11.0 12.S 14,0 180 I&

1600

Fl~ pd
p
= I+w- J
'(ben
•
Po for S, = 100% and S, :: 8.5% c an be ca!culaiOd by if 1~00
equ:tliOB.

pd ::
G ·p.. ...
~
0
I +Q. ·w

l
s,
o- - -- -'2o.....__ _ _ ~30.,_
. 1200 o! - - - - -,'-
s, =

a
Keeping valu e of l lllld 0 85
. I'CSJ)eetively. Now three
' Weto r conte nt ("kl -
p• and w have bee
cUfVd A. B and C between drawn for
"""'- (") s 5% and for finding out OMC lllld MDD as
8 °
(ii) Sr "' Juv-,.,. u , =
Fig. P. 6.8.3

ev
slJOWII in Fig. P. 6.8.2.
Ex. 6.8.4
wing observations were
2100 In a Modified Proctor test, the follo
recorded:
\ t 2000 10 t3 16.5 ~ 24.5 29.0
"'E Water content(%)
,.a
1900
nR ·Bulkdenilty(!cWm') 1650 1780 1950 1980 1850 1800

'
'i
~,
~
c>" 1800
1700

1600 9 10 12 18 20
Plot the moisture density curve
Also plot the ZAV tine. Take G, =
and find MOO and OMC.
2.70.

Soln. :
Water con ten t-
:
Calculations are shown in tabular fonn below
U
Fig. P. 6.8. 2
3
From the graph, MDD "" 181 Skglm and
OM C = 15.5% .' Wat1r cont.nt" . 10 13 16.5 20 24.5 29.0

~~~1' f.~ 9.6 11.0 12.5 14.0 16.0 18.0 19.5 Bulk den lly kO'W (p) 1650 1780 1950 1960 1850 1800

,~,G:~tP4l~~ · 1640 1710 1745 1795 1810 1740 1680

1575.2 1673.8 1650 1485.9 1395.3
Dry denafty kw'~.l
m

1500
,"':· '.:.''·
2080
'"' '~ " 2020 1960 1905 1838 tn5 1730
l'i'·~-~~~e!• . ,'J>; . P
~..,~~ 1880 1825 1750 1680 1630 Pd•:f+W
y·•_,"" '~ I 2025 1950
r· '"~ f,f~or·S;
h·''
.0 15\4.3
2125.9 1998.5 1667.6 1735.2 1625
Sa

Ex. 6.8.3
from a compaction

~
.
..
Assuming the following data obtained
testI determine the MOD and OMC

;
~~,~~ 10.5 14.0 18.3 20.6 24.0
..~ !:!ill '> ··' ~: 1650
W!f t.r~.,+-
27.5

1760 1900 1980 1950 1850 ValueofMDD= 1676 kgtm \ ValueofOM

C= 16.4%.

below :
SoJn, : Calculation is shown in tabular form

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6·14
. 12 cu.m. of soil from borrow pit
Quantlty of water 10 1
2160
.. (Bulk weigllt. of 112 cu.m. of soil)- (Dry Wei&l'4.)
2000

= 112 >< t.?0-170 ... 20.4 tons

J 1800
:. Quantity o f wa
ter to be added in 112 cu.m. of soil ftoll\
~
.:.c 1600 I
I borrow pit
:i' I
I s =
30- 20.4 9.6 tons
i I
I
d 1400 I
I .. warertobeaddedpercu.m. = mx
9.6 1000 k:g
.
I
I
I OMC =16.4 % = 85.714 kg. •..Ans.
1200o!------,,~o--...t..:...,2~o----:30~-

l
Water contant (%) -
Ex. 6.8.6

a
, d den~lly And void ratio of soli sample having
Fig. P. 6.~.4 Determrne ry o
water content of 1s% and saturation of 85 Yo. Assume

ev
Ex. 6.8.5
G =2.65.
100 cu.m. of embankment is to be constructed with a bulk
Soln.:
density of 2 gm/cc at 18% water content using soil from
borrow pit having bulk density of 1.70 gmlcc at 12% water
pdty =
content.

Soln.:
nR
Detennioe the· quantity of soil to be excavated from borrow
=
1+
2.65 X 1 2.65 X 1
0.15 X 2.65 = 1 + 0.47
0.85
pit, and also quantity of water to be added while Compacting.
2.65 X 1 l g mJ
Dry mass ofsoil in embankment= Dry mass of soil obtained from = t + e = .g cc

borrow pit
= Bulk mass from borrow pit e = 0.47 ...Ans. \
U
. BuJk mass in embankment

'
r.e. 1 + water content l + water content
Ex.6.8.7
100 x 2000 kglm3
.. 1+0.18 = 2001.1tons
8 = 170 tons A soil sample has OMC of 15% and bulk density of
1.84 gm/cc. Determine the following : Void ratio, porosity, %
M
Pbul k = (I + w) Pdry = y of saturation and maximum dry density. Assume G =2.70.
m

Soln.:
Bulk borrow pit = 1.70 gm/cc = 1.70 tons/ cu.m.
Pbu!k 1.84
:. weight of dry soil in one cu.m. of soil from borrow pit Pc~ty(mu) = t+'W= 1 +0.15
Sa

1.70 1.70 G·pw

= i+'W = 1.12 = 1.70 gmlcc;:;-- -
1 +e
.·. Volume of soil to be excavated from borrow pit to get 170 tons
or e = G- Pc1ry 2.70- 1.70 10
Pdry - 1.70 1·.7 =0.59 .•. ADs.
of dry soil
- -L 0.59
= 112 cu.m. n - 1 +e =1 + 0.59
Quantity of water in 100 cu.m. of soil in embankment, or n = G- Pdry =2.7' - I.7 _.L - 0.37 •.•ArJS.
G 2.7 2.7 -
= (Bulk weight) - (Dry weight) Sr' e =w·G
= 200-170 =30 tons. :. sr 0.15 X 2.7 ...Aos.
... (i)
=
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• 6

~·
.s.s
()t''~~p1 zero
119ving void 'liline
eir speot c gravl!y
s~tfl st9 3 points tor each curve.
,.r f98 G ·p
90
and of%2.es
SQturstlon llno l or a
. Show C&lcutau
~:G=~------
. Sotn, :
30•1
Ons Of
--~=~~~~
Com etlon

Slnco the
... of Soll.s

Val\lmearm I 1
- .. - - I "- M . "'' d • 1000 ml• I Illc.
r
~·: p~ - I
+~
S,
- G
' w)
(i+s
''"'"' ,. _.,, •n ka x I@
1000 ,. gmlce
r
p
1Pt,.,.
+W ( w . Water ~nttllt)
,.~ p.. density of wa~er = 1, .try "'
1
% saturntion Calculation• f
s, :: 100 or Pd era aa under

1
= ( I
2.65 +T
w) (...Por 100%
satu!':ltion l ine)
13.5% 20.2% 28.~ 36.7'1o t L5'1o

l
=--:-..:.1_ _
(...For 9()90 sa . l .438 1.64 1.528 1.3:3<\ \..2156
( z.~s+o~9 ) lu!':ltion l ine)

a
gmta:

Fromg!':lph,
OMC = 20.2%
10% 15%

ev
20% 25%
MDO -= 1.64 gmlcc
2.095 1.896 ,...._
1.7320 1.594

2.047 1.838
~1.7 1-Ml.d!Ylsity
1.668 1.526
- ---- -- tA
1--1.64

r / I
~
1--2.2
~~
nR l-1.6

I
I
\
~
I/ I
I
i'\.
~~ ~ 1.3
'\
f
\ [\..
~
l-1.8 OMC •20.2'.4

~
1
I ~
~ 1.1

~ v"'
-....;
Ia 100% SaturaUon
U
1
t
c. l-1.4 l-1.0
'CI- 90% Saturation 'I i i i l
'.4 Watec content -

1-1.0 Graph
1r 2r 31
m

'". Ex. 6.8.10

%Water-
The following observations were recorded in a standard
Graph
proctor test :
Sa

Ex.6.8.9
16.10 1310
In the light compaction test, the following results were
19.50 1515
obtained:
27.55 1875

33.69 1860
13.5 20.2. 28.9 36.7 41.5
34.n 1775
1.63 1.94 1.97 1.82 1.72
Find OMC and MDD plotting a graph. If Gs =2.70, plot ZAV

Plot the moisture density curve and obtain the value of OMC curve on the same graph paper.

~~~MD~o:·--------------------------~-------------------------------
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Compaction of Solis
._...,
~Geotechnical Engineering· I (MU-5111 Sem.-Civll) 6·16
•
Ex. 6.8.11
Soln. ; laboratory light weight
The following are the data from
Pb•~t ... (i)
Pd,., : I +w compaction :
W~ter Content {%) eufk o eneltY (~ee}•
O ·Pw 1.87
p4 = ...(ii) 17.5
G·IV 1.95
t+-s,- 19.0
20.0 1.97
% water content
where. \V =
100 21.0 1.98
% of satumlion 22.0 1.99
s' = 100
= I
1.97
22.5
24.0 1.96
p., = I gm/cc

l
Plot the moisture content and dry density curve and lind
Calculations are carried out as under ;
MOD and OMC.

a
;

). .r \~~
'
~a fer. e~ntent ·("~)
~,,

1>, .
.
..... ,,.;,.

~·
16.1 19.5 27.55 33.69 34.77 Take G, = 2.7.

Soln.:

ev
Bulk density kg!m 3 ;_.., 1310 1515 1875 1860 1775
G ·p., I p
~ ~
. J.. - -"" .
~~.of,i~~ple'kg/l:li~ 1128.3 1267.8 1470.01 1391.28 1317.05 pd = I +0 ·W
= I Pw =I =(0.3704 + w)
1 . ' a"'-·W
'tRefer EquaiJo~ (QL

p 4 1ngmlcc , .... 1.1283 1.2678 1.470 1.391 1.317

W~t!~~~ieiJl%: 17.5 19 20 21 22 22.5 24

Pd for 100% saluratfon 1.8855 1.7687

1
1.548
nR
1.4319 1.3926
.,,.. P~~a. g;;cJ:;~
Dbul~
1.87 1.95 1.97 1.98 1.99 1.97 1.96

1.5915 1.63865 1.6417 1.6363 1.6311 1.608 1.5806

(Refe'r Equation·(II)J Pdrt = (1 + w) •
2.7 X I
1
Ydrr = 2.7X0. !6 1
'<1
Pd for 100% · 1.8375 1.7844 1.75315 1.723 1.694 1.6795 1.638
I+ I . . ._,
saturation line .<
U
= 1.8855 .
From Graph, OMC = 28.0%
MDD = 1.48 gm/cc
-1.8
~ .....
""-,
m

r--2.0
~
1--1.8
~
t
1
- 1.6

"- Zero air void tina

~~
~ MOO= 1.645
, ' ~ H ......
~"'-.
-
Sa

"'~ ~·

~ '--1.4 o.."
1
I
~
~
"' v ,./ -.....~
0.~ ~ h' t-1.6
........,

'
OMC-';19.5% I
\
'
-1.2 I

- 1.0
10 20 30
1-1.50 l
18
I 4r 1i 21 21 2i
I I I
% Water content - %Water content -

Graph
Graph
From Graph, OMC = 19.5%
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-
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I
\ r; (lfff' GeOI8chnlcal Engineering. 1lMU-st~ Sem.·Civfl)
~ 6·17
Compaction of SolllJ

~ \ fl'· •.8.12

tor oom
!)Of'liiOIY· Proc pact lon test
b
fll' following dara have been o tatnea 1
" a standard
.. s, .. fl,l.h <1.17
0.4(, 11 " 0 1199 - 16%
on glacial ti ll .
,., % or ~~l llrnlio n at OM C ,. ?l:l%
\ 16
Wei ght of ..:.__
r;r Wat er eon~nt (%) rnou fd •nd
' ' corn pac tea SoU (leg) lo,\C}I3'14 \
' 5.02 3.58 0
1-t 9
1-- -- - ~ ·- -z ~MOD" 1.895QITYC.C
8.81 3.730
I
1\
~{
11.25 3.932 1-18

13.05 4.ooo
- I
I \
~\ 14.4 0 4.00 7
- J I
I 1\
r

l
19.2 5 3.90 7
~.,.
1-17
v I '

a
Th9 specifiC graVity of the soil
944 em m
part icles Is 2
s · vo1ume and i ts weig ht is 1
. -
.77. The mou ld·18
·978 kg · PI0 I 1h e
Q,f
1-1.6
v I
I

· I
dete rmin e the OMC and MOO

ev
compacuon curv e and .
AI I
. · so
~ compute the vo1d ratio and deg
ree of satu . n at optim

,,
ratio um
..
conclltion . I~
1-1.0
1'i 21
~
Soln .: I
% Water cont en t-
" The following procedure is adopted
:
~
'
~
Dry densiry =
1+
Bulkden si~
% wate r content
100
nR Ex. 6.8.13
Graph

standard
The following results were obtained from a
mou ld)
{ 1 Mass of soil. + . •) - ( Massinofgm compaction test :
ulk density = Mos s of mou ld m gm
Volu me of mou ld in cc. (944)
3
B Bulk den sity (kg!m ) Wat er co nten t (o/o)
. ., 1 I· 2 3 4 . 5 6 . 11.3
U
~mple 1978

(a) weight of soil + weight 3580 3730 3932 4000 4007 3907 2083 12.2
of mould In gm gm gm
2147 13.0
weight o/ mould in gm 1978 1978 1978 1978 1978 1978
(b) 14.2
2208
= (a) 1602 1752 1954 2022 2029 1929
(c) weight ol wei soil 15.1
m

2188
-(b) ingm
2.07 2.1420 2.149 2.043 2147 16.4
{c! In gms 1.697 1.856
(d) PM= 944cc dete rmin e MOD and
(i) Draw mois ture-density curve and
5.02 8.81 11.25 13.05 14.4 19.25
(e) %water content OMC .
Sa

1.6159 1.706 1.8606 1.8947 1.879 1.714 e grap h (G = 2.7) .

PI.Jilc (il) Draw the satu ratio n line on the sam
(9 Prr = 1 +w gnv'cc d in light com pact ion test.
Calc ulat e total ene rgy imp arte
G·p., =I gm/cc
pdly = ""i"'+e' Pw Soln .:

1 2 3 4 5 6
2.77 Sample No.
.. e =~~- I) = 1.895 - I ::0.4 6 17
Pbullc kg/m ·
3
1978 2083 2147 2208 2188 2147

14.2 15.1 16.4%

(from graph MOD = 1.895 gm/cc) .- w% 11.3 12.2 13.0

OMC = 13% . PliY = ----w

Pbolt .
(kgm J. 1117
s
1856 1900 1933 1901 1844

= W · G. j;' . 1 ~ 100 -'

Also , Sr· e
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-
. --- ..;;-..
w w w .e ng ine er ingo n1 our,, ,·~-
" -: ~~~
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fM Geotechnical Englneerln • I MU·S"' Sem.-Civll 6·16

,.-2.0
z.•

''
--
.
2.2
~ r .Zero olf ..,;cl""
1.8

/
/ ~
"'
""/~
~
I
2.0
1.5

t 1 ~
......
...... 1.6
J. ~
i 'I 'i i I ~
%Water content -
1.6
'

l
G~ph (For Ex. 6.8.13 andEx. 6.8.14)
-'1.4
'I 1i 2i

a
From graph. it is noticed that. I " Will er,;ontenl
OMC = 14% Graph

ev
MDD = 1.9 gm/cc
Commen ts : From the graph it will be noticed that. ZAV line is
Ex. 6.8.14
· the comp~~u·
cuttmg ..., on curve· After moisture of 16%. This is not
The results of standard compaction test on a sample of soil
possible. Hence the reading beyond 16%. Viz last two readings are
are as follows :
incorrect. The curve (c) has to be below ZAV line.
nR
10 1.98

14 2.1
20 2.18
U
25 2.16

Plot the compaction curve and obtain the optimum moisture

content and maximum dry density. Calculate the water
content necessary to completely saturate the sample at its
maximum dry density, assuming no change in the volume.
m

Take G =2.7.
Soln.:
Pb""' G 1
Pdtr = I + w =Gw
- l =-
1 -- (ifS, =1) S on.:
I
Sa

+-
s, -+w
0
Volume of mould = 980 cc
= (o.37~+w) •. Bulk density = (mkgllit)
1.77 1.98 2.10 2.18 2.16
Mass of soil
0.98
5% 10% 14% 20% 25%
= 1.0204 (mass of soil)
1.686 1.80 1.842 1.817 1.728
Mass of soil
Yr1ry = (0.98) (1 + w)
2.371 2.126 1.959 1.753 1.612

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a l
ev
nR
U
m
Sa

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6·20

MU . Dec. 11, 1 0 M otks

. El(. 6.8.1T : DO OMC tested lnotanda rd proctor test.
1 Orew dry dsnsity rnofsturo content curvo and find ou t M
t
Jso find maximum theorotlcal danslty a w •
15 5% If 0 a 2 7
1960
. ..
2000 2005 2003
Compacte d weight of coli, gm 1800 1940
8.5 12 .2 13.75 15.5 18.2 20 .2
w%W%

Soln. : ydl)• = l+ w
w =% of water con tent --,
4 5 6
I 2 3
Sample No. I
2.003 1.98
Yboh< J.:g/lifn.> - -- 1.8 1.94 2.0 2.005
15.5 18.2 20.2
12.2 13.75

l
~ wa lar eonttnt 8.5%
1.736 1.695 1.647
Y•rr
. ; .. -~·· ,_ 1.659 t .729 1.758

a
G·y.,
M a\:imum theoretical Y4ry = 1 + w . G (w =15.5%)

ev
2 ·7 X 9 ·8 1 3 ... Ans.
- I = 18.6725 kN/m
- 1 + 0.!55x2.7 0.05355

2.0

1.9
nR
1- 1-Ymll)(= 1.758gm/cc
...-~- - 1-·~- -i- -'-~-1-+ 3 - 1-·r- -
17.58 kN/m
"' Q.
U
v I 1--.
1.7 v !
1--- i+ 1- OMC = 14%
I I I I I I ~D
_l I I I 1
t I I I I
1.6
6% 10 15 20
m

%Water content -

Fig. P. 6.8.17

EIC. 6.8.18 ·Mu - Dec: ,1 2~ 10,Miuks

Sa

Given standard soil compaction test results as follows :

Trial No.· 1. 2 3 4 5 .

Water content% 8.3 10.5 11.3 13.4 13.8

3
Bulk unit weight I<N/m 19.8 21.3 21 .6 21 .2 20.8

The specific gravity of soil particle is 2.65. Plot the following.

(I) · Mois~ure dry density curve
(ii) Zero air voids curve, and'
(Ill) Ten par cent air content cunie: (90% Saturation curve). . ·'
Determine the optimufT) !lloi~tu re.content and the'corresponding maxi~u m dry density.
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 ;-
---

T rial N o. 1 https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
2 3 4 5
Water content % 8.3 10.5 11.3 13 .4 "\3.8 ~
y
(Yo)=~ 118.28 19.28 19.41 18.69 18.28
"..
--
For ZAV \ G·trn
line (·td>max= 1 +mG 1 21.3 20.31 20 19.19 19.03
m
-- :::1
<0

l
:;·
~ For90% \ (y ) = -
G-fw
- I 20.89 19.86 19.5 18.64 18.49
(I)
(I)

~
d mG 5·

a
saturation
1+- ~
Sr
~
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6-22
E.~Uiblhh ing the ground water table level and detenninatioo
6.9 Introduction to Son Exploration 8.
of Ute properties of water.
,.._. sultnbility of the soil as a construcu 0
Before deciding nny foundation, it I~ essenllnl to obtain 9. Odcrmln Ing ""' n
reliable and sufficient data nbout the strntn. where foundation rnntcrial.
wiU be located. l f a site is to be chosen from l:1rgc area. or
6.9.2 Factors Affecting Cost of Soli
from altcmlltivc areas. such a~ selection of site for dnm. Investigations
bridge. tunnels. highway etc. it is necessary that proper soi 1
. fl c'ng cost of soil investigation include :
~plomlion is carried out. Factors 10 uen •
Factors affecting
Su ch exploration will enable lhe designer to provide viable Cost of Soli Investigations
and economical design . Although. the cost of exploration is
ususlly less than 1 to 2% the project cost. in most of the (i) Non uniformity of layers

l
cases. exploration is not given due attention. which may
(li) Undisturbed sampling
prove to be uneconomical ami disastrous in long run.

a
(Iii) Oopth of explorations
6.9.1 Soil Exploration and Site Investigation
-+ (iv) Nature of project

ev
(MU-June11,Dec. 11)

Fig. C6.6 : Factors affecting Cost ()f Soil Investigations

.. (i) Non uniformity or layers

Erratic deposits need more exploration cost than homogenous

nR
The basic aim of sub-surface exploration or site investigation
is to obtain IJJe information about the surface conditions at the site
deposits.

of proposed construction. For every big or major engineering . . (II) Undist ur bed sampling
I
project site investig.ations are essential, since it is beneficial for the Needs heavy expenditure.
design of structures and for planning construction techniques. .. t.
._. (iii) Depth of explor ations
U
cr Purpose of soil exploration program
Cost increases with increases in depth of exploration.
Site .investigation for one or more of the following purposes ge
. . (lv) Nature of project
is carried out ; h:
1. Determination of the bearing capacity of IJJe soil. For -earthen dam, the construction cost is low but has high
m

2. Selection of type and depth of foundation for a given total cost of exploration and retaining walls have high cost of

structure.
construction and low exploration cost. Range is around 0.1 to
2% of estimated cost depending on importance of project and
3. Investigation of the safety of the existing structures and for
nature of subsoil.
Sa

necessary remedial measures.

For less important jobs, heavy expenditure on detailed
4. Selection of suitable construction technique.
investigations is not necessary.
5. Calculation of the lateral earth pressure against retaining
For large projects, extensive investigations are justified.
walls and abutments.
For complex and erratic soil profile, heavy expenditure on
6. Estimation of probable maximum and differential settlements.
investigation hardly improves quality of infonnation.
7. Prediction and solving of potential foundation problems.
For regulae uniform profile even small cost of exploration
may yield a high quality of information.

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Co cllon of Solis
;:::.- - on
... 3.
e,~ploration involve s broadly the ~0 11 OWing :
$0i1 This I~ nn lm""rtll ..... f . .
•- n1 p.,...., o the enUI'6 ptogrnm. In lhit ltnge
Planning of a programme for soil ex P1Ot'ation
.
.
/. •
the en &•necr pions tbe Investigation program. The fint siCp
eonection of disturb ed and undistu rbed ~o11. or
2.
. . or rock sample s towsrds 1\ ground lnvestlgntion is n thoroug h undcratMding
I
rrom che hoes drilled 111 the field _
an efficient wortltl g
. 'ue number d the &eoloey of the sile, which enablea
depend upon tlle project, an de(ltll or
holes out of the investigation program,
.
Conduc ting all the necess ary in·suu
3. tests for 0b · • The second step is to obtoi n more details of llle subsoil slr.JI.a
strength and compr essibil ity chan . . tainlng the
1 O£ two
c ensuCli of the 01'1 (e.g. thickness of individ ual stllll&) from one
.indi rectly. ~ or rock
directly or depend on the
explora tory drill holes. AU other further steps

l
profile.
Study of ground -water conditions and collection magnit ude of the job and the charact er of the s oil
4· 0f
Water
samples for chemic al analys is. During this stage the possible location of the vound wmr
is

a
IISelf
The ground investi gation, irrespective 0 f ,,_ . also found. For small jobs thi• prelimi nary l11vestigation
. uoe lllllgnnude of the r
may be sufficient. It is a commo n practic e to lilllit the numbe
project. cons•st s of four phases :

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the One obtaine d from
of quality sample s recovered except
Four Phases of
Groun d Invest igatio n penetration tests.
rd
The strength and settlem ent are estimated from s1311da
1. Available information correlations using indeX properties and supple mented by the'
Further,
results from sample s obtained from penetration tests.
2. Reconnaissance

3. Preliminary investigation
nR this is tile stage which practically decides the feasibility
project.
of the

4. Delailed investigation 4. Detailed Investigation

Additional borings and deep borings are planne d

from the
Fig. C6. 7 : Four Phase s of Groun d Investigation borings.
data obtained from tile preliminary boring s and deep
U
Avail able information spacin g
J, If the subsoil is uniform in stratification, an orderly

ed may be planned.
This is tlle fust phase in which collection of publish
Many a times additional borings are made to locate weak
soil
geological and topographical infonnation of the
area,
or rock zones, outcrops etc. which may influen ce the design
hydrological data, details of existing or histori c developmen"
m

a
and construction of the project. Drilling is required to bore
local regulations for construction activity etc. are made.
hole into hard strataor boulders. lt can be done by percussion
.. z. Recon naissance or rotary method of drilling.
Necessary in-situ tests should also be performed. Sufficient.
Sa

is
This is Jl1e phase during which first examination of the area
for
made by the engin eer along 'vith otller specialists. such
as the samples should be procured to obtain relevant parametm
be
design and constiU ction. Certain additional samples should
geologist, land surveyor, geotechnical engineer, etc.
for the recorded to redefin e the design or construction procedure.
At this stage a tllrough study of the existing structures

6.11 Methods of Obtaining SoU Samples

and
1ype of construction and defects such as cracks
or railroad cuts nnd
settJe ment, es .tn h'tghway
soil profil
. . . . hi h water marks on bridge
quarries, CI'OSl On lD eXlSil Dg CUts, g
. f flood and scour levels
abutments, rock outcrops. history o
from the local people are collected.
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Compaoll on 01 .,_,
~ ""!Ia
Gootechnic:al En lneerin • I U-51n Sem.-CIVII) 6-24
https://cee-book.blogspot.com/ rmits o mos
t detailed vlaual examination of the
,, . . sou
Following methods ore u~od to obtom SOl., snmpl~ to pc: lt'on for the entire depth.
forma
ide~~tify/classify the type of slnlla. and to .~d the same ~or tesHng:
. ntage of this method lie• in getting tel:.tiVtl
A~a« dW y
Methods of Obtaining Soli Samples sample from the wnlls or bottom of pit .....
undistur~d so11 ' · w1
. Ued steel tube in the soil strata, t>upe 1 ~i•·
ptuhing n thJO wa • ..
(1) Trial pits r1ed by sheeting and bracing [Pig. 6.1l .l(a)J
htwc to be suppo
'bb'ng (Pig. 6.1 J.l(b)) to prevent coll~~pse
(2) Auger boring or by en t •
0) Vent ilation of deep test p1ts Is necessary
(JS : 4453, I 98 · 10
(3) Wash boring ·
prevent accumulation of dead air·
(4) Rotary drilling, Coro drilling . d by providing pipes starting slightly above the
This 1S one
ing about one metre above the top of the pit.
Ooor and C)( te "d
(5) Percussion driRing . · have to be exercised if presence of
Spec1al precau11001
. gases is anticipate d (IS : 3764, 1966). A

l
Fig. C6.8 : Methods of Obtninlng Soil Samples obnOXIOU$
dewatenn g sys tem has to be used if pits are to e,..tend below
.
6.11.1 Test Pits and Trench es

a
the water tuble.
nus is one of the most dependab le and informative method

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of soil exploratio n, however, it is limited to a depth of 4 to 5
m onl . Trial its are suitable for all of soils and

150 x 150 mm S1Ud

es nature of
nR
rramea to be spaoad

ground requires

50x100m meach y~· ~

corner opUonal ·~ ,:·
Ground WOoden Sedloo Y-Y
surface
250
U
.; ··;
···: ~
-.~
~~
...
,,~ .....
'-
~

..·: :~
... Excelslot/H8y/
m

non-<:OhensiVe Over Section X.-X

aoll break Drift 1500 x 2100
All dimensions in rm1
(a) Sheeting and bracing for test (b) Typical test pit cribbing (c) Typical method of supporting
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pits weak zones from (IS 4453 - 1980)

Fig. 6.11.1 : Arrangement for protecting test pits

c:r Trenches

These are similar to test pits. They provide a long continuous exposure of the surface of
the ground along a desired line or section.
They are best suited for exploration on slopes. Necessary safety precautions have to be taken
as in deep test pits.

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hnlcal En lneerlng- 1 MlJ-s•h
o~rec . SoiTI, ·CivU
· ,AIIger Boring
,_t1;
. useful in cohesive nnd Otlle Co ollon ol Soils
;s qu• 10 . r ~on sou~ .._
Jl · n.,.wc Wnt
~ _0perattd auger methods am suitnbl . ~ er table.
JlSll11 c or ltlonw..-
.k
10 tM EfOUnd Wnter table for d~ · ~mg v 01101
dtP"' .. f'cr bOling, . 15
type_~ llr toil$
;.s tht drill sdvances, addttionnlnuger Oi.ghts are ft:OIIIl or hollow•.uorn; toni' With <ltpt.h nnd Also for getting lnformnllon aboot the
•ouded nnd , , muous-Oight au
'Oil,s hrought to the 8~lll (mtnry nugerft} are frequently u•cd.
sunnce In n dhtt•~d form.

l:i<tenslon
auger

a l
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(a) Post-hole a ugn
(b) Helical auger
(c) Short-fUght auger (d) Continuous Olt:ht
auger hand augers

_ In llJJger boring it is possible to identify even disturbed soils.

nR
Fig. 6-11.2 : Types of augers

6.11.3 Wash Boring

Sina the borehole is kept dry, it is particularly suitable for
advancing borings above water table to obtain undisturbed W~h boring (Fig. 6.11.3) is commonly use<! for the borin~ in
pmially saturated samples. It further facilitates the difficult soil. To start with, the hole is advanced a shon depth
detennination of free water level. by auger and then a casing pipe is pushed to prevent the sides
U
_ Augers can be operated mechanically or manually. Hand from caving in.
augers used for depths up to about 6 m and mechanically The hole is then continued by the use of a chopping bit flxed
operated augers are used for greater depth and they can be at the end of a string of hollow drill rods. A stream of water
used in gravely soils. under pressure is forced through the rod and the bit into the
m

- The hand augers used in boring are about l5 to 20 em in hole, which loosens the soil as the water flows up around the
pipe.
diameter. The lower end of hand auger is attached to a pipe.of
18 mm diameter. The loosened soil in suspension in water is discharged into a
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tub. The soil in suspension settles down in the tube and the
- For taking samples from readily driven hole, a auger known
clean water flows into a sump which is reused for circulation.
as 'Post-Hole Auger' is used.
The motive power for wash boring is either mechanical or
- Mechanical augers are driven by power. If depth of bore hole
man power.
increases above 12 m, then mechanical augers become
The soil sample obtained by this method is known as wash
inconvenient and other boring methods are used.
sample. It is used to describe soil profile approximately by
Auger boring becomes trouble-some. when there are large change in colour of soil suspension. Approximate siz:e
boulders or cobbles are met. The site investigation is done gradation can also be determined by this sample.

-quite rapidly and economically by using auger boring.

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a l
Casing pipe

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ChOpping bit

Fig. 6.11.3 : Wash boring

nR
Mainly wash boring is used for drilling holes in the ground. driUed by rotating a hollow driU rod which has a cutting bit at
its lower end. At the top of drill rod, driU head is provided. It
Once bole is drilled, a sampler ls inserted to obtain soil samples for
laboratory testing. comprises of a rotary mechanis01 and an arrangement for
applying pressure.
rr Advantages
When the drilling rod is rotated, the cutting bit shears off
U
1. Instrument used is relatively light in weight
chips of the material penetrated. A drilling fluid is introduced
2.

3.
Inexpensive method

Fast and simple method.

cr Disadvantages
under pressure through the drilling rod to the bottom of the
hole.

The cuttings of the material penetrated are carried to the

-
m

ground by the fluid through the annular space between the l Rotary
I. It is slow in stiff and coarse grained soils.
drilling rod and the walls of the hole. Another function of l Bore I
2. Cannot be used in rocky strata. fluid is to cool the drilling bit. The drilling fluid also supports drilled
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3. Good quality undisturbed samples cannot be obtained. the walls of the hole, in case of un-cased hole.

4. Not suitable in areas where ground water table is ~ery near to The drilling bit is replaced by a sampler, when soil sample is
ground. required to be taken. If soi
Drilling may be done by a diamond studded bit or a cutting ~~I
6.11.4 Rotary Drilling
(Core Boring or Core Drilling) edge having chilled shot The diamond drilling is costlier, but ~.
is superior to the other type drilling. If double tube core barrel ~(
Rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very fast method of
is used, it gives good quality of the rock sample.
advancing hole in the rocks and soils. In thls method hole is

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Com tlon o1 Solie

Rotary drive

a l
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-~L 'I See 'llewa 1
nR ~ _
'----.... ..... ..t.._ abOve ~
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.
U
Bit, replace<! by samprtng
spoon during sampling operatiOJlS

Fig. 6.11.4 : Rotary drilling rig (After Hvorslev, 1948)

6.11.5 Percussion Drilling
r:r Advantages
m

(Refer Fig. 6J l.S(b)]

I. Rotary drilling can be used in clay, sand and rocks.
Percussion drilling is another method of drilling hole in
2. Bore holes of diameter 50 mm to 200 mm can be easily which a heavy drilling bit is alternately raised and dropped in such
drilled by this method. a manner that it powders the underlying materials and fonns into
Sa

slurry in water. This slurry is removed out of the hole by means of

rr Disadvantages
bailers or sand pumps.
If soil is containing a large percentage of particles of gravel In all types of drilling the sides of the holes may be stabiliz.ed,
·siu and larger, this method is not well adapted. Because, the if required. by the use of drilling mud or casing pipes. A drilling
particles of this size start rotating below the drill rod and it mud is nothing but bentonite clay mix.ed in water.

betomes difficult to drill the hole.

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6·28

l'ercU$$Ion drilling method b spec!nlly IL<rd ror mnklng hole~

in roc:b. boulden: nnd oth~r hrud 01m1a. Pen:u~loo drilli ng conslsl•
of lirung n.nd dropping or n '"'I}' l~nvy chisel in n vr,rtlclll hole.
1llo motrrilll gct3 p.t h•rriz.:d. Wntrr is lidded to tltc hole>, If U1c
chisel strites Above> wntcr lllble. The water fomu a 5luny of A
dls:lnteif!~Ced R13terial, \\hich is removed by sMd pump or n boiler
Ill inlelVal.s . Casing mny by required for this method. For drilling
tube well also percussion drilling is used.

<r Advantages

· Power
I. Percussion drilling cnn be used in nil types of soils. unll

l
2. It is very much u,seful for boring holes like that for tube well

a
lhrou~h rock or boulders.

<7 Disadvantages (c) Wash-bori"C arrangement (d) Bailer

ev
I. Because of heavy blows of the chisel, the material at the Fig. 6.11.5: Showing details or rotnry and percussion drilling,
wash boring arrangement
bottom is in disturbed state.

2. More expensive as compared to other methods. 6.12 Soil Samplers and Sampling
3. Difficult to det"t minor ~hanges in the propenies of the ~ (MU - Dee. 13, Dee. 16)
strata penet.raled.
nR l -a-.-8-n-.e-fly- e-
xp-la_l_
n_th_e_d_e_s_lg_n_f_e_a_

undisturbed sample.
_p-le_r..:..f_o_rg-e-tt...:in~g
tu....:re:....s_of_s_a_m

I•!§WPi•l§WiiJ

Sampling Tubes
U
1. Open Drive Sampler
Power
unit (Refer f
2. Stationary Piston Sample~
r _ _,dl

3. Split barrel or Split Spoon Sampl=,~ J cuts an

4. Rotary Sampler
m

Head 5. Block or Chunk Samples

Rot(\[)
Core Fig. C6.9 : Snmpling T ubes
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berellel kom t
6.12.1 Open Drive Sampler
The r
Chisel (Refer Fig. 6.12. l(a and b)) RQt>
Open drive so.mpler consists of a steel rube with screw thread
at each end. Cutting shoe is attached to one end of the tube.
(a) Rolary drilllug (b) Pernusion drilling The other end of tube screws into a sampler bead to which in
tum the boring rods are connected.
Fig 6.Il.S : Contd...

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1f>t $ e._~ a 1101\-~tu Com action of sons

rn ' 'nlve t
,
,uo>v sir 1111d water to esenpc 1\S 11lC ~ool• fills the t11 o I. Sampler I• nut lo~
rerain the ~>ample IU tho tube I be 1\nd to locft red Into the ho~ hoi<!., phton being
ne)P S Whhdtt~w t~d at the lo~~o~r end of tube. 'The tube Md pblOO CCNid be
·..e wropler can be driven or jllt'k d n. Th.e open lock •
Jfl c · AO~ W'tJ e.:. togcthtr '-·
v7 n clnmplng dcvlu whi<:h Is l'f'O"ided at lhe
~hoe and sampler helld nre d
1
·ng ldmwnl the 1op of rod~. Pi~t ...
ctJlll etnehed lind or soil from
~\JTiple 3I'C scnlcd and it is tlten s d the ends or .
entenng lhe l\lbe.
on uoUS prevents water I005C
rJtt • en to Iaborntory
....., s.<tfllPier is suited for clnyey SOil. • 2. Now the piston ·'' he ld ngalnstlhe ~oil by clomplnglhc: pi!ton
, , .~ When used t0
Yljllel' of sond a short length of be . obtain · nnd the tube i3 pushed pa.~t the piston until
rod to the c 3~•ng
~ tU Wtth $pli
ps should be fitted between the tube . ng loaded the snmtller hend meets the top of the piston to obtain a
113 . nnd cutting shoe
rt'-ent loss of sot!. Due to cutting h . to sample.
P s oe Provoded
:tre-1 rorio is higher (30%) than thin walled at bottorn The sampler ·1s lh en wothdmwn
sampler. 3. . holding the piston at the top

l
. .2 Stationary Piston Sampler of tube n~ this 1.... .
.... es P1ace. The vacuum between poston and
612 snmple help to reta.in the soil in the tube. Piston samplers are

a
(Refer Fig. 6. I 2. 1(c)) always pushed by mechanical or hydr:r.ulk jacking and they
!{ere we have thin walled tube fitted with a . are not driven. This sampler is generally used for soft clays.

ev
. PISton. The piston
. .
. connected to a rod passmg through sampler head and run mstde
iS
J1.11foW bOring rod.

6,12.3'split barrel or Split Spoon Sampler nR

(Refer fig. 6.12. J(d))

:
_ This sampler is used in standatd penetration test tube which splits . . .
. urb . h . long~tudinally mto two halves is used here. There is a considetable
· Outstde
dtsl ance 1n r e samp1er and useful m sandy t YPe 0 r sotls. . and inside diameter of tube is 51 mm and 35 mm Area ratio is
112%. .

6.12.4 Rotary Sampler

U
(Refer Fig. 6.12. 1 (e) and (f))

- Rotary sampler is a double-walled tube sampler with an inner removable liner. The outer tube is provided with a cutting bit. The bit
cuts an annular ring when the barrel is rotated.
m

- Tlte inner tube which is stationary slides over the cylindrical sample cut by the outer rotati ng barrel. The quality of sample obtained
with double waJied tube sampler is better than that obtained with single lube sampler.

- Rotary samplers are useful for sampling in finn to hard cohesive soils and panicularly in rocks. The rock quality can be estimated
Sa

from the core recovery ratio termed as rock quality designation, RQD.
- The ratio of the total length of core recovered to the length of sampler advanced on a given run, expressed as percent, is the value of
RQD. While detennining the length of core recovered. only those piece of core which are :uleast 100 mm long, hard and sound, are

considered. Breaks caused by drilling should be ignored.

- The di f .h. h ld " bly be not Jess than 54 mm From RQD. it is also possible to assess the in situ (field) modulus
ameter o t e core s ou prere1'3 ·
of 1 ti' • • th f th rock mass (q) based on the corresponding values (E, and q 1) obtained by laboratory tests
e as c1ty and compresstvc streng o e t

oo rock cores.

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Sampler heed
AJr 181eaM
v &IW
Locking deviCe

l
Piston

a
(a) Open drive (b) Thin tube (c) Stationary
sampler sampler piston sampler

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Head
I/H_I__l_1
Pin \.
nR l
(g) SprlDg Core
catcher

I
}.

457.2 mm

1
U
Liners
35
1--mm -
76 mm 6.'
J nJY Core
" catcher
m

1-51 mm -
(d) Split spoon (e) Single tube (f) Double (h) Sampler with (I) Composite
sampler core barrel tube core barrel core catcher aampler
Fig. 6.12.1 : Types of Sampline tubes
Sa

Box
2

Fig. 6.12.2 : Block or chunk sample

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situ I'Oclt ctlon ol Solis
r- . . ··~·. -:.-- CIUaUty
!.ROJi ! ROtk q~ icJ~r'I B - Uodlttutbed
,..- 1 Dr.q,/ q aamptca ITIBy 0110 be obtained by means of a
<25 Yel)l poor --L 14111 PIIngtube of 100 mm diameter whb a &harp cutting edge.
0. 1 ~ The 11011 •urroull<.ltng the oulaide of the tube should be
25-50 poor
0.20 carerully removed while tube it being pushed in.
50· 15 fnir
6 12 6
0,25 " • Types of Samples
15 - 90 gOOd
0.30-0.70
90 - 100 excellent ~ltlon 1 J>leturbad tampla art ., C4lled whim
0.70- 1.0 the&r notu ra l sotl atru.ct ure t. dutroyecl duri"'f Mmpltn.f.
~eqwremcnts for thin walled rube . Henct cannot be U$ed for important propertie&
' s as per •s 2132
si''en in following 14blc. It will be . · 1952 are DetlniUon t Howeuer, tlae ~Wtural. mo~re conlerii and
,prop,ortion of mineral. conatituents can. be p~rvtd .with
DOilccd that,
Jess tllWl IS%. area ratio is
SUitiib[e . - ,. . •
.. Prcca.utiOM, sw:h flamples are·· called

l
Table 6.12.2 : Requirement of thin
(IS 2 132 - 1952) . walled tubes ~~P~·~·~tati1Je4 • ~'J~~~;•.~ Thut a'! . uuf]d {Or
~ llten#ficat(f>n te~(s, ·, • ,..

a
Undisturbed samples are ones in which original soil
structure is preserved and material properties have not

ev
undergone any alteration or modifiCation. Such samples are
used for determination of engineering properties.

6.13 Depth of Exploration and Extent of

45
Exploration
3. 100 106 12.4 %
nR 45
6.13.1 Depth of Exploration
~ The inside and outside diameter of split spoon sampler are
39 mm 51 mm respectively and area ratio is 67 %. The .:_~(:::M~U:_:·~D~e:,::c::_·..:.11:,.:•;;.Ma::~Y~1:::5:!.)~
r----------~
sample obtain~ is distu.rbed. The sampler is made sturdy to Q, Write detailed note on depth and SPElcir~Q-.cif-bC>re
U
with stand heavy stresses.
Exploration, in general, should be carried out to a depth upto
6.12.5 Block or Chunk Samples
which the increase in pressure due to structural loading is
(Refer Fig. 6.12.2) likely to cause perceptible settlement or shear failure.

Such a depth, known as the significant depth. depends upon

m

Block samples can be obtained from open excavations like

test pits, shafts, etc. from soil which has a trace of cohesion.
the type of structure. its weight. size, shape and disposition of
the loaded areas, and the soil profile and its properties. It is
During excavation, a block of soil about 40 em x 40 em in
generally safe to assume the significant depth upto a level at
Sa

plan, is left undisturbed. An undisturbed of about

which the net increase in vertical pressure becomes less than
30 em X 30 em x 30 em or any convenient size is usually
10% of the initial overburden pressure.
!rimmed with a knife is then slided over the trimmed block.
Alternatively, a pressure bulb bounded by an isobar of one-
The space between the sides of the box and the sat with dry fifth or one-tenth of the sutface loading intensity is
sand. The end of the box is sealed with paraffin wax. These sometimes assumed to define the minimum depth of
samples if transported to long dislanCe may get disturbed exploration.
during transit They can be used for any laboratory tesiS by
This depth may be assumed to be equal to one-and a half to
careful trimming. But these samples cailnot be obtained two times the width (smaller lateral dimension) of the loaded
belowwater level. area
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• , wing guide line given in (IS 1892- 1979).

A-• nccorchng to the , o 11o
nx: depth of e.tplomllon at the start of the won: m"Y be decl"""

8 8 8l
a·~·§J

a l
(a) Isol.tted spread footings I ralls ( b) Adj 0 ecnt rowst979)
of rooungs
F1Jr. 6.13.1 : Deplh or exploratJon for building foundatJon (lS 1892 -

ev
A =Clur spacing between fooling, 6 .13.2 Extent of Exploration
B

L
= Width of footing
= Length of footing :1!: B
'l Number of disposition of pits and boring holes should be
such as to reveal any major changes in thickness, depth or
Table 6.13.1 : Deplh of Exploration
lf;~.S,'
" .
:..HO.
'· Type'otrciliriditioh:
. .' ~of uploraUon (D)
nR '·'
properties of strata and immediate ;urroundings.
[f ground conditions are. uniform, min. 3 holes not in a line
.~ ···~ ~
are enough to give a reliable soil profile.
Clear span (A) 0
For building project. 4 holes at comers and one at centre of
1. (a) l~olllled spread A>48 1.5 8
footing or raft. area are recommended.
U
(b) Adjacent tooting A<2B 1.5 LAg. 6.13.1(a) For large area, one hole per 250 sq. m. or holes spaced at
2. Adjacent rows of A<2.8 4.58 15-20 m may be adequate or other sounding tests at every
footings A>28
<48
A~48
} 38
1.5 8
Refer
F~g.6.13.1(b)
lOO m.

For smaller, less important buildings one bore hole or test pit
in centre may suffice.
m

3. Pile and well foundation 0 1.5 width of structure

For damsites preliminary borings at 5() m spacing along the
II) upto depth of scour.
top line of upstream face of dam and across one or both
iii) 10m
abutments. Pew widely scattered holes are also required in
4. Dams (1.5) x bottom widlh of damtupto bed
Sa

bottom of reservoir on upstream side of dam.

rockllhrough al soft I unstable I
In case of ro:ld sites; pits or bore holes along proposed centre
Permeable strata
line of road along ditch lines, alternating right and left
5. (a) Roads In cutting Bottom width of cut 1m below
ditches. Spacing at 100m at start and may increases to 500 m
tormation level.
for uniform soil or decreased to 30 m or less for enatic
(b) Road In tUUng 2m below G.L I ht of Iii ~ichever Is deposits (frequent changes in profile).
more In erratic deposits, increase in number of holes does not
6. Black cotton soils. 3.5m necessarily improve quality of information. In such cases less
7. Base of retaining wall. (1.5) wklth at base or (1.5) x Exposed expensive method of exploration such as sounding should be
height whichever is more. employed.

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otec:Micat Engfneerin • I (MU-s~~'~
019

d' SP"c:lng of B orings Depends Up 'The follow; C<Jm actlon ot Solis

on
conne.euon With distutb
ng foctors m required to ~>to consider<d .

~)
rype of structure l
· Area 1'8tl •
-10~ 1
sample during explot111ion.
~
(ii! Weigllt and size of structure . o • Lesser the area
of SOil displaced ratio, lesser will be 1he volume
,.,_ yA(iatiOR in type Of strata I.e.
. uniform . A an<! lesser wi II be .
(Jill verage ratio I dututb<U~ee to soil sam le
t. ) z,ocal code of practice or trregutar :::1. esa than 10% I . P .
,,v . . A. 25% for soft . . s tdeal for un<listurbed sample.
senSitive soil
tr JS c o de of Practice (I S _1 8 92-1979) v .
Reeo olume of toil displaced ; Volume of sampling tube
I) por smaller and Jess impo nant build' rrnn end a
l 2..~
-- ( n4C0,-D,J X Length of sampling tube
( pll at centre will be suffic'tent. tng .One bore hole or trial I

f3-

l
(2) Por area less than 0.4Hectare. One bo
each comer and one at the centre. re hole or 4 tri als pits in
I
\ o-o

a
tI lo
(3) For very large industrial and restdential
.
upon the geological natur e o f strata. COion.ies w·u
1
depend

ev
(a)
(4) Cone penetration test may b e carried
area in grid pattem. N umber of b at 50 m c/c• d'tvtding. th
be ecr
d
'ded . ore holes . e
. penetrat'or tnal pits shou1d
consrdering variati on m ~ f
Dr ·- · - D
t
(S) In strdia consisting
· of bould
ers or grav 1ton test result .
should not be carried out· 1n such cases e • penetration
. tests
nR "e !I }
Cutting edge or drive sMe
1
are suitable. geophysical methods (b )

Arearatio(A,) = { (. 0 o 0 ,
1_ 1) 1}
(j" American Practice (Sowers are Sowers 1970) 1 +D 1 x\00

Inside clearance -_ {(Di - 0 c l + 0 0) X 100

For plan ning sol id exploratio n, ~ollowmg
. spacing may
Outside clearance= ((Do-DJ)+DI\X \ 00
~. belldopted.
U
Nature of project Spacing of more holes in meters
Soil strata -5
0~
Unlrorm Average ·Irregular
.,.,
~-e
g>a
c:6
J ~:a
~-e
g>a
0~
0
J. High ways 600m 300to
600
150 to
300 2 3 4 ·A> - s· 10. 15.
m

(sub-grade survey) (d) Angle of cutting edge

15 to 30 (c) lnside clearance o/o
60 to 120 30 to60
2. Earth Dam
30 to 60 IS to 30 8 10 15
3. Multi storied
building
Sa

30 to90 15 to 45
Single story 60 to 120
4.
factories
10. '\5'
60 to 240 30tO 120 15 to 60
(e) Angle of cutting edge
Fig. 6.14.1
6.14 Factors Affecting Disturbance to Soil
Inside clearance :Inside clearance ratio of 0.5 to \ % gives
Sample 2.
least distmbance for penetration of soil in sampling tube.
-+ (MU - oec. 15)
However, in non swelling clays, with higher clearance, more
Blielty explain the design features for sampler- for. djstUibance is caused-
ttlrl undisturbed samples. man
. ••
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6-34
Por defective rockS. RQD which depends on spacing aJld
3. CuctJna eclae IIJIIlle : Angle or cvrtlng edge, or is around 4 • to . f joinu is used to determine allowable me•
6°, the disturbll!ce caused h less as shown In Fig. 6.14.1(d)
directJCn o · •
pressure.
above. Too low or too high cutting edge angle causes higher
.% means e,.;cellenl rock and RQD < 2.5%
disturbance. RQDo f 90 - 100
. ock RQD ,. 0 me.ans rock is badly weathertcs
4. The effect of 8IU mtio on sampling tuhe is shown in
poor qu al uy r
and may behave as dense compact graveL
Fig. 6.14.1(0. Disturbance caused due to blunt cutting edge is 1
very high o.s compared to sharp cuuing edge.
6 _15 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

11~::: u/V
o+ (MU - May 1 O, Dec. 13, May 15)

Q, Ust various filed tests that are conducted dudng SOil

l
exploration ,at a site having sandy strat~. wm

a
5 • " ~~ ~ u u
,Q, ·Briefly describe standard penetration test for
Anlo rwtJo mlmln mtmln 01hT1)I ~ ,, • cohesionless soil along with corrections applied. ~
S~td of ~nol"011on -
' ra.~J-~4§1~6~1

ev
Fig. 6.14.1(0

5. Sampling speed : The speed of penetration of sampling tube

must be constant, and must not be too hlgh or too slow. In
clay, tbe disturbance increases, even if, sampling speed is
reduced for more than a few seconds; since in such case,
adhesive fo~ built-up and cause disturbance.
nR The test essentially consists in driving a split spoon sampler
of 50 mm outside diameter (Fig. 6.15.1) into the soil. The sampler
6. The material used for sampling tube should be corrosion should be driven at the bottom of borehole which is cased i.e. a
resistant and sampling tube should have smooth surface. Steel pipe is forced into the bore hole and test conducted at the bottom of
tube coated with epoxy resin or lacquer is used.
the bore hole. In case the strata are stiff such as gravels and sandy
U
7. Roundness : It is defined as difference in outer diameter of gravels. a solid conical 60° shoe is fitted to the sampler. 1'be
tube, measured at any cross section, and as per Japanese sampler is to be attached to the drill rods and driven by blows of a
standards it should be less than 2% of outside diameter. hammer. The hammer generally weighs 65 leg with a free fall of
8. Recovery ratio (R,.) :It is also a measure of sample 750 mm. Generally 30 blows per minute are given. The sampler is
initially driven a distance of ISO mm below the bottom of bore
m

disturbance
hole and then a furthe.r distance of 300 mm.

Defi~ition : The number of blows required to drive this

where L' = Length of sample procured by sampler : distance·is known as standard [X!netraticn v~lue N.
Sa

L =Length driven with sample. For dense soils, R,> I as the Definition : T_he nu,mber of blows required tci effect" the
first 150 mm ofP.enetration, called the seatif!-lf drive, is
soil within sampler increase in volume. For cohesive soils
disregiffded. , ~. 1b
and soft soils, R."" I (using smooth inside of thin sampler). For
~t­
loose soils, R,< I as the sample gets compacted.
+t.e ~
RQD, Rock Quality Designation is the modified recovery ~:
ratio obtained by considering only pi~es of core 55 mm or
~
larger that are atleast 100 mm long and are hard and sound.
'ij
~.
'~
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6·35 com o.ctlon ot sons

crown &neave (sl

or pulley (s)

Typlcetry 25 mm
dl8 manila rope
CouptinO

l
Split

a
bai'T&I

ev
~~
Donut -
~llc' hammer
nR
·'
''~·It,
IItt~~
SUp
shown
or guide pipe
Anvil
.,u
~~
lar;~ ~ Drill rod - - -1 ) .
U
o/~q, Ground surface
frtfltt
!~j

Ill db
m

Fig. 6.15.1 : Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Sa

The test is halted if

The split-spoon sampler is then withdrawn and it detached
(i)
. '
50 blows are required for any ISO mm penetration.
from the drill rods. The split-barrel is disconnected from the cutting
slioe and the coupling. The soil sample collected inside. the split (ii) 100 blows are required for 300 penetrations.
barrel is carefully collected so as to preserve the natural moisture
(iii} 10 successive blows produce no advance and are termed as
content and transported to the laboratory for tests. Sometimes, ~
refusal.
thin liner is inserted within the split-barrel so that at the end of the
SPT, the liner containing the soil sample is sealed with molten wax.
at both its ends before it is taken away to the laboratory·
~~======~~~~~--------~-------
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MU-51~ Sam.·Civil 6-36
The following p=aution~ should ho tokon while cnnylng out Where a= effective overburden pre~surc Ill thnt level in ltNtm1
the ccst: N' ~ corTClCted N vnlue
(a) Tho spli t spoon ~ampler must be in good condition nnd the This equntion Is presented In the form or curve shoW~~ in
cutdng shoe must be free from weru- tCIV. Fig. 6.15.2 enclosed.
(b) 1liO drop hnmmer must be of the right weight nnd tho fnll It mny be noted thnt, when effec:tive over burden prc:uure 0
should be free, frictionless.
i) cr,. 100 kNim 2
, correcti on factor is one.
(c) The bortom of the borehole must be properly clenned before
ii) When a< 100 correction factor is more than l.
the test Is Clllried out. Otherwise the test gets carried out in
the loose, disturbed soil and not' in the undisturbed soil. iii) When a> 100 correction factor is le.~s lhW\ t.

l
(d) When a casing is used in borehole, it should be ensured thnt cooealon factor. C H
o.a oa 1o 12 ' • 1e 1a 2o

a
the casing is driven just short of level nt which the SPT is to
be carried out. Otherwise, the test getS cturied out in n soil of
0

50
./
v
the boltom of the casing.
N
/

ev
SPT is extensively used because the test is simple and
~ 100
/
I! 150
v
economical. It is the only test that provides representntive soil
i 200
I
I
0.
samples both for visual inspeGtion for naturol moisture content and c:
cl~Wification testS in the laboratory. Design chans for shallow (o}~ 250
1/
foundations resting on cohesionless soils have been developed.

Following corrections are to be carried out to the observed

nR €
"'>0
"'>
300

350
ia: I
N value termed as NOll. w 400
(a) Overburden pressure correction 450 -- 1 - -
j
For standard penetration test conducted deep below the
U
500

ground wnere effective over burden pressure is equal to or more

2
Fig. 6.15.2 : Chart for correction of N-values In sand tor
than 25 kN/m lnnuence of overburden P.

N' : 0.77 log}~N~ ... (6. 15.1)

a
m

Table 6.15.1 : Penetra tion resistance and empirical correlations

for coh esionless and cohesive soils
--;.-
~~~ ' =
Cobesfonless soil,, _ Coheshe·soil
"<..~ '
Sa

~~
Description of

Sat~:~~ d~~~ce
'"' ,,, '

....
ftnt·. ty
'\ "3 ' b-1 &>''\
' I~'+
'~..,.) ..
,t
egrees}, !~YaJue $
'
sand
. clay
I ·~ value ucs Um2
1.4·1.5 27-32° 4 loose soft <:2 2.5 1.6-1.9
1.7-2. I 30-35 10 Medium Me<lium 24 1.5 1.8-2.1
1.7. 2.2 35-40 30 Dense Stiff 4-8 5- 10 1.7-2.1
2.1 • 2.4 38-43 50 Very Dense Very stiff 16 20 1.9 . 2.2
I Hard 32 40 > 2-1
~- ~

-~~~:~-J
/Note : The approxfmat~ vaf~es of.•;$~· afte( M~yemof {1956): ,, . ;l .;~;, - )~7!vt~~i-~t-!&'~" -..:t->1&, >
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'"cas<: of ''el)' fine. ~ley, ~l'!l.tod

~.due to h'1 ~
wtt rdistn.nce. there is apparent incr.. ••_ • & r !lOre
~ -· ......,., •n~ .
...tttJiOtl: than thai soil would offer .... f'CSisW~ce to
Dynamic COnt ~~lroticn tcau arc IJ(rfonned eilhtr by u'ing
.
F "''~SOme ~
II ~0 mm d'
N- = Corrected stnndnrd pcnetrntion l-t976) c
•amcter cone whh bentonite slurty (IS : 4%6-Port

w :: 15+
N' - lSJ=&;~
(~
r n 65 mm diameter cone with bentonite durty
(IS : 4968) Whe
· n bentonite slurry Is used. the set·up ltn:! an

l
lll'Tnngemcnt for the circul otlon of slurty so that drill nod is
eliminoted,
6.16 oynamlc Cone Penetration T t

a
(DCPn es 1l1e dynamic cone test is 3 quick test and helps to cover a
large area under investigntlon economically. It h~lps in identifying

ev
~ (MU. May 10, June 11, May 16) the uniformly or the vruiability of the subsoil profile and is found

L.iSI the field teslls that are conducted. du soli to be 3 less expensive and much quicker than the SPT. H the tests
8J!Pioration at a site haVing sandy strata. t1ng are canied out close to n few boreholes. the results obtained from

May_ ~u!l.~ l_§_ DCPT can be compnred with the SPT data M d correlation between
the two established for the particular tile conditions. 1be
nR correlation can then be used to obtain N values from N<4 and N,

applicable for medium to line $311ds are given below:

When a SO mm diameter oone is used.
65 kg hammer
Ned = 1.5 N for depths upto 3 m
I" Ned = 1.75 N for d epths from 3 m to 6 m
U
Nod = 2.0 N for depths greater than 6 m
The Central Build.ing Research Institute. Roork.ee, has
developed the following correlations between Ncb, and N when a 65
mm diameter cone is used without bentonite slurry.
m

Ncb< = l.S N for depths upto 4 m

N.br = 1.75 N for depths from 4 m to 9 m

G.L. Ncbr = 2•0 N for depths greater than 9 m

Sa

Cone adopter 6.17 Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

fig. 6.16.1 : Typical assembly of equipment for dynamic cone (Refer Fig. 6.17.1 )
penetration test (Form IS : 4968 • part l, 19?6)
This test is used in place of SPT. particulady for soft clays
. x angle of 60°and
ill this test, a cone which has an ape and silts and fine to medium sand consists of deposits.
. ·..... hammer of 65 kg,
anad:led to drill rods is driven into sot1 WhH a
Th blow count for every
falling freely from a height of 750 mm. e .
ed The cone is driven till
100 mrn tbe cone is continuously record ·

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~ pa
a,i lf'l
Frill<lO
Joc:kot
assemt>t,t /

l
(FJA) ·~ jiJ
~Sl

a
Friction
Jacket ftl1l'
si!Oc
~pl

ev
Con~
assambly t<te'
(CCA) 1.
1¢
' l
prt'
®
Position 1 and 2 to get
pre
,. resistance in bearing
nR 0 0
Position 3 and 4 to get
so
~
total resistance in f(
bearing and friction
U
so• cone
assemtlry
Ae= Base area= 10m2

Fig. 6.17.1 : Operation sequence of the sounding apparatus

m

The penetrometer used consists of a cone with an apex angle Qt = Q<+Qf.

of 60Qand a base area of I 0 cm2, and is used as is as follows : Where, Q1 = force required to push friction jacket.
I. Initially ·the cone and the friction jacket assembly is in a From this skin friction f. is calculated :
Sa

stationary position.
Qf
2. The cone is then pushed into the soil at the rate of 20 mmls fs =A'f
_ by thein.ne_r sounding rod at a steady rate till a collar engages
where Ar is the surface area of friction jacket.
the cone. The force Q. offered by soil for penetration is
measured on pressure gauge, and tip resistance point The cycle is repeated till desired depth is reached. Thus, with
this test, point resistance 'lc as well as skin friction fs can be found
resistance, CJc can be calculated <Jc= Oc I Ac where Ac is the
out.
base area.

3. The sounding rod is pushed further pushing the friction jacket The test is suitable in case of clayey strata, but unsuitable for
and the cone assembly together. The total force Q1 required sandy or gravely soil. Also the test does not yield sample as io case
of spilt spoon sampler. Test is speedy and simple. Improvements
for this is again read on the pressure gauge.
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,,oe . Plll<'nt. to Com :\Cllon ct So'ls

_. ,;allY· Conete$:o~. Q v·• ~ the r........ 6 1
pCI'•- . . • ... u...,. d r.llend <lll , ~...,.. • 8.1 Bore T nblo Logging
·--'b<frlon. !'011 demily. l><!~ tion of w gnun ~u
41"" acer table 11011
-
f1C$11•-
O\'~l..,._
'""" -+ (MU- M•y 1!1, Mey 16, O;te. 1&)
Q. 'M\etlll6 11\Q Mftent IUt\lrl)fo of b?<O ~ ? CEliO
c..,ne resii<tllllCC iS rein!('(! IO OVCfburdell -
l»es•ure. o :~.< . Q, Draw a bofe log 4ll<l show Ill! necM5a1Y lnfOn"Mllon oo
<4 "' N, s0 ~ 0 . it. I •

\ \'lle)re S, = undr:lined shenr Sln:nm....o. o f c lay The rt•ult.t obtnlned from bJ:.•c hole an: plotkd in " rom~ .
with IVhich nnture nf soli pronte c:411 be fn3de. A typlc!ll bmto hole
N0 = cone factor. 20 for clays
log is ~hown in Fig. 6. 18. I. Such n pre.<c:nt:uicn lives infonnalion
lite l)'pe of soil met at various dcpll1 5 • such ,. sand. sill. el.3y etc~
6,18 Presentin g Report of Site

l
Investigation depth nt Which ground water table j5 mel. v;olues of SPT teSt or
-__.;:.~~---- Vt1ne shear test, natu re or sample ~llected. i.e. ~hethcr diswrbcd

a
no() site investigation repon should comprise or lhe following : or undistu rbed nntu re of rock sample vi"£- fractionallwealbero:d.
RQD ctc.
1· Pull)OSe of project 8lld ai m of site invc ti .
. . s gau on. 1nc report

ev
should mclude. rum of project and what th 1. The results of various bore holes tal<en arc plotted on single
e c lent expects to
explore. sheet. with suitable scale. :IS shown in Fig. 6.18.2. Wilh this effort
2. .Methodology : Methodology adopted 10 ach" lh is made to indicate the likely deposits of various soi I layer>. Wben
•eve e goals
aimed at should be explained in brief. it is not possible to such layers. it is an illdication that. strata is
erratic or lhe1e arc pockets of thin layers. Such info;mation is very
1. PreSenting results o f site investigation : Th.is should include
pteSenting bore bole data including soil profile, properties of
soil.
nR useful in deciding depth of formation, and bearing capacity
assumed.
to be

4. Analysis of site tests, conclusions and possible solutions 1

recommendations.
........
SOIL TECH I BORE LOG
(1\S P«IS : 1892 • 19711, 44!13 · 1Sie0& 40110 - 1887)
.,.,.,
........ ""
U
a.-t :'
"'- ..................,
o.,v. .... ttt. . ••
COoOfdii'IMit : • OoooociC..... :
R.L O...ef~......wt :
LOco<lcn : O.t.tetc.~ :
Oil ~ - = 1001,_
O...,ofGWf : 3m
,,... ,...,...
.. .. ..
:;uro p...>
·~ """ ,,..,
QooU\(111) ell
~I .!I ~Teosb

-
FU .. log
~ 15 15 15 11 'l
To
"
m

~ Ycllow oiOy cloy (CQ

~
0
2..;
~-·
:~A:. 12-tOm) 1 PT·I 1.$ 2.1 2 5
• 1 11
2,10
,•.· On v:tyaltys•nd(W'I

s
:
n "'""''') (GM) (0.90 ml ~OWT
Sa

300
H~
-: .. -
t.avt•d_.. - -.,.t
.~
1.3 ORI 3 •.s • 0

.!...:
..;
.a 21
~..: (S.OOm)
• .17 OR2 •.s •
•
"'-
800
lJ>os- Holt ls

,i OS . Dlst..t>od s..,p.
. uoomdoj:ltl
CR ea-..-rt
I\QO;IIockQool\"fDI~ooa5co
K : P-.wtyciSoll_.
PT : P•<lw~T,..
CR : Ooi:IRIIn
Ul&~~ PR : f!alociP"'*'6"'111Roct CWT : G - - T i l : l l
SPf : S!OftU!d Pont~ Toot VST · V-st•r Tm
WSSOIUE04
ws : wzh~ ~
19 ux......_ e<mmrdol <:otop..c. • 2, PoMII.Pin ·•II lXII
I o...... ~r I Cllotd-I.Y (Ciiotot•ll"" I loL
St• Enor· :cno»U 1111 to 15 f .. : 2.. oantnl ._........,...
ProJid -1 MJ I SRI( l
i us field test such as SP'f,
f bore hole showmg the result of var o
Fig. 6.18.1 : Log 0 test and quality of samples collected
penneability vane sbear

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/WTGeotechnical Engineering· I (MU·5 111
Sem.-Civll) 6-40
Compaction of Soila

- (
: \
I

t·"~~
t;;i~ Yellow silt( cloy

Compteuy
1': :!disintegrated
~~•I recovered as
gravely
silty sand (liard
mun~m)...lth
boulde,

Highlyto
I modOilllely
fr~~etured

l
weathered base~

a
ev
Job No. :
SH-3
nR
Fig. 6.18.Z : Sl10wfng location, level, depth of various bore boles and strata met and anticipated profile of various strata

6.19 Solved Examples (II) Drive tube, 0 0 =100 mm and 0 1=85 mm

(ill) Shelby tube, 0 0 =50 mm and 0 1 =45 mm.
Ex. 6.19.1
Soln. : Area ratio is given by.
A large number of undisturbed samples are to be obtained
0 2-02
--or-x
U
using t OO mm diameter (Inside) sampling tube. Making 2 I
A, = 100
suitable assumpUons determine the thickness of sampling 1

tube. 0 2 or 0 0 = Outer diameter

Soln.: 0 1 or 0 1 = Inner diameter
(i) Assuming area ratio = 20 % (i) Split-spoon sampler
m

- (50)2 - (36)2 100

A, - (36)~ X

= 92.90 % (more disturbed) ...Ans.

Drive tube ~ = (100) - ~ 85i
Sa

• '"t (85) X 100

Outer diameter D1 = 109.54 mm ...Ans. A. = 38.40 % (fairly disturbed) •••Ans.

(ii) I 1 2 2
Wall thickness = z[D2 - Dd =z X9.54 (ill) Shelby tube A
', 't
=(SO)(45)
- ~4S)
X
100

= 4.77mm ... Ans. A.. = 23.45 % (undisturbed sample) .. ..Alls.

Ex. 6.19.2 Ex. 6.19.3
Determine area ratios of samplers of the following The inner diameters of sampling of tube and that of cutting
description. edge are 70 mm and 68 mm respectively. Their outer
(I) Spilt spoon sampler, D0 = 50 mm and D; =36 mm diameters are 72 mm and 74 mm respectively. The inside
clearance, outside clearance and area ratio of the sampler.
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\ • Com action o1 SOls

N' • Cw N.,. • 1.4 x•o• 48

(b) CoiTe<:t'
IOn ror dilatancy effect :
!(' = IS+ OS· "'"
v• - 13)

• IS -t O.S(48-IS) =31.5, say31

--
Cutlng edge r
Alternatively•

: N' +IS
2
N"'

· \- 2
• combined corrected value of N
(9..77 ~
- tos a t ~'~ot~'·s

= [~ 0.77 1og 7 } '.s= (~) +7.5

I-- D2• 74 mm ---J

l
= 31.5 ...Ans.
Fig. P.6.19.3 Ex.6,19.S

a
rnside clearance c1 -_ 0 3- Dt
The field N
va1ue In a deposit of fully sUbmerged fine sand
(!) ' 0 X 100 wa~ 36 at a depth of 6.5 m . The avetage saturated unit
1

ev
3
70 - 68 we•ght of the soil Is 18.8 kN I m • Calculate the corrected N
= ~ x JOO value. -

c. "" 2.941 % Soln.:

D 2- D (i) Overburden press~W,
Outside clearance, C0 = ~ x 100
Qi)
• -a = Depth x Submerged density of soil
74 - 72
= 7 2 'X lOO
nR = 6.5 x [18.8 kN I m -lO kN lm1
1

co = 2.777% ... Ans.

-a = 6.5 x (8.8) =57.2 kN I m
2

1 1
A- ' 0 1- 0 1 (il) Not> = Observed value = 36
(ill) 1'\Jea ralio, J\ = --=-z-x 100
Dt
Now, N' = (o.n tog
2
~ Not>
U
2
- (74) - ~68)
2

- (68) X 100
= [ 0.771og ~~] X 36=0.77 X 1.5436 X 36
A, = 18.42% ... Ans.
=0.77 X 55.57 =42.79
EX.6.19.4
Since fine sand is present dilantaxy co~tion is required to
m

The field N value In a deposit of fully submerged fine sand

was 40 at a depth of 6 m. The average saturated unit weight be applied.
ot the soli is 19 kN I m3. Calculate the corrected N value as
=.N' ~ 15 _42 · 7 ~+
15
.. N"= corrected N value
periS : 2131-1981.
Sa

Soln. : Since the soil is submerged fine sand, dilatancy correction = 36.38 .••Ans.
is also to be applied in addition to the correction for overburden
Ex.6.19.6
pressure. 3
3 At a site the soil has a unit weight of 18 kN I m and the
Submerged unit weight, '( ='Yut - y.,= 19-9.8 = 9.2 leN I m water table is depth of 6 m. The observed N values at the
site were as follows :
Effective overburden pressure cr at 6 m depth= 9.2 X 6
2 Oepthm 3 6 9 12 15
.. 55.2 kN I m
.H. 9 8 17 19 25
(a) Correction for overburden presswe :
Determine the magnitude of corrected N values, that Is, of NH
According to IS : 21 31 -1981 (Peck et al. I974),
2000 2000
<; = 0.77 log-:-= 0.77 Iog5ff =l.l
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6-42

Soln. :

Sr. Deplh . OYerbunlm-pl'ftSurc SJ'T N" • (N •..,) (0.77) lo& ~ - j-

No · 'c-iicNz:U1
2000
I. 3 Y,= I6 X3=48 9 = 0.11 9X log"'48 • I 1.22
2000
2. 6 Y,=l6x6=96 8 =8x0.77log96 = 8.12
2000
3. 9 r. a [16 x 6+(9- 6)x (18- 9.8)] 17 t7x0.77log'i'i'i)']= 15.96
Oil
:: {96 T 3 (8.2})
= 120.6

l
2000
4. 12 v.. + (18 - 9.8) (12.3) 19 19 x 0.771og i45.2 = 16.66
=120.6 + 3 X 8.2 = 145,2

a
:.woo
5. 15 (Y, 11) + (15 - 12) (8.2) 25 25 x o.77 log 169.8 011
=145.2 + 24.6 =169.8

ev
= 20.62109 (11.778) = 22.085 say 22
Ex. 6.19.7 Ex. 6.19.8
SPT was ~nducted in a sand deposit with a unit weight of What is area ratio, if the sampling has an inner di·meter of
3
20 kN I m • The water table at this site was at 1m below 72 mm and an outer diameter of 75 mm ? (AMIE 2010)
ground surface. SPT ~nducted at 15m below ground
surface, the N value observed was 21 . What would be the
correcled N value ?
nR Soln.:

Soln.:

N«>< .. 21 Here, 0 1 = 72 mm, 0 2 = 75 nun

2 1
75 -72
a at 15m depth= 20x 15 =300 kN /m2 Area ratio 2 x 100% = 8.51 % ..•Ans.
72
U
u at 15 m depth= 10 x 14
·~
=1400 kN I m 2
Ex. 6 .19.9
o'at 15 mdepth =160kN /m2 The observed SPT value In a deposit of fully submerged fine

N' = [ 0. 77 Jog~] Nob=[ 0.77 log ~(~n x 21 = I 7 silty sand was 45 at a depth of 20 m. The average saturated
unit weight of the soil is 19.5 kNfm3 . Find the corrected SPT
~ .,,
m

. .
Co mxtlon fordlalatency .N = 15 + (17 -2 15) =15 + I =16 value for dilatancy and overburden effect. (AM IE 2007)
Soln.:
Alternatively,
N' =45, depth== 20 m, Yw =9.8l<Ntm3
N' + 15
=
Sa

N" N C<lrn>OI<d 2 Y.., = (ave)= 19.5 kN/m3

.' 2
- Where N =0.77 1og ~ · Not>o .. a = 19.5 + 3 (19.5- 9.8) = 48.6 kNtm2
G

. T"' 0.77 X21 2000 Correct SPT value for dllatance effect
.N = 2 1og 160 + 7.5
N = l5 + 4(N'-l5) =15+k(~5-1S)
= (10.5 x0.77 1og 12.5) + 7.5
N = 30
= 8.86 + 7.5
Corrected SPT value for Overburden effect
= 16.36 say 16 ...Ans.
N _ N' (350} 45 x 350
- (a + 70) - (48.6 + 70) =132.80 say 133 ...Ans.

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'3. Pneumatic 1yred roller

Low plasticity cia"' 11!1d 4. SmOOih wheeled roller
mixture of sand clay
Inner diameters of a sampling tub 0
e. 3 .. 70 11'111\
Inner diameters of a cutting edge D _ ,
· ,-65 nun Codes : A e c 0
outer diameters of a sampling tube D •
' • "'..{Smm (n) 3 2 4
ourer diameters of a CUtting edge D - -
' 2-78mnt (b) 2 3 4
cI = ~,D- D..J. X 100%

l
Inside clearance -
-
(i) 1 (c) 4 3 2

a
70-65
::~X 100:7.69 •.. Ans. (d) . 1 3 4 2

D2 - D.J An a.: (a)

OutsidecJearance, C0 = D x 100%

ev
(li) 4
2.
78-75
= --:;s- X tOO= 4 ...Ans.

6ii) (A ) Sheep-foot roller 1. Hearing of earthen dam

nR (B) Smooth heavy roller

(C) Pneumatic roller

2.
3.
Dry sand
Casing of eac1hen darn

(D) Vibrating roller 4. Gravel in WBM

Codes: A B C. D

(a) 3 4 2
U
(b) 4 3 2

(c) 1 3 4 2

(d) 2 3 4

Ans. : (b)

-,
m

0
3. For conducting a Standard Proctor compaction test, I
' the weight of hammer (P in kg), th~ lall of hammer I
I l
(Q in mm), the number of blows per layer (R) and the
'
I

I
Sa

number of layers (S) required are respectively.

~---~--~
(IES 95)
Fig. p_ 6.19.10
p Q R s
5.89 550 50 3
(a)

4.89 450 25 3
(b)

3.60 310 35 4
(c)
2.60 310 25 3
(d)
Sheep-foot roller
Cohesive soil 1. Ans.: (d)
Vibratory roUer
{8) Moderately cohesive soil 2.
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4.
. .
fMGeotechnical Engineering- 1(MU-s'" Sem.-Civil)
·-
The ratio of the ~nergl~s imparted to soli sample in
(c)
(d)
TJn:e versus compression.
Effective stress versus void ratio
Compaction ol, ~ils
-- -:$&

Modified Procter's Compaction test and the Standard

Proctor's Compaction test is about .... (IES 94) Ana. : (b) ...
· Pick out the incorrect statement~
,, , {a) .10.0 {b) 4.5 (c) 2.2 (d) 1.8 e.
Ans.: (b) (a) swelling of compacted clay is greater for those

Explanation :

(Ratio of P,Q,R and S for Modified Procter to Standard Procter)

4.89 450 .5 25
(b)

(c)
compacted at optimum.
Cohesionless soils · do not show a rnarkeQ
optimum content.
'

Moderately cohesive soils give best results when

,.
= 2.6x3Jox:P25 =4.5
compacted in layers.
5. In a compaction test if ihe compacting effort is' (d) Sheep-foot rollers are most suitable' for hill soils

l
increased, it will result In .... of low plasticity.
(a) Increase in maximum dry density and OMC.

a
Ana.: (d)
(b) Increase in maximum dry density but OMC
remains unchanged. 9. · Worl< out the theoretical maximum dry density for a
soil sample having specific gravity of 2.7 and

ev
{c) . Increase in maximum dry density and decrease
lnOMC. OMC = 16%. Also explain the difference in OMc
values in case of procter test and modified proctor
(d) No change In maximum dry density but decrease
test for cohesive soils and granular soils. (IES 2001)
In OMC. (IES 2003)
Ana. ; (c) Ans.:
/J
6. A compaction test curve Is shown in the following =16%
figure. Which of the following would cause the curve
to shift to right ? (IES 92)
nR Water content at OMC
_
· Specific gravity, G - 2.7, pd-
_ G,P.
1+ e
wG
Now, e = S,

!~
For pd to be maximum S, =t
U
2.7x 1
0
Po (maximum) - 1 + 0.16 x 2.7

= 1.885 gm/cm3
Water content -
OMC values in Proctor test and Modified Proctor test are
Fig. I
different due to different compactive effort
m

( 1) Increase in the weight of hammer.

(2) Increase in the height of drop.
--~
®
(3) Decrease in the weight of hammer.

(4) Decrease in the number of layers. : 0

Sa

-----t----
1 ~
Select the answer from codes given below :
I I
I I
(a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 I I
I I
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 3 and 4 I I

Ans.: (d) Water content (w) _

7. The optimum moisture content of soil is obtained from Fig. 2

a plot ot ....
(a) Moulding water content versus compacted unit OMC for Proctor test is greater than OMC for Modified
weight Proctor test Cohesive soils have generally higher values of OMC
(b) Dry unit weight versus water content as compared to granular soils.

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~a,otechnJcaJ Engineering. 1 (MU-st~~
WI ( https://cee-book.blogspot.com/
Sem.-Civfl}
~SOli Js compacted at whiCh one f 6-4 5
10· °
the loti
8 higher compactive effort Produce OWing When
CompaC11on of So(le

densi'Y ? s highest In dry Queet~on•

'
[ Ob)eottve Typt
(a) Optimum water content (IES 20o4)
Q. 1
Stele whether the following etatomanta are true or
(b) Dry side of the optimum mol .. . false :
Soure COntent
(c) Wet side of the optimum mots · (a) When 8 few bore holas drlllod at a eite reveal
. ture content. heleroganoous soli conditions, one must drl\
(d) Saturation moisture content.
many more bore holes so as to clearly define the
,.,•• : (b) soil profile.
(b) N-value Is the number of blows required to push
consider the folloWing statements :
11 8 Split spoon sampler from a penetration of

on addition of lime to a clay son • generally 150 mm to 450 mm using the specifled hammer
and fall.

l
(1) MOD and strength both increase. (c) One can effectively drill a bore hole in sand
(2) -
MOD decreases but strength 10 using the post·hole auger.

a
creases.
(d) A bore hole drillod in oond below water table will
(3) MOD and OMC both increase.
not remain open and to st!'lbilize it one would

ev
Which of these statements is correct ? have to case it with pipe and the pipe must be
(IES 2007)
(a) (1 )only (b) {2)0nly kept full of water.
(e) It Is necessary to obtain undisturbed samples of
(c) (3) Only (d) None of the above clay for determining its Attelbeg's Umits.
1111·: (a) (f) Designing foundation for simple buildings. on the
basis of results from one b()re hole is wors!3 than
12. The following soils are compacted at the same
compactive effort in the field. Which one of the
nR (g)
designing on the basis of no bore hole at all.
In the electrical resistivity method, differences in
following is the correct sequence in the increasing the electrical potential of the strata are detected.
order of their maximum dry density ? (IES 2007) (h) Non-representative samples comprise mixture of
materials from various soil or rock layers.
(a) Silty clay-clay-sand • gravel sand • clay mixture.
(i) Cone penetration test Is another important
U
(b) Sand-gravel sand clay mixture- silty clay · clay.
sampling method.
(c) Clay • silty clay · sand • gravel sand clay mixture. 0) Aeld vane shear test is most suitable for

(d) Sand· gravel sand clay mixture ·clay· silty clay. saturated soft clays.

Ans. :
Ani.: (c)
G) I
m

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (t) (g) (h) (i)

13. Which one of the following is correct? (IES 2008)

T T F T P T F F F I T I
In laboratory compaction tests, the optimum moisture Q. 2 Match the following :
1.
Sa

content of solil decreases.

Investigation Used for determining
a} With increase of compaction energy and with
method
decrease of coarse grains in the soil. Engineering properties of
(a) Geophysical (p)
. 9 nergy and with sands
b) With decrease of compact100
increase of coarse grains in the soil. Drilling and (q) Engineering properties of
(b)
Sampling clays
compaction energy and
(c) With increase Of both Depth of bed rock rapidly
(c) Pits (r)
coarse grains in the soil. Soil conditions in situ by
tiOn energy and (d) In situ testing (s)
(d) With decrease of bOth compac visual inspection

coarse grains in the soil. An&. : a. r, b- p, c . s, d . q

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2.
l>rfrt fool Drilllnl[ AC1fon
[
Auger S 19 t9 threefold classification of penetration tests In
(a) (II) Hl~ll $J>ccd r<ltalfon Q. 1
(b} BAiler (v)
tabu1ar f orm end explain principle involved in each of
Chi!:elling
them.
(c:) Chopping hit (w) Slow $peed rotntion
(d) 0.2 Draw a ne·at sketch of relation between. penetration
Diamond bi t (ll) Up-down action on x axis and angle of tntemaJ friction
resistance (N)
end density index on y axis and comment on their
Ana. : a - w, b- x, c - v, d - u
behaviour for co-hesionless soils.

0.3 Explain three important factors affecting recorded

SIAbUization '14i th Slabillz:a tion for vaues
I Of blow count and method to calculate

l
corrected N value.
(a) Water (u) Coarse sand

a
0.4 An SPT gave the average blow count of 32 in fine
(b) Slurry (V) Stif f clay saturated sand. What i$ the correct value of blow
count ? Also explain why the measured value is

ev
(c) Casing pipe . (w) Silt different and what is percentage change?

(d) No support (x) Fine sand a. 5 Define disturbed and undisturbed sample. How would
you measure degree of disturbance of sampling
Ans. : a - w, b - x, c - u, d - v
tube ? State specifications for the same.
Q. 3 The basic requirement in seismic retraction method is a. 6
that the wave velocity in the upper layer must be
_ _ _ that in the lower layer.
nR State and explain the factors on which the ex1ent and
depth of exploration of sub-soil deposit depends.

(a} less than (b) greater than Q, 7· Explain the procedure of undisturbed sampling using
Piston sampler. Draw neat diagrams· indicating the
(c) equal io (d) twice than
procedure.
Ans.: (a)
a. 8 State various types of soil samplers. What is area
U
Q. 4 The standard penetration test is most frequently used ratio ? State its significance. ~:
to measure the
Q. 9 Exploration for selecti9n of a dam site is to be carried
(a} shear strength of soft clay
out. Give your plan of sub·soil iiwestigation indicating
(b) undrained strength of fissured clay the methods used.
(c) relative density of granular soils
a. 10
m

Explain difference between standard penetration test,

(d) Consistency of clay
dynamic cone penetration test and static cone
Ana. : (c) penetration test.

a. 5 In order to minimize sampling disturbance, the area a. 11 Explain factors influencing cost of site investigation.
Sa

ratio should be
(a) zero (b) as high as possible
a. 12 Discuss how would you plan a subsurface exploration
programme. What are the factors you must consider
(c) as low as possible (d) equal to unity for subsurface exploration ?
Ans. : (c)
Q. 13 What a re the sounding methods? Describe the
a. 6 Block samples are recommended in a situation when procedure of obtaining standard penetration number
with the help of sketches.
(a) the soli is highly fissured
(b) the soil is precompressed a. 14 How will you determine the number and depth of
,(c) samples below water table are required exploratory holes for an important foundation
project ?
(d) soft clay is encountered.
Ans.;_ (a) _
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tecnnical Engineering- 1(MU-s"' s ern.·Civll)
c;eo 6-47
f"lo'-" degree of disturbance of Compaction of Soils
O· (lleasured ? Ca~ you get an Undisturbe~l sample
16 s Q , 31
In connectlo " wlth standard penetration tesl, answer
With a sampling tub SSmple In a the following : ·
08yey layer
outside diameter and 6 mm thick Wal~ With 10s mm
7 (I) Draw a sketch and Indicate dimenslonsa.
"'sliflguish betwee n disturbed and u d' (ii) Procedure In short,
16 ..,. s. n •sturbed
0· ~mple
(Iii) Relation of corrected blow count (N) with
What are the objectives of soil exploration? recorded blow count (NR) for sa1Uratedsllt and
0, 11 fine sand.
significance of area ratio .
18 What is the lis applied to soil
Q. samplers ? Q , 32 Calculate corrected blow count for recorded blow
a piston sa • . count of 32 and comment on result&.
(?plain the worlclng of 1
0· 19 sketch. mpler With a neat
0 . 33 EJ<plaln the differen ce between :
(i) SPT test and OCPT.

l
the number and depth of
20 How isined
Q. determ ? _explor!'ltory holes
(ii) SPT and static cone penetration 1est.

a
1 What are penetration methods ot invest! .. 0 . 34 Explain in brief :
0·2 they reliable in all soils ? gatlons ? Are
Q) Augur boring.

ev
a. 22 What are the factors that influence SPT data 7 (II) Wash boring.

Q, 23 Compare standard penetration test with

d (Ill) Percussion boring.
cone test, in a tabula r form. ynamio
0 . 35 What is N value of standard penetration test ?
Explain
State the various corrections to be applied to the observ ed
Q,24 Ust the metho ds of soil investigation.
in open pits. Explain factors value of N.
advantages of sampling
Influencing cos t of site Investigations.

a. 25 An erratic soil deposit is known to extend to more

nR a. 36 Enlist the factors affecting the :.ample disturbance.
Determine area ratio of shelby tuba sampler having
Inside and outside diameter 111 mm and 114 mm
than 18 m depth and overlies rook at about 2 1 m. respectively.
Whal soil investigation s would you plan for designing
foundations for a factory complex ? a. 37 Describe features of good sub-soil investigation
report.
Q, 26 How is degree of disturbance of soil samples
U
of Q. 38 During a standard proctor compaction test
on wet soil
measured ? Determine the area ratios of samplers
ption and comm ent on degree of one set of readings were :
the following descri 6 3
disturbance of soil sampl e obtain ed. Volume of mould = 950 x 10- m ,

(i) Split spoon sampl er D0 =50 mm, =

D1 36 mm Water content =20%
(ii) Drive tube D0 = 100 mm, D1 = 85 mm Mass of wet woil in mould =1.9 kg
m

(iii) Shelb y tube D0 =50 mm, D, =45 mm

Find : (i) Void ratio, (ii) Degree of satura tion,
(Iii) Dry density assuming G = 2.7, (iv) At this dry
0. 27 Describe chunk sampling with a neat sketch . so
density stage what should be the water conten t
0. 28 Define the terms : that the soil sample is fully satura ted?
Sa

(il) Densit y index

e =0.62, S, = 87%, Pd =1665 kg/m , w =23%)
3
(I) Area ratio (Ans. :
(Iii) Signifi cant depth (iv) Recov ery ratio.
proctor
Q . 39. The following observations were noted during
saturated
Q. 29 What is the correc ted blow count in a tine compaction test on a soil.
sand if the record ed blow count is 38 ?
Mass of mould 3.321 3.438 3.578 3.ns 3.688
0. 30 Comp are in tabula r form static and dynam ic cone +wet soU in kg
penetr ation tests in respe ct of
Moisture content In % 5.18 8.5 14.95 16.83 19.70
(i) Sketc hes with comp onent parts.
If mass of mould is 1.786 kg and volume
(u) Proce dure. 3
m • Find out the MOD and OMC for the
6
940 x 10-
(iii) Limita tions.
soil. (Ans. : OMC =15% and MOD = 1850 k~ml
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6-48
Q, 44 Why does a soli need compaction ? What do You
Q , 40 Dlrforontlato botwo«»n consolidation and compaction.
know about MOD and OMC ?
Q, 41 Deaoribe Standard Proctor toat ond Modified Proctor
Q , 45 What are the factors affecting oompaction of soil ?
teat. How would you doclde the type of test to bo
conducted In lhe laboratory ? Q, Sketch the moisture density relationship and show
46
thereon the MOD, OMC. ZAV.
Q . 42 Write short notes on :

(o) Plocomont water content. Q, 47 Explain the terms :

(b) Relative compaction. (a) Mechanical stabilization

(b) Soli cement
(c) Compaction control.
(c) Grouting
Q. 43 List the various techniques used for soli stabilization.
Vertical sand drains

l
(d)
What are the objectives ? State the prlndpal materials
(e) Sheeps-foot roller
used for this purpose.

a
(f) Proctor noedle.
Chapter End...

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