The Child and Adolescent Learners and

Learning Principles

UNIT III: Development of the Learner at 3. What are your feelings and reactions
Various Stages
about what you have watched and
read?
You have just learned in the previous
4. Do you agree that which is developing
Unit about the different Developmental
in the womb is a mere “blob tissue” or
Theories on Learner’s Development. In this
“uterine contents” as abortionists
chapter, you will be dealing with the
claim?
Development of the Learner at Various
Stages.

Lesson 1: Pre-Natal Period

Life Before Birth
All the development theories which we
The Development of the Unborn Child
lengthily discussed dwelt on the
The development of human life in the
developmental process after birth. None of
womb was once a mystery, but science and
them was concerned with what development
medicine have changed that. Abortion
went on before birth. To make the description
advocates still try to dehumanize the
of human development complete, it may be
developing baby in the womb by speaking of
good to understand the beginnings of the child
the child as “a blob of tissue” or “uterine
and the adolescent, the learners.
contents.” But ultrasound images, prenatal
Learning Outcomes surgery and other advances in obstretrics are
shattering the blob-of-tissue myth.
At the end of the lesson, you should be able
Dr. Paul Rockwell, a New York
to:
physician, made these profound observations

 trace the course of the pre-natal after his amazing encounter with a tiny unborn

development process that you went baby boy: “eleven years ago while I was giving

through; an aesthetic for a ruptured ectopic pregnancy

(at two months gestation), I was handed what I
 explain the most common hazards to
believe was the smallest living human ever
pre-natal development; and
seen. The embryo sac was intact and
 become more appreciative of the gift
transparent. Within the sac was a tiny human
of life manifested in an anti-abortion
male swimming extremely vigorously in the
stand.
amniotic fluid, while attached to the wall by the
umbilical cord.”
Activity
This tiny human was perfectly
1. Watch the video on Pro-life anti-
developed, with long, tapering fingers, feet and
abortion video at You Tube and High
toes. It was transparent, as regards the skin,
Tech Photographs of Fetal
and the delicate arteries and veins were
Development.
prominent to the ends of the fingers. “The baby
2. Read the article “Life Before Birth”
was extremely alive and swam about the sac

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
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approximately one time per second, with a 4. Has any realization from the
natural swimmer’s stroke. This tiny human did discussion changed your stand on
not look at all like the photos and drawings and abortion? Explain your answer.
models of ‘embryos’ which I have seen, nor did 5. What are the effects of alcohol,
it look like a few embryos I have been able to caffeine, and nicotine on the
observe since then, obviously because this developing embryo/fetus?
one was alive!”
“When the sac was opened, the tiny Abstraction
human immediately lost its life and took on the The Stages of Pre-natal Development
appearance of what is accepted as the Pre-natal development is divided into
appearance of an embryo at his stage. three (3) periods- germinal, embryonic and
“It is my opinion that if the lawmakers fetal.
and people realize that this very vigorous life is 1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after
present, it is possible that abortion would be conception)
found more objectionable than euthanasia. This includes the a) creation
The point at which Dr. Rockwell of zygote, b) continued cell division
witnessed this unborn baby –eight weeks after and c) the attachment of the zygote to
conception- is during the period that a majority the uterine wall. The following are the
of abortionists describe as most desirable for details of development during this
performing an abortion. period:
http://www.mccl.org/Document.Doc?id=159 a) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization –
the male (sperm) and female
(egg) chromosome unite
b) 36 hours – the fertilized ovum,
zygote, divides into two (2); 2 cells
Analysis c) 48 hours (2 days) – 2 cells
become 4 cells
1. Why are pregnant mothers advised d) 72 hours (3 days) – 4 cells
not to smoke, not to drink alcoholic become a small compact ball of
drinks, not to take any medication 16-32 cells
without doctor’s advice? Share your e) 96 hours (4 days) – hollow ball of
insights. 64-128 cells
2. Is it more reasonable to believe that f) 4-5 days – inner cell mass
which is developing in the mother’s (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
womb is a human being? g) 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to
3. What are proofs that which is the wall of uterus
developing in the mother’s womb is a h) 11-15 days – blastocyst invades
living human being? into uterine wall and becomes
implanted in it (implantation)

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In the germinal period, the the first two months of prenatal

differentiation of cells already begins development is called organogenesis.
as inner and outer layers of the As the three layers of the
organisms are formed. The blastocyst, embryo form, the support systems for
the inner layer of cells that develops the embryo develop rapidly. These
during the germinal period, develops life-support systems are the placenta,
later into the embryo. The trophoblast, the umbilical cord and the amnion.
the outer layer of cells that develops The placenta is a life-support system
also during the germinal period, later that consists of a disk-shaped group of
provides nutrition and support for the tissues in which small blood vessels
embryo (Nelson, Textbook of from the mother and the offspring
th
Pediatrics, 17 ed., 2004) intertwine but do not join. The
umbilical cord contains two arteries
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after and one vein that connect the baby to
conception) the placenta. The amnion is a bag or
In this stage, the name of the an envelope that contains a clear fluid
mass cells, zygote, become embryo. in which the developing embryo floats.
The following developments All these embryo life-support systems
take place: develop from the fertilized egg and not
a) Cell differentiation intensifies from the mother’s body.
b) Life-support systems for the
embryo develop and 3. Fetal Period (2 months to 7 months
c) Organs appear after conception)
As the zygote gets attached to Growth and development
the wall of the uterus, two layers of continue dramatically during this
cells are formed. period. The details of the
The embryos endoderm, the developmental process are as follows
inner layer of cells, develops into the (Santrock, 2002);
digestive and respiratory systems. The a) 3 months after conception – fetus
outer layer of cells is divided into two is about 3 inches long and weighs
parts – the ectoderm and the about 1 ounce; fetus has become
mesoderm. The ectoderm is the active, moves its arms and legs,
outermost layer which becomes the opens and closes its mouth, and
nervous system, sensory receptors moves its head; the face,
(eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can
(nails, hair). The mesoderm is the now be distinguished and also the
middle layer which becomes the upper arms, lower arms, hands,
circulatory, skeletal, muscular, and lower limbs; the genitals can
excretory and reproductive systems. now be identified as male or
This process of organ formation during female.

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
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b) 4 months after conception – fetus 1. Prescription and non-prescription

is about 6 inches long and weighs drugs – these include prescription as
4 to 7 ounces; growth spurt occurs well as non-prescription drugs.
in the body’s lower parts; pre-natal Antibiotic is an example of a
reflexes are stronger; mother feels prescription drug that can be harmful.
arm and leg movements for the Examples of harmful non-prescription
first time. drugs are diet pills, aspirin, and coffee.
c) 5 months after conception – fetus Remember the thalidomide
is about 12 inches long; and tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant
weighs one and half pound; women took in thalidomide, a
structures of the skin (fingernails, tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning
toenails) have formed; fetus is sickness that gave rise to several
more active deformed babies.
d) 6 months after conception – fetus Cocaine exposure during
is about 14 inches long and prenatal development is associated
weighs one and half pound; eyes with reduced birth weight, length and
and eyelids are completely head circumference (Hurt, et al, 1999
formed; fine layer of head covers cited by Santrock, 2002), impaired
the head; grasping reflex is motor development (Arendt, et al,
present and irregular movements 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002),
occur. impaired – information processing
e) 7 months after conception – fetus (Singer, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock,
is about 16 inches long and 2002) and poor attention skills
weighs 3 pounds (Bandstra, 2000 cited by Santrock,
f) 8 and 9 months after conception – 2002).
fetus grows longer and gains
substantial weight, about 4 2. Psychoactive drugs – These include
pounds. nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs
such as marijuana, cocaine and
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
heroin.
Development
Researchers found that

Teratology is the field that pregnant women who drank more

investigates the causes of congenital (birth) caffeinated coffee were more likely to

defects. A teratogen is that which causes have preterm deliveries and newborns

birth defects. It comes from the Greek word with lower birthweight compared to

“tera” which means “monster” their counterpart who did not drink
caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi, et al,
Below are clusters of hazards to pre-natal 1999 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
development: Heavy drinking by pregnant
women results to the so called fetal

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alcohol syndrome. (FAS) which is a mercury and lead caused defects in

cluster of abnormalities that appears in animals exposed to high doses. For
the children of mothers who drink instance, early exposure to lead
alcohol heavily during pregnancy. affects children’s mental development.
These abnormalities include facial Prolonged exposure of
deformities and defective limbs, face pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs
and heart. raises the mothers’ body temperature
Most of these children are creating fever that endangers the
below average in intelligence and fetus. The high temperature due to
some are mentally retarded. Fetal and fever may interfere with cell division
neonatal deaths are higher among and may cause birth defects or even
smoking mothers. There are also fetal death if fever occurs repeatedly
higher incidences of preterm births for prolonged periods of time.
and lower birth weights among
children with smoking mothers. On the 4. Other maternal factors such as
average, maternal heroin addicts Rubella (German Measles), syphilis,
deliver smaller than average size genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high
babies with more incidence of anxiety and stress, age, (too early or
toxemia, premature separation of too late, beyond 30)
placenta, retained placenta, A rubella in 1964-65 resulted
haemorrhaging after birth, and breech in 30,000 prenatal and neonatal
deliveries. deaths and more than 20,000 affected
infants who were born with
3. Environmental hazards – These malformations, including mental
include radiation in jobsites and X- retardation, blindness, deafness and
rays, environmental pollutants, toxic heart problems.
waste, and prolonged exposure to Syphilis damages organs after
heat in saunas and bath tubs. they have formed. These damages
Research found that chromosomal include eye lesions, which can cause
abnormalities are higher among the blindness and skin lesions. When
offspring of fathers exposed to high syphilis is present at birth, other
levels of radiation in their occupations. problems involving the central nervous
Radiation from X-rays also can affect system and gastrointestinal tract can
the developing embryo and fetus, with develop.
the most dangerous time being the
first several weeks after conception 5. Paternal factors – Fathers’ exposure
when women do not yet know that to lead, radiation, certain pesticides
they are pregnant. and petrochemicals may cause
Researchers found toxic abnormalities in sperm that lead to
wastes such as carbon monoxide,

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

miscarriage or diseases such as human being developing contrary

childhood cancer. to what she and other pro-
As in the case of older abortionist are thinking. Describe
mothers, older fathers also may place to her the development that has
their offspring at risk for certain already taken place in 4 months.
defects. Reflect what you learned on
prenatal development in this
Human Life Begins at Conception Module. Give your letter this title
That which is in the mothers’ “A Letter from Junior” (or you may
womb is indeed a developing human write your name)
being. An unborn baby of eight weeks
is not essentially different from one of 2. Here are 3 boxes for you to write
eighteen weeks or twenty-eight weeks. the stages of prenatal
From conception the zygote, the development.
embryo and the fetus are undeniably
human life.
Human life begins from the
moment of conception. All that we
have and all that we are have been
there at the moment of conception!
The fact that you have brown eyes
and black, straight or curly hair and
the fact that you will turn bald at age
3. Give some hazards of prenatal
50 have been there already at the
development. Use the given
moment of conception. What were
graphic organizer.
added in the process of development
is nutrition.
The womb is supposed to be
the safest of all places for human
development. The development that
takes place in 3 stages proves that the
developing embryo in a mother’s
womb is truly a human being.

Application
1. Pretend you are “Junior,” 4
months old in the womb. Your
Mother is concentrating on doing
abortion. Write her a letter
convincing her that you are a

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 draw implications of these principles

and processes to child care, education
and parenting.

Activity
Study the Figures below. Look closely
Lesson 2: Infancy and Toddlerhood at the changes in the sizes of the human body
We have just traced the development parts as a person grows.
process before birth. We shall continue to
trace the developmental process by following
the infant or the baby who is just born up to
when he reaches age 2. The period that
comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is
infancy which, in turn, is followed by
toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the
first two years of life.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able

to: http://transitionaplanning.asia.org

 trace the physical development that Analysis

you have gone through as infants and 1. What do you notice about the size of the
toddlers; head in relation to the other parts of the
 identify factors that enhance / impede body as a person grows older?
the physical development of infants 2. Does physical development begin from
and toddlers present your own or the top or below? From the side to the
others’ research on the physical center?
development of infants and toddlers; Explain your answer?
and

Abstraction

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
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Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns  In general, an infant’s length increases

by about 30 percent in the first five
The cephalocaudal trend is the
months.
postnatal growth from conception to 5 months
 A baby’s weight usually triples during
when the head grows more than the body.
the first year but slows down in the
This cephalocaudal trend of growth that
second year of life.
applies to the development of the fetus also
 Low percentages are not a cause for
applies in the first months after birth. Infants
alarm as long as infants progress
learn to use their upper limbs before their
along a natural curve of steady
lower limbs. The same pattern occurs in the
development.
head area because the top parts of the head –
the eyes and the brain – grow faster than the Brain Development
lower parts such as the jaw.
 Among the most dramatic changes in
The proximodistal trend is the the brain in the first two years of life
prenatal growth from 5 months to birth when are the spreading connections of
the fetus grows from the inside of the body dendrites to each other.
outwards. This also applies in the first months
after birth as shown in the earlier maturation of Myelination or myelinisation, this

muscular control of the trunk and arms, process by which the axons are covered

followed by that of the hands and fingers. and insulated by layers of fat cells, begins

When referring to motor development, the prenatally and continues after birth. The

proximodistal trend refers to the development process of myelination or myelinisation

of motor skills from the center of the body increases the speed at which information

outward. travels through the nervous system.

Height and Weight  At birth, the newborn’s brain is about

25 percent of its adult weight. By the
 It’s normal from newborn babies to second birthday, the brain is about
drop 5 to 10 percent of their body 75% of its adult weight.
weight within a couple of weeks of  Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain
birth. That is due to the baby’s produces trillions more connections
adjustment to neonatal feeding. Once between neurons than it can possibly
they adjust to sucking, swallowing and use. The brain eliminates connections
digesting, they grow rapidly. that are seldom or never used
 Breastfeed babies are typically heavier (santrock, 2002). The infants brain is
than bottle-fed babies through the first literally waiting for experiences to
six months. After six months, determine how connections are made.
breastfeed babies usually weigh less  A study on rats conducted by Mark
than bottle-fed babies. Rosenweig in 1969 revealed that the
brains of rats that grew up in the
enriched environment developed

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Learning Principles

better than the brains of the animals stroked. The baby responds by turning
reared in standard or isolated his or her head in the head in the
conditions. The brains of the direction of the touch and opening
“enriched” animals weighed more, had their mouth for feeding.
thicker layers, had more neuronal  Gripping reflex: Babies will grasp
connections and had higher levels of anything that is placed in their palm.
neurochemical activity. Such finding The strength of this grip is strong, and
implies that enriching the lives of most babies can support their entire
infants who lives in impoverished weight in their grip.
environments can produce positive  Curling reflex: When the inner sole of
changes in their development. a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant
respond by curling his or her toes.
Motor Development When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is
Along this aspect of motor stroked, the infant will respond by
development, infants and toddlers begin from spreading out their toes.
reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine motor  Startle/Moro reflex: Infants will
skills. respond to sudden sounds or
movements by throwing their arms
Reflexes and legs out, and throwing their heads
 The newborn has some basic reflexes back. Most infants will usually cry
which are, of course automatic, and when startled and proceed to pull their
serve as survival mechanisms before limbs back into their bodies.
they have the opportunity to learn.  Galant reflex: The gallant reflex is
Many reflexes which are present at shown when an infant’s middle or
birth will generally subside within a few lower back is stroked next to the spinal
months as the baby grows and cord. The baby will respond by curving
matures. his or her body toward the side which
There are many different is being stroked.
reflexes. Some of the most common  Tonic Neck reflex: The tonic neck
reflexes that babies have are: reflex is demonstrated in infants who
 Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is are placed on their abdomens.
initiated when something touches the Whichever side the child’s head is
roof of an infant’s mouth. Infants have facing, the limbs on that side will
a strong sucking reflex which helps to straighten, while opposite limbs will
ensure they can latch unto a bottle or curl.
breast. The sucking reflex is very
strong in some infants and they may
need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
 Rooting reflex: The rooting reflex is Gross Motor Skills
most evident when an infant’s cheek is

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Open the link http://healthline.com. Fantz (1963 cited by Santrock, 2002),

Study the figure and see how you developed in it was found out that infants preferred
your gross motor skills. to look at patterns such as faces and
It is always a source of excitement for concentric circles rather than at color
parents to witness dramatic changes in the or brightness. Based on these results,
infant’s first year of life. This dramatic motor it is likely that “pattern perception has
development is shown in babies unable to an innate basis” (Santrock, 2002).
even lift their heads to being able to grab Among the first few things that babies
things off the cabinet, to chase the ball and to learn to recognize is their mother’s
walk away from parent. face, as mother feeds, as mother
feeds and nurses them.
Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills, are skills that involve
a refined use of the small muscles controlling
the hand, fingers, and thumb. The
development of these skills allows one to be Can newborns hear?

able to complete tasks such as writing,  The sense of hearing in an infant

drawing, and buttoning. develops much before the birth of the

The ability to exhibit fine motor skills baby. When in the womb, the baby

involves activities that involve precise eye- hears his/her mother’s heartbeats, the

hand coordination. The development of grumbling of his/her stomach, the

reaching and grasping becomes more refined mother’s voice and music. How

during the first two years of life. Initially, infants soothing it must have been for you to

show only crude shoulder and elbow listen to your mother’s lullaby.

movements, but later they show wrist  Infant’s sensory thresholds are

movements, hand rotation and coordination of. somewhat higher than those of adult

What are some research findings which means that stimulus must be

regarding newborns visual perceptions? louder to be heard by anewborn than

by an adult.

Can newborns see?

 The newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 Can newborns differentiate odors?

times lower than normal adult vision.  In an experiment conducted by

By 6 months of age, vision becomes Macfarlane (1975) “young infants who

better and by the first birthday, the were breastfed showed a clear

infant’s vision approximates that of an preference for smelling their mother’s

adult. (Banks and Salapatek, 1983 breast pad when they were 6 days old.

cited by Santrock, 2002) This preference did not show that it

 Infants look at different things for requires several days of experience to

different lengths of time. In an recognize their mother’s breast pad

experiment conducted by Robert odor.”

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
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as early as at 3 ½ months old, infants

Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to looked more at their mother when they
touch? also heard her voice and longer at
 They do feel pain. Newborn males their father when they also heard his
show a higher level of cortisol (an voice.
indicator of stress) after a circumcision  This capacity for intermodal perception
than prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al, or ability to connect information
1997 cited by Santrock, 2002). coming through various modes gets
 Babies respond to touch. In the earlier sharpened considerably through
part of this chapter on motor experience.
development, you learned that a
newborn automatically sucks an object A Summary of What Infants and Toddlers
placed in his/her mouth, or touch of Can Do Physically
the cheek makes the newborn turn Domain: Physical Health, Well Being and
his/her head toward the side that was Motor Development
touched in an apparent effort to find
something to suck. PHYSICAL HEALTH
Standards 1: The child demonstrates adequate
Can newborns distinguish the different tastes? growth (weight, height, head
 In a study conducted with babies only circumference).
two hour old, babies made different Standards 2: The child has adequate sensory
facial expressions when they tasted systems to participate in daily
sweet, sour, and bitter solutions activities.
(Rosentein and Oster, 1998, cited by 0-6 months
Santrock, 2002).  Startles to loud sounds
 When saccharin was added to the  Visually follows a moving object from
amniotic fluid of a near term fetus, side to side
increased swallowing was observed.  Visually follows a moving object up
 This indicates that sensitivity to taste and down
might be present before birth.  Reacts to pain by crying
 Withdraws or cries when in contact
Do infants relate information through several with something hot
senses? In short, are infants capable of  Withdraws or reacts with surprise
intermodal perception? when in contact with something cold
 Intermodal perception is the ability to  Reacts with pleasures/smiles or
relate, connect and integrate relaxed expression when he/she
information about two or more sensory tastes something delicious
modalities such as vision and hearing.  Reacts by making a
 In a study conducted by Spelke and face/frowns/grimaces when he/she
Owsley (1979), it was found out that tastes something he/she does not like.

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 Bounces when held standing, briefly

bearing weight on legs
 Sits with support
7-12 months  Starting to crawl but not yet very good
 Reacts with pleasure when he/she at this
smells something nice
 Reacts by making a face when he/she 7-12 months
smells something foul  Sits alone steadily without support
 Creeps or crawls with ease as a
Standards 3: The child has adequate stamina
primary means of moving around
to participate in daily activities.
 Stands without support
 Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy
 Stands from a sitting position without
objects
any help
 Walks without tiring easily
 Squats from a standing position with
ease
13-18 months
 Stands from a standing position with
 Plays without tiring easily, able to keep
ease
pace with playmates
 Bends over easily without falling
 Participates actively in games, outdoor
 Walks sideways by holding onto the
play and other exercises
sides of crib or furniture

19-24 months  Walks with one hand held

 Sustains physical activity for atleast 3-

5 minutes 13-18 months
 Walks without support

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS  Walks backwards

MOTOR SKILLS)  Walks up the stairs with hand held, 2

Standard 1: The child shows control and feet on each step
coordination of body movements involving  Walks down the stairs with hand held,
large muscle groups. 2 feet on each step
 Based on your experience, are these  Jumps in place
indicators generally observed on and/or  Climbs onto a steady elevated surface
performed by a child on the specified age?  Kicks a ball but with a little control of
direction
0-6 months  Throws a ball but with little control of
 Holds head steadily speed
 Moves arms and legs equally to reach  Runs without tripping or falling
at dangling object  Maintains balance without assistance
 Rolls over  Moves with music when he hears it

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 Can move body to imitate familiar  Grasps and transfers objects from
animals hand to hand
 Can move body to imitate another  Grasps objects with the same hand all
person/TV character the time

19-24 months 13-18 months

 Walks up the stairs with alternating  Puts small objects in/out of container
feet, without help  Unscrew lids
 Walks down the stairs with alternating  Unwraps candy/food
feet, without help  Holds thick pencil or crayon with
 Kicks a ball with control of direction palmar grip
 Throws a ball with control of direction  Scribbles spontaneously
 Throws a ball with control of speed
19-24 months
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE  Colors with strokes going out of the
MOTOR SKILLS) lines
Standard 1: The child can control and
coordinate hand and finger movements. PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE
 Based on your experience, are these (ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING)
indicators generally observed on and/or Standards 1: the child participates in basic
performed by a child on the specified age? personal care routines
 Based on your experience, are these
0-6 months indicators generally observed on and/or
 Hands open most of the time performed by a child on the specified age?
 Brings both hands together towards
dangling object/toy 0-6 months
 Uses either hand interchangeably to  Sucks and swallows milk from
grasp objects breast/bottle
 Uses all 5 fingers in a ranking motion  Begins to take complementary or
to get food/toys placed on a flat semi-solid foods by the end of 6
surface months
 Grasps objects with the same hand  Keeps reasonably still while being
most of the time dressed, undress bathed and while
diaper is being changed
7-12 months
 Pulls toys by the string 7-12 months
 Bangs 2 large blocks together  Holds a feeding bottle by himself

 Picks up objects with thumb and index  Helps hold cup for drinking
fingers  Chews solid foods well

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 Feeds self with finger foods  Goes to the designated place to move
 Scoops with a spoon with spillage his/her bowels but needs help with
wiping and washing
13-18 months  Brushes teeth after meals with adult
 Feeds self with assistance supervision
 Feeds self-using fingers to eat  Washes and dries face under adult
rice/viands with spillage supervision
 Feeds self-using spoon with spillage
 No longer drinks from feeding bottle Application

 Drinks from cup unassisted 1. Observe one 1.) 0-6 months infant; 2.)
7-12 months infant; 3.) 13-18 months
 Participates when being dressed by
infant and 4.) 19-24 month old infant.
lifting arms or raising legs
Refer to “what Infants and Toddlers
 Pulls down gartered short pants/
can Do Physically” based in the
underpants or panties
Philippines Early Learning and
 Removes shoes/sandals
Development Standards (ELDS)
 Informs caregiver of the need to move
formulated by the Child and Welfare
his bowels so he/she can be brought
Council now merged with early
to comfort room
Childhood Care and Development
 Takes a bath with assistance
(ECCD). Put a check (/) on those
 Brushes teeth after meals with
items that you observed the
assistance from adult
infants/toddler demonstrated.
 Washes and dries hands under adult
supervision
Assessment:
 Washes and dries face with the
1. Which statement on physical
assistance of an adult
development of infants and toddlers is
TRUE? – Analysis
19-24 months
The cephalocaudal growth pattern
 Gets drink for self-unassisted shows________________.
 Removes loose sando a. Development of the upper limbs
 Removes socks before the lower limbs
 Informs caregiver of the need to b. Development of the lower limbs
urinate so he/she can be brought to before the upper limbs
the comfort room c. Simultaneously development of
 Goes to the designated place to the upper and lower limbs
urinate but sometimes wets his/her d. Development of muscular control
pants of trunk and arms before the
 Goes to the designated place to move fingers
his/her bowels but sometimes still soils
his/her pants

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

2. As a normal infant and toddler, which Although it is known as the years before formal
physical development did you go school, it is by no way less important than the
through? – Application grade school years. The preschool year is very
a. Development of motor skills from important as it lays foundation to later
from the body outward to the development. At this stage, pre-schoolers
center achieve many development milestones. As
b. Development of motor skills from such, pre-service teachers who might be
the center of the body outward interested to teach and care for pre-schooler
c. Development of the lower limbs need to be knowledgeable about them to be
before the upper limbs truly an intentional and effective teacher.
d. Simultaneously development of This lesson on the physical
the limbs and trunk body development of pre-schoolers focuses on the
3. Which factor according to research acquisition of gross and fire motor skills,
can impede the physical development artistic expression, proper nutrition and sleep,
of infants and toddlers? – and what teachers and caregivers should do to
Understanding maximize the preschoolers’ development.
a. Depressed environment
b. Early bran stimulation Learning Outcomes
c. Being the only child At the end of the lesson, you should be able
d. Being a member of a big family to:
4. For healthy physical development of a  describe preschool children’s physical
toddler which should parents do? – growth;
Application  identify the different gross and fine
I. Encourage your child to sit motor skills; and
when eating  draw implications of these concepts on
II. Encourage free play as physical development on teaching pre-
much as possible to schoolers.
develop motor skills
III. Check toys for loose or Activity
broken parts Examine the pictures below. Think
a. II and III about the physical characteristics of pre-
b. I and III schooler. Put a caption for the pictures.
c. I, II
d. I, II and III

Lesson 3: Early Childhood

(The Pre-schooler)
The pre-schooler years is commonly
known as “the years before formal schooling
begins.” It roughly covers 3-5 years of age.

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

in the classrooms, materials and

activities.
Analysis
From the captions you wrote for the Significant Changes in Physical Growth
pictures, what physical characteristics of pre- Physical growth increase in the
schoolers came out? preschool years, although it is much slower in
pace than in infancy and toddlerhood. At
Abstraction around 3 years of age, pre-schoolers move,
From the activity, you were able to see from the remaining baby-like features of the
a glimpse of preschoolers’ physical toddler, toward a more slender appearance of
development. They love to move. They enjoy a child. The trunk, arms and legs become
being active. They are also interested to work longer.
with their fingers, like with blocks. They have a The center of gravity refers to the point
more balanced stance than toddlers. Read on at which body-weight is evenly distributed.
and you will learn more about the typical Toddlers have their center of gravity at a high
physical development of pre-schoolers, the level, about the chest level. This is why they
important concerns and issues, and how have difficulty doing sudden movements
teachers and caregivers can help maximize without falling down. Pre-schoolers on the
the preschoolers’ growth and development. other hand, have their center of gravity at a
lower level, right about near the belly button.
Big Ideas about the Physical Development This gives them more ability to be stable and
of Preschoolers balanced than the toddler. The preschool
There are significant changes in moves from the unsteady stance of
physical growth of pre-schoolers. toddlerhood to a more steady bearing. They no
 The preschoolers’ physical longer “toddle,” that wobbly way that toddlers
development is marked by the walk. This also allows the pre-schoolers to
acquisition of gross and fine motor move more “successfully” than the toddler.
skills. Some say that the later part of the pre-
 Preschoolers can express themselves schooler years at around 5 or 6 is the best
artistically at a very early age. time to begin learning skills that require
 Proper nutrition and the right amount balance like riding a bike or skating.
of sleep are very important for the pre-
schoolers. Gross and Fine Motor Development

 Caregivers and teachers can do a lot Gross motor development refers to

in maximizing the growth and acquiring skills that involve the large muscles.

development of pre-schoolers. These gross motor skills are categorized into

 Preschoolers with special needs in three: locomotor, non-locomotor and

inclusive classrooms can thrive well manipulative skills. Locomotor skills are those

with the appropriate adaptations made that involve going from one place to another,
like walking, running, climbing, skipping,

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

hopping, creeping, galloping, and dodging. By the end of the preschool years
Non-locomotor ones are those where the child most children manage to hold a pencil with
stays in place, like bending, stretching, turning their thumb and fingers, draw pictures, write
and swaying. Manipulative skills are those that letters, use scissors, do stringing and
involve projecting and receiving objects, like threading activities. They are also do self-help
throwing, striking, bouncing, catching and skills like eating and dressing up
dribbling. independently. Significant progress in fine
Pre-schoolers are generally physically motor skills can be expected of pre-schoolers
active. Level of activity is highest around three especially if they are aptly supported and
and becomes a little less as the pre-schooler appropriate activities are provided for them.
gets older. Pre-schoolers should be provided Handedness, or the preference of the
with a variety of appropriate activities which use of one hand over the other, is usually
will allow them to use their large muscles. established around 4 years of age. Earlier than
Regular physical activity helps pre-schooler this, pre-schoolers can be observed to do task
build and maintain healthy bones, muscles, using their hands interchangeably. We can
and joints, control weight and build lean observe a pre-schooler shifting the crayon
muscles, prevent or delay hypertension, from left to right and back again while working
reduce feelings of depression and anxiety and on a colouring activity.
increase capacity for learning.
Fine motor development refers to Preschoolers’ Artistic Development
acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles At the heart of the pre-schooler years
in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully. is their interest to draw and make other forms
Some of the skills included here are picking, of artistic expressions. This form of fine motor
squeezing, pounding, and opening things, activity is relevant to pre-schoolers. Viktor
holding and using a writing implement. It also lowenfeld studied this and came up with the
involves self-help skills like using the spoon stages of drawing in early childhood.
and fork when eating, buttoning, zipping, Stage 1. Scribbling stage. This stage
combing and brushing. begins with large zig-zag lines which later
Different environments provide become circular markings. Soon, discrete
different experiences with fine motor skills. For shapes are drawn. The child may start to
example the availability of information and name his/her drawing towards the end of this
communications technology in largely urban drawn.
areas makes younger and younger children Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May
proficient in keyboarding and manipulation of already include early representations (This
the mouse and the use of smart phones and also becomes very significant when we
tablet. While other children use their fine motor discuss about cognitive development). At this
skills in digging in soil, making toys out of point adults may be able to recognize the
sticks cans and bottle caps. Still others enjoy drawings. Children at this stage tend to give
clay, play dough, and finger paint. the same names to their drawings several
times. Drawing usually comprise of a

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

prominent head with basic elements. Later, schoolers not having enough food and those
arms, legs, hands and even facial features are on the other end of the screen when we fine
included. pre-schoolers who are not just over weight but
Stage 3. Schematic stage. More obese. The celebration of the nutrition month
elaborate scenes are depicted. Children every July is aimed at advocating for proper
usually draw from experience and exposure. nutrition. Each year a theme is put forth to
Drawings may include houses, trees, the sun advocate good nutritional habits while
and sky and people. Initially, they may appear government programs on giving out fortified
floating in air but eventually drawings appear bread, milk and even noodles aim to address
to follow a ground line. malnutrition among children.
Everyone who observes a pre- It is important for pre-schoolers to get
schooler go through these stages of drawing sufficient amount of rest and sleep. Pre-
would surely say one thing: that the pre- schoolers benefit from about 10-12 hours of
schooler drew the same drawing maybe a sleep each day. It is when they are asleep that
hundred times! Repetition is the hallmark of vital biological processes that affect physical
early drawing. One wonders if the supply of and cognitive development take place. During
scratch papers, crayons and pens will ever be sleep, especially in the dream state (rapid eye
enough. Adults should remember to have a movement stage), growth hormones are
neat supply of these or they will find released. Blood supplies to the muscles are
preschoolers’ drawings on the furniture and likewise increased helping pre-schoolers
wall! This affords the pre-schooler regain energy. At this state while dreaming,
opportunities to gain mastery of the fine increased brain activity is also attained.
motors skills involved.
Also important to remember is that the A Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can
preschoolers’ representations or drawings Do: (Physical skills)
does not only involve fine motor skills. This bulleted list of preschoolers’
Children’s drawing allow us to have a glimpse physical skills is lifted from the Physical
of how they understand themselves and Domain component of the Philippines Early
worlds around them. Learning and Development Standards (ELDS).
This set of standards was based on a study
Preschoolers’ Nutrition and Sleep commissioned by UNICEF and the Child
This kind of nutrition a pre-schooler Welfare Council (CWC). This is now adopted
gets has far-reaching effect on his physical for use by the Early Childhood Care and
growth and development. The preschooler’s Development Council.
nutritional status is the result of what nutrients
he or she actually takes in checked against the Gross Motor: 36-48 months
nutritional requirement for his her age.  Hops 1 to 3 steps on preferred
Obviously, having too much or too little both foot
have their negative effects. Here in our  Skips (with alternating feet)
country, we can see the extreme of pre-  Jumps and turns

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

 Stands on one leg without  Feeds self-using spoon

falling for at least 5 seconds without spillage
 Throws a ball overhead with  Dresses without assistance
control of direction except for buttons and tying
 Throws a ball overhead with laces
control of speed  Puts on socks independently
 Kicks a ball with control of
speed 49-60 Months
 Feeds self-using fingers
Fine-motor Skills: without spillage
36-48 Months  Prepares own food
 Consistently turns pages of a  Dresses without assistance,
picture or story book one page including buttoning and tying
at a time, looking at pictures  Wipes/cleans him/herself after
with interest a bowel movement
 Purposefully copies diagonal  Brushes teeth after meals
lines without having to be told
 Purposefully bisects a cross  Washes and dries face
 Purposefully copies a square independently without having
 Purposefully copies a triangle to be told
 Cuts with scissors following a  Takes a bath independently
line without having to be told

49-60 Months The Role of Caregivers in the Growth and

 Copies a simple pattern of Development of the Preschooler
different basic shapes Optimum physical development of pre-
 Draws a human figure (head, schoolers is largely influenced by the
eyes, mouth, trunk, arms, supportive caregivers (parents and teachers)
legs, etc.) without prompts who provide a stimulating environment and
 Draws a house without appropriate activities for the children. If you
prompts using geometric have friends and relatives who are responsible
forms for pre-schoolers, read and share the following

 Colors with strokes staying tips: (This collection includes those suggested

within the lines by Lesia Oesterreich, M.S., Family Life

Extension Specialist, Human Development

Personal Care and Hygiene (Self- and Family Studies, Iowa State University)

Help Skills)
36-48 Months For all pre-schoolers:

 Pours from pitcher without

spillage

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

a. Engage preschool children in simple know or care, but simply enjoy the
games that involves running and process of drawing.
walking. k. Provide a variety of art experiences.
b. Provide then with toys for catching and Make play dough. Create collages
throwing such as soft large balls and from magazine pictures, fabric,
bean bags. wallpaper, and newsprint. Encourage
c. Have balancing activities for pre- children to experiment with new media
schoolers. Use balance beams and like wire and cork, soda straws, string,
lines on the classroom floor or or yarn. Teach children to mix different
playground, Montessori schools have colors with paint.
blue and red lines on their preschool
classroom floors.
d. Allow opportunities for rough and
tumble play like in a grassy area or For Four-year-olds
soft mats. Keen observation and l. Encourage physical development.
monitoring is, of course expected to Play follow the leader. Pretend to walk
keep them safe from injury. like various animals.
e. Ensure that pre-schooler get enough m. Set up an obstacle course indoors with
rest and sleep, setting a routine for challenges such as crawling, climbing,
bed time is ideal. leaping, balancing, and running across
f. Model good eating habits to pre- stepping stones.
schoolers. Encourage more fruits, n. Encourage walking with a beanbag on
vegetables, water and fresh juices, the head.
rather than processed foods, sugary
snacks and sodas. For five-year-old
o. Encourage body coordination and
For three-year-olds sense of balance by playing “Follow
g. Encourage development of hand-eye the leader” with skipping, galloping,
coordination by providing large buttons and hopping. Skip or jump rope to
or old beads to string on a shoe lace. music, teach folk dances and games,
h. Play ball. Show children how to throw, provide a balance beam, tree for
catch, kick balls of different sizes. climbing, and knotted rope suspended
i. Show children how to hop like a rabbit, from a sturdy frame.
tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a duck, p. Teach sack-walking and “twist-em,”
slither like a snack, and run like a “statue,” or “freeze” games to provide
deer. an outlet for their drive for physical
j. Encourage free expression in art activity.
projects. Avoid asking “What” children q. Play games that can teach right and
are drawing. Three-year-old may not left directions, like “Hokey-Pokey,”
“Looby-Loo,” and “Simon Says.”

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

r. Help children learn to use a pair of

scissors by letting them cut out
coupons.

Application
Surf the net. Make a collection of
gross motor and fine motor activities for pre-
schoolers that caregivers and teachers can
Lesson 4: Middle Childhood
use to support their development.
Physical development involves many
different factors: height, weight, appearance,
Assessment:
visual, hearing and motor abilities. Primary
Make your own photo essay about the
school children undergo many different
physical development of pre-schoolers.
changes as they go through this stage of
Observe pre-schoolers in action and take their
development. This could be caused by
pictures. Describe the gross and fine motor
different factors, both natural and
skills that you saw them do. Place your photo
environmental.
essay in an A4 bond paper.

Learning Outcomes
Physical Domain Skills
At the end of the lesson, you should be able
to:
 describe the different physical
characteristics of early school-aged
children in your own words;
 enumerate ideas on how you can
Cognitive Domain Skill apply the concepts in this module in
the teaching-learning process; and
 discuss several ways on how to
encourage an age-appropriate active
physical lifestyle to primary school
children.

Activity

Paste a picture of yourself when you

were an early-school age child (around Grade
1-3). Write a description on the given areas.

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

Height

Weight

Body Shape

Activities you could

do

Analysis

1. Based on the observations you have made, what can you conclude on the general physical
characteristics of children in their primary school years?
2. What do you think are the necessary skills that will help them to be physically ready for
primary schooling?

Abstraction

Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this stage,
physical development involves: (1) having good muscle control and coordination, (2) developing eye-
hand coordination, (3) having good personal hygiene and (4) being aware of good safety habits.
In this development stage, children will have started their elementary grades, specifically their
primary years – Grades 1 to 3.
These children are extremely active. Because most of the activities in traditional schools are
sedentary, they often release their unusual amount of energy I some forms of nervous habits including
fidgeting, nail biting and pencil chewing.
Primary-school age children get fatigued more easily because of physical and mental
exertions both at home and in school. Hence, activities should be alternated between strenuous one
and relaxing or quiet activities. (example: storytelling time after the Math period).

Lesson Proper
Height and Weight
This period of gradual and steady growth will give the children time to get used to the
changes in their bodies. An average increase in height of a little over two inches a year in both boys
and girls will introduce them to many different activities that they can now do with greater accuracy.
Weight gain averages about 6.5 pounds a year. Most children will have slimmer appearance
compared to their preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation and location of their body fat,
although girls tend to develop additional fat cells relative to muscle cells. A child’s legs are longer and
more proportioned to the body than they were before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much changes in the
body will take place:

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

 Genes
 Food
 Climate
 Exercise
 Medical conditions
 Diseases/illnesses

Bones and Muscles

Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years- bones grow longer and broader. This is
the best time for parents and teachers to educate children of good dietary and exercise habits to help
them have strong, healthy bones throughout their lives. Replacement of primary teeth, also known as
baby teeth, with permanent teeth occur around ages 6 to 7 years and up until 12, most children will
have all the primary teeth replaced. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can
substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood.
Because children’s bones have proportionately more water and protein-like materials and
fewer minerals than adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly help them in strengthening
bones and muscles.
Large muscle control is at bigger play over fine motor. Some may still have difficulty holding a
pencil properly or coloring inside the lines. We have to limit writing time, since children may develop a
negative attitude towards writing.
Bone and muscle growth are still not complete during this stage. Most activities which use
heavy pressure will be very difficult for growing bones, muscles and ligaments. If students are
engaging in too many strenuous activities to test their strengths, teacher may suggest or provide more
coordinated physical activities or competition or rotate players during sports or games.

Motor Development
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their bodies. Most
children have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle strength and skills. They enjoy
doing real-life tasks and activities. They pretend and fantasize less often because they are more in
tune with everything that is happening around them.
Children during this stage love to move a lot – they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll and
dance. Because their gross motor skills are already developed, they can now perform activities like
catching a ball with one hand and trying their shoelaces. They can manage zippers and buttons.
Performing unimanual (requiring the use of one hand) and bi-manual (requiring the use of two
hands) activities becomes easier. Children’s graphic activities, such as writing and drawing, are now
more controlled but are still developing. They can print their names and copy simple designs, letters
and shapes. They hold pencils, crayons, utensils correctly with supervision.
Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility and power.
Let us look into the definitions of the different motor skills. Coordination is a series of
movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring about a particular result.

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

(Strickland, 2000). The more complex the movement is, the greater coordination is required. Children
develop eye-hand and eye-foot coordination when they play games and sports. Balance is the child’s
ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different positions. Balance is a basic
skill needed especially in this stage, when children are very active. During this time, children have
improved balancing skills. Static balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like
balancing on one foot. Dynamic Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving (Owens,
2006). Speed is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time while agility is one’s
ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely important in most
sports. Power is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.
All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports.
Development of these skills may spell the difference between success and failure in future
endeavours of the child.
Large scale body movements are key in this stage. Most of the time, boys develop motor
skills faster than girls except for skills involving balance and precise movements.

Here are some motor milestones of primary school-age children:

(Bergin and Bergin, Child and Adolescent Development in Your Classroom, Third Edition: 2018,
Boston, MA, USA)

Fine Motor Skills Gross Motor Skills

 Zip zippers and lace shoes  Hop

 Able to learn piano or violin  Skip on alternating feet
 Control pencil with the finger and  Jump rope
thumb. Movement comes from the  Walk on a balance beam
elbow.  Throwing, catching, and kicking
 Write and draw with more control, but become smoother
writing looks choppy and uneven.  Begin to participate in organized
Letters are getting smaller. ganes
Uppercase letters are somewhat  Skate,ski, bike and other specialized
mastered, but lowered letters skills with training.
continue to be challenging through
3rd grade, especially letters with
slants and curves.

Some Issues Affecting Physical Development

Obesity

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

This is becoming a major concern for parents and health care providers, since it seems it’s
becoming a trend. According to the World Health Organization – Western Pacific Region, “… the
Philippines is not spared from the scenario, and the results of national nutrition surveys are showing
slow but increasing childhood overweight and obesity rates. Prevalence of overweight among children
5 – 10 years old has risen from 5.8% in 2003 to 9.1% in 2013.”

Childhood obesity may be linked to a number of health-related consequences. Evidence also

shows that overweight and obese children are likely to stay obese well into their adulthood and are
more prone to develop non-communicable diseases like diabetes and some cardiovascular diseases
at a much younger age.

Childhood Nutrition

Malnutrition remains a major health issue in the Philippines. This has been proven to have
serious effect on the physical and mental development of children. For most Filipino children, poverty
is the chief reason why they do not get the nutrients and energy required for their age.
School-age children’s diet should include a good supply of vitamins, minerals and protein
found in most fruits and vegetables to combat the trend of eating out and eating too much which puts
children at risk of increased consumption of softdrinks, sugary and salty snacks like crackers and
chips.

Sleep

Primary school-age children need 9-11 hours of sleep every day (including daytime naps).
Sometimes, due to their schedule in school, midday naps or siesta is not possible anymore. Because
of this, children may need to go to bed earlier rather than nap.
Children’s increased sports affiliation, extra-curricular activities, TV, internet, computers and
sometimes, intake of caffeinated products could result to difficulty in falling asleep, disruptions in their
sleep and sometimes even nightmares.
Poor and inadequate sleep may result to mood swings, behavioural problems such as
hyperactivity and cognitive problems which may impact their ability to concentrate in school.

Implications to Child care, Education and Parenting

Two major ways to help primary school-age children to be physically healthy is to (1) provide
them with good nutrition and (2) involve them in coordinated and age-appropriate physical activities.
Specifically, health care providers, teachers and parents must do the following:

 Encourage children to join or enrol them in related programs during summer or their free time.
 Advocate better nutrition in foods provided in the school canteen by providing healthier
options and accessible healthier products.
 Provide a balance between rigorous physical play activity and quiet activities in designing
classroom activities.

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

 Create an exercise plan for children. Not only does it promotes motor skills but also improves
strength and endurance, builds healthy bones and muscles, and increases positive emotions.
 Maintain a daily sleep schedule and consistent bedtime routine.
 Make children’s bedroom conducive for a peaceful sleep. If possible, keep computers and TV
out of the bedroom.

Application

1. What are the general physical characteristics of children in the primary school age?
2. What are the factors affecting physical development?
3. Compare the motor skills of a pre-school child with a primary school age child.

Preschool Child Primary School-Age Child

Fine motor skills

Gross motor skills

Assessment:

Read the statements carefully. Choose the best answer and write them on the blank

________1. Why does a primary school-aged child look slimmer than a pre-school child?

a. Because the location and accumulation of body fats shift

b. Because they have less muscle tissues
c. Because their bones are leaner
d. Because their appetite is poor

________2. What is the general physical characteristic of a primary school child?

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

a.Prefers to sit than play

b.Starts to walk and sit without being supported
c. Has difficulty balancing and often falls down
d.Is extremely active

________3. Primary school-age children use their large motor muscles over the fine motor ones.
Knowing this, teachers should ____________.

a.Offer highly active strenuous activities in school

b.Allow children to pretend and fantasize and also enjoy real-life
tasks and activities
c. Practice them by holding a pencil using their thumb and fingers
d.Make them do fine embroidery activity

Lesson 5: Late Childhood

This chapter deal with the late childhood stage. Every stage of development of human life has
its own unique qualities and significance. Each stage is interlinked with the later one. The previous
stage glides into another quietly and smoothly. But when we reach the end of one-stage, we find it
different from that of the previous one. The stage of late childhood is a sort of pseudo maturity,
because at this stage, the child has achieved a good degree of adaptation to his or her environment
as compared with the children of the early childhood stage. We have discussed earlier the distinction
between the quantitative aspect of growth and the qualitative aspect of development. Regarding the
quantitative aspect, the later childhood or late childhood stage covers the age group of 6 to 12 years.

The purpose of this chapter is to familiarise you with the late childhood stage, its important
characteristics, common hazards of this stage as well as some guiding principles that the parents and
the teachers must follow in order to handle the children belonging to this period.

Learning Objectives
After going through this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Know about Late Childhood stage
2. Describe the characteristics of Late Childhood stage
3. Explain the hazards of Late Childhood
4. Illustrate the Educational Importance of this stage

Abstraction
Late Childhood Stage

Late Childhood extends from the age of 6 years to 12 years, beginning with the child’s entry
into formal schooling and ending in the advent of puberty. This is the period of excellence and pseudo
- maturity. New interests develop for the child and besides some maturity in sex; the child also

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 The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles

develops certain amount of physical and mental growth. As regards sex, it remains dormant, but it
emerges with great force at the end of this stage. This stage, is therefore, called ‘latency period’.

At both its beginning and end, late childhood is marked by conditions that profoundly affect a
child’s personal and social adjustments. The beginning of late childhood is marked by the child’s
entrance into first grade in school. For most of the young children, this is a major change in the
pattern of their lives, even when they have had a year or more of experience in some pre-school
institution. Entrance into first grade is a milestone in every child’s life; therefore it is responsible for
many of the changes that take place in terms of attitudes, values and behaviour.

Although it is possible to mark off the beginning of late childhood fairly accurately, one cannot
be so precise about the time when this period comes to an end because sexual maturity - the criterion
used to divide childhood from adolescence - comes at varying ages. This is because there are
marked variations in the ages at which boys and girls become sexually mature. As a result, some
children have a longer - than - average late childhood, while for others it is shorter than the average.

Parents, educators and psychologists apply various names to the late childhood and these
names reflect the important characteristics of the period. Parents’ name this period as – the
troublesome age and quarrelsome age; educators call it as - elementary school age and critical
period, and psychologists named the late childhood as - gang age, creative age and play age.

Characteristics of Late Childhood Stage

Characteristics of development help us to understand the period in a better way. Let us

discuss the characteristics of the late childhood. Late Childhood stage carries the major potentialities
and prospects of an individual to make him fully grown up to manhood in the later stage. The
distinguishing marks of such changes and development may be shown below.

A Period of Physical Development

This is the period of slow and uniform growth. Physical growth follows a predictable pattern,
although variations do occur. Body build affects both the height and weight of a child in late childhood.
The bones harden; the height and weight increase at this stage and there is improvement in a child
motor development, skill and endurance. A child at this stage is physically restless. He must engage
himself in one or the other activity. The child develops skills like - self-help skills, social-help skills,
school skills and play skills. Apart from doing his or her own works the child becomes able to help
others in this stage. At school, the child develops the skills needed in writing, drawing, painting, clay
modeling, sewing etc. The children also develop skills like - throwing, catching, riding a bicycle,
swimming etc. By the end of the late childhood stage, a child normally has twenty - eight of the thirty -
two permanent teeth. The last four - the wisdom teeth erupt during adolescence.

A Period of Development of Intellectual Ability

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This is an age of intellectual advancement. Intellectual activities are clearly visible at this
stage. The child is in a position to exercise his or her power of memory, attention, thinking and
imagination and can solve problems intelligently. His knowledge and experience not merely remain
receptive but gradually take the creative turn in the late childhood stage. The child is intellectually an
alive and active individual. I.Q. at this stage developed considerably and by the end of this stage it
becomes stable.

A Period of Capacity to Learn

The child acquires mental readiness to learn at this stage. He can pay attention to and
develop interest in reading, writing and arithmetical activities. He shows awareness and sense of
subordination to the school rules, laws and discipline. A sense of discipline and some sense of
responsibility to school work find are acquired by him. He tries to learn new knowledge and
experience through imitation.

The late childhood stage is also a stage of socialisation of the ego-centric nature of the child.
The primary school provides an ideal situation for such socialisation. The child’s social environment
and its functions are widening. Both the classroom and the play ground situations train him how to
feel, think and act together with others, share joy and sorrow with them. He also learns some of the
social rules and norms through active participation in society. The child at this stage is engaged in
social interaction and learns the spirit of sharing with others.

Development of Extrovert Nature

Child’s nature of behaviour, thought and activity at this stage can be described as extrovert or
external minded. He is more attracted to external situations and takes pleasure in active participation
in them. He has no occasion to feel bored, anxious or worried over any problems of his personal life.
External world and its situations are extremely interesting and stimulating to him. He devotes all his
energy and attention to them.

It is a Play Age

The extrovert nature naturally makes the child playful. The social situation provided in school
develops his natural tendency to play. Group play and group activity make the child more social, loyal
and disciplined. He is usually attracted to the school on account of the play situation provided by it. He
begins to acquire social virtues like friendship, co-operation and competition in group play with his
own age mates. His individualistic and ego-centric nature at this stage is substantially reduced at this
stage and instead he would love to live in groups when the children engage themselves in play
activities. For these reasons this stage is termed as “Play Age”.

It is a Gang Age

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Social senses urge the boys and girls to live an organised group life. They develop a strong
sense of loyalty to the gang. They form certain rules and code of conduct of the gang and uphold
them quite faithfully and obediently. They select their leader and owe the sense of subordination to
him. In case the leader appears to be unacceptable, they discharge him and select a new leader. This
sense of organised group life may be observed in children in the late childhood stage. As such, late
childhood is often referred as “Gang - age”.

A Period of Emotional Development

Children at this stage discover that expression of emotions, especially the unpleasant
emotions, is socially unacceptable to their age-mates. As a result they acquire a strong incentive to
learn to control the outward expressions of their emotions. Characteristically, emotional expressions in
late childhood are pleasant ones compared with the early childhood stage. A normal child at this stage
believes in the sharing of love and affections. At this stage children also experience such emotions
like - anger, fear, joy, anxiety etc.

A Period of Development of Concepts

As children’s world expands with their entrance into school, so does children’s interest. With
the broadening of interests comes an understanding of people and things which formerly had little or
no meaning. Children associate new meanings with old concepts on the basis on what they learn after
starting school. In addition, they derive new meanings from the mass media, specially movies, radio
and television. The concepts that change most and the new ones most commonly developed in late
childhood are associated with- Life, Death, Bodily functions, Space, Numbers, Money, Time, Self, Sex
Roles, Social Roles, beauty, discipline.

Development of Homo-sexuality

The sex life of the late childhood stage is described as homo-sexual. Boys and girls at this
stage feel the sense of their physical attachment to their same sexes. Boys love playing with the boys
and the girls with the girls. They remain quite indifferent to the opposite sex. Co-education is no
problem to the teacher. At the later part of the late childhood stage boys and girls begin to develop a
somewhat critical outlook towards the opposite sex.

Development of Constructive Instincts

The instinctive tendencies of a child are in the process of modification and development
through training during late childhood. His sense of curiosity is largely satisfied by the formal
education in school. Self assertive instinct makes the child more competitive. Instinct of construction
may take the creative turn through hand-work, craft-work, and drawing. Gregarious instinct may be
satisfied through collective games and sports. The instinctive restlessness of the child is substantially
removed at this stage.

A period of development of Interests

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At the time of entrance to the primary school the child does not have any specific interest in
mind. In the late childhood stage he however, develops acquired interest and sentiment towards
specific subjects and fields of activity. A growing sense of liking and disliking makes his choice
somewhat critical. His interest in play also appears to be more selective at this stage.

A period of Development of Creativity

Late childhood is the stage then we can identify the creative talent in a child’s individuality.
The native talent, potentiality and prospect inherent in the child may find expression through the
suitable outlets provided to him. He no longer remains a blind imitator but gives evidence of his
creative ability in thought, feeling and action. He is now in a position to observe anything through the
exercise of reasoning and understanding.

A Period of Development in Sex - Role Typing

Sex - role typing, which begins when children are capable of doing things, now continues with
new agencies playing important roles in the typing process. Sex-Roles are patterns of behaviour for
members of the two sexes that are approved and accepted by the group with which the individual is
identified. ‘Sex Role Typing’ means learning to conform to the approved roles for one’s sex. Children
learn to play sex-roles by three common methods, viz. imitation, identification and child - training. Sex
role typing has profound and far reaching effects on children’s behaviour.
The forces that play significant roles in the sex - typing process in late childhood are - teachers,
school subjects, mass-media, books, peer groups etc. Sex - role typing influences in important ways
both the behaviour and self-evaluation of the children. In appearance, clothing and even in
mannerism, children try to create the impression of sex-appropriateness at this stage.

Role of Parents and Teachers Towards the Adolescents

We have already discussed the major aspects of the late childhood stage. Now we will
discuss the educational importance of this period. This stage is known as the formative age of the
child. The child develops his basic outlook, values and ideas. As such parents, teachers and social
workers have an important role to play in making the late childhood stage a happy period in the life of
the child.

They can adopt the following steps :

Healthy Atmosphere

Both parents and teachers must take good care about the home as well school atmosphere.
They must be able to provide a healthy and secured atmosphere to child where his all-round
development is possible. The home for the child should be sweet and secured. The child should feel
secured at school also.

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Proper Physical Development

 Ample opportunities must be provided by home and mainly by school for proper physical
development of the child. For proper physical development of the child, the school can take
the following steps -
 Morning physical exercise should be made compulsory in the school.
 Facilities for both indoor and outdoor games must be provided by the school.
 Evening games must be well organised. Children should be encouraged to take part in those
games in which they are interested.
 Special care must be taken by the teachers in the selection of the games and such games are
to be selected as the children in the development of their small and large muscles.

Application
As a future teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help intermediate school children
develop physically?

Assessment

1. State whether the following statements are true or false.

A. Early childhood extends from 6-12 years
B. It is a stage of marked sexual maturity
C. Parents name this stage age creative age
D. Educators name the late childhood stage elementary school age
E. Psychologists name this period troublesome age.
2. Mention five major characteristics of the late childhood stage.
3. What steps can the teacher take for the child’s all around development in late childhood
stage?

Lesson 6: Adolescence

Adolescence is a period that begins with puberty and ends with the transition to adulthood
(approximately ages 10–20). Physical changes associated with puberty are triggered by hormones.
Cognitive changes include improvements in complex and abstract thought, as well as development
that happens at different rates in distinct parts of the brain and increases adolescents’ propensity for
risky behavior because increases in sensation-seeking and reward motivation precede increases in
cognitive control. Adolescents’ relationships with parents go through a period of redefinition in which
adolescents become more autonomous, and aspects of parenting, such as distal monitoring and

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psychological control, become more salient. Peer relationships are important sources of support and
companionship during adolescence yet can also promote problem behaviours. Same-sex peer groups
evolve into mixed-sex peer groups, and adolescents’ romantic relationships tend to emerge from
these groups. Identity formation occurs as adolescents explore and commit to different roles and
ideological positions. Nationality, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religious background,
sexual orientation, and genetic factors shape how adolescents behave and how others respond to
them, and are sources of diversity in adolescence.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe cognitive milestones during adolescence;

2. describe identity formation during adolescence
3. explain why adolescence is a period of heightened risk taking; and
4. explain the role that aggression, anxiety, and depression play in adolescent development.

Adolescence

Adolescence is a developmental stage that has been defined as starting with puberty and ending
with the transition to adulthood (approximately ages 10–20). Adolescence has evolved historically,
with evidence indicating that this stage is lengthening as individuals start puberty earlier and transition
to adulthood later than in the past. Puberty today begins, on average, at age 10–11 years for girls and
11–12 years for boys. This average age of onset has decreased gradually over time since the 19th
century by 3–4 months per decade, which has been attributed to a range of factors including better
nutrition, obesity, increased father absence, and other environmental factors (Steinberg, 2013).
Completion of formal education, financial independence from parents, marriage, and parenthood have
all been markers of the end of adolescence and beginning of adulthood, and all of these transitions
happen, on average, later now than in the past. In fact, the prolonging of adolescence has prompted
the introduction of a new developmental period called emerging adulthood that captures these
developmental changes out of adolescence and into adulthood, occurring from approximately ages 18
to 29 (Arnett, 2001).

Physical Development

Adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is
predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Several physical changes occur during
puberty, such as adrenarche and gonadarche, the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands,
respectively. Also during this time, primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop and mature.
Primary sexual characteristics are organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and
ovaries in females and testes in males. Secondary sexual characteristics are physical signs of sexual
maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls,

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and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys. Girls experience menarche, the
beginning of menstrual periods, usually around 12–13 years old, and boys experience spermarche,
the first ejaculation, around 13–14 years old.

During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height (i.e., growth spurt). For girls
this begins between 8 and 13 years old, with adult height reached between 10 and 16 years old. Boys
begin their growth spurt slightly later, usually between 10 and 16 years old, and reach their adult
height between 13 and 17 years old. Both nature (i.e., genes) and nurture (e.g., nutrition, medications,
and medical conditions) can influence height.

Because rates of physical development vary so widely among teenagers, puberty can be a
source of pride or embarrassment. Early maturing boys tend to be stronger, taller, and more athletic
than their later maturing peers. They are usually more popular, confident, and independent, but they
are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activity. Early maturing girls may be
teased or overtly admired, which can cause them to feel self-conscious about their developing bodies.
These girls are at a higher risk for depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders. Late blooming
boys and girls (i.e., they develop more slowly than their peers) may feel self-conscious about their
lack of physical development. Negative feelings are particularly a problem for late maturing boys, who
are at a higher risk for depression and conflict with parents and more likely to be bullied (Pollack &
Shuster, 2000).

The adolescent brain also remains under development. Up until puberty, brain cells continue
to bloom in the frontal region. Adolescents engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and emotional
outbursts possibly because the frontal lobes of their brains are still developing. Recall that this area is
responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning, and it is still maturing into early adulthood.

Cognitive Development

More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Some researchers suggest this
is due to increases in processing speed and efficiency rather than as the result of an increase in
mental capacity—in other words, due to improvements in existing skills rather than development of
new ones. During adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of
abstract thought. Recall that Piaget refers to this stage as formal operational thought. Teen thinking is
also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations,
debate ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and justice), and form new ideas. In addition, it’s not
uncommon for adolescents to question authority or challenge established societal norms.

Early in adolescence, changes in the brain’s dopaminergic system contribute to increases in

adolescents’ sensation-seeking and reward motivation. Later in adolescence, the brain’s cognitive
control centers in the prefrontal cortex develop, increasing adolescents’ self-regulation and future
orientation. The difference in timing of the development of these different regions of the brain

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contributes to more risk taking during middle adolescence because adolescents are motivated to seek
thrills that sometimes come from risky behavior, such as reckless driving, smoking, or drinking, and
have not yet developed the cognitive control to resist impulses or focus equally on the potential risks
(Steinberg, 2008). One of the world’s leading experts on adolescent development, Laurence
Steinberg, likens this to engaging a powerful engine before the braking system is in place. The result
is that adolescents are more prone to risky behaviors than are children or adults.

Cognitive empathy, also known as theory-of-mind (which we discussed earlier with regard to
egocentrism), relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others.
Cognitive empathy begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social
problem solving and conflict avoidance. According to one longitudinal study, levels of cognitive
empathy begin rising in girls around 13 years old, and around 15 years old in boys. Teens who
reported having supportive fathers with whom they could discuss their worries were found to be better
able to take the perspective of others.

Social Development

Psychosocial Development

Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to
the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an
adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents adopt
the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in
opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become
a central focus in adolescents’ lives.
As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer
group becomes very important. Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report
positive feelings toward them. Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with
positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school behavior problems, in the United
States as well as in other countries.
It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once
famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small
numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents and most disagreements are minor. For
example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups,
Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money,
curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop.

Social Changes

Parents. Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships
remain important too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of parent–

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child relationships. As adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy during this time,
different aspects of parenting become more salient. For example, parents’ distal supervision and
monitoring become more important as adolescents spend more time away from parents and in the
presence of peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide range of behaviors such as parents’
attempts to set rules and know their adolescents’ friends, activities, and whereabouts, in addition to
adolescents’ willingness to disclose information to their parents. Psychological control, which involves
manipulation and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through invalidating
adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways, is another aspect of parenting
that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to more problematic adolescent
adjustment.

Peers

As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and
less time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults.
Children’s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’ notions of
friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings. During adolescence,
peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents within a peer group tend to be
similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as being a function of
homophily (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time together in a “birds of a
feather flock together” way) and influence (adolescents who spend time together shape each other’s
behavior and attitudes). One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known
as deviant peer contagion which is the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by
laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem
behavior.

Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer
pressure can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior than
they would alone or in the presence of their family. For example, adolescents are much more likely to
drink alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone
or with their family. However, peers also serve as an important source of social support and
companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and
better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have conflictual peer relationships.

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Crowds refer to different collections of people, like the “theater kids” or the
“environmentalists.” In a way, they are kind of like clothing brands that label the people associated
with that crowd.
Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships
(which are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals who
interact frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual
interactions. These crowds reflect different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains) and are often
linked with adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values or behaviors.

Romantic Relationships

Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first
emerge. Initially, same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed-sex
peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in the
context of these mixed-sex peer groups. Although romantic relationships during adolescence are
often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be
minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their
positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than to
friendships, family relationships, or school. Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents’ identity
formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and adolescents’ emotional and behavioral
adjustment.
Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents’ emerging
sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to
adolescents’ sexuality, in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception,
and preventing teen pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. For
example, adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come
to perceive themselves as such. Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents
experiment with new behaviors and identities.

Identity Formation

Theories of adolescent development often focus on identity formation as a central issue. For
example, in Erikson’s classic theory of developmental stages, identity formation was highlighted as
the primary indicator of successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion,
which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence). Marcia described
identify formation during adolescence as involving both decision points and commitments with respect
to ideologies (e.g., religion, politics) and occupations. He described four identity statuses: foreclosure,

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identity diffusion, moratorium, and identity achievement. Foreclosure occurs when an individual
commits to an identity without exploring options. Identity diffusion occurs when adolescents neither
explore nor commit to any identities. Moratorium is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring
options but have not yet made commitments. Identity achievement occurs when individuals have
explored different options and then made identity commitments. Building on this work, other
researchers have investigated more specific aspects of identity. For example, Phinney (1989)
proposed a model of ethnic identity development that included stages of unexplored ethnic identity,
ethnic identity search, and achieved ethnic identity.

Aggression and Antisocial Behavior

Early, antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior,
which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts. [Image: Philippe Put]
Several major theories of the development of antisocial behavior treat adolescence as an
important period. Patterson’s (1982) early versus late starter model of the development of aggressive
and antisocial behavior distinguishes youths whose antisocial behavior begins during childhood (early
starters) versus adolescence (late starters). According to the theory, early starters are at greater risk
for long-term antisocial behavior that extends into adulthood than are late starters. Late starters who
become antisocial during adolescence are theorized to experience poor parental monitoring and
supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and
lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes
adolescents’ own antisocial behavior. Late starters desist from antisocial behavior when changes in
the environment make other options more appealing. Similarly, Moffitt’s (1993) life-course persistent
versus adolescent-limited model distinguishes between antisocial behavior that begins in childhood
versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behavior as resulting from a
“maturity gap” between adolescents’ dependence on and control by adults and their desire to
demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint. However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate
adult roles and privileges become available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial
behavior, leading to desistance in these antisocial behaviors.

Anxiety and depression

Developmental models of anxiety and depression also treat adolescence as an important

period, especially in terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that persist
through adulthood. Starting in early adolescence, compared with males, females have rates of anxiety
that are about twice as high and rates of depression that are 1.5 to 3 times as high. Although the rates
vary across specific anxiety and depression diagnoses, rates for some disorders are markedly higher
in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. For example, prevalence rates for specific phobias are
about 5% in children and 3%–5% in adults but 16% in adolescents. Anxiety and depression are

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particularly concerning because suicide is one of the leading causes of death during adolescence.
Developmental models focus on interpersonal contexts in both childhood and adolescence that foster
depression and anxiety. Family adversity, such as abuse and parental psychopathology, during
childhood sets the stage for social and behavioral problems during adolescence. Adolescents with
such problems generate stress in their relationships (e.g., by resolving conflict poorly and excessively
seeking reassurance) and select into more maladaptive social contexts (e.g., “misery loves company”
scenarios in which depressed youths select other depressed youths as friends and then frequently co-
ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating negative affect and stress). These processes
are intensified for girls compared with boys because girls have more relationship-oriented goals
related to intimacy and social approval, leaving them more vulnerable to disruption in these
relationships. Anxiety and depression then exacerbate problems in social relationships, which in turn
contribute to the stability of anxiety and depression over time.

Academic Achievement

Adolescents spend more waking time in school than in any other context. Academic
achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal (e.g., parental engagement in
adolescents’ education), intrapersonal (e.g., intrinsic motivation), and institutional (e.g., school quality)
factors. Academic achievement is important in its own right as a marker of positive adjustment during
adolescence but also because academic achievement sets the stage for future educational and
occupational opportunities. The most serious consequence of school failure, particularly dropping out
of school, is the high risk of unemployment or underemployment in adulthood that follows. High
achievement can set the stage for college or future vocational training and opportunities.

Diversity

Adolescent development does not necessarily follow the same pathway for all individuals.
Certain features of adolescence, particularly with respect to biological changes associated with
puberty and cognitive changes associated with brain development, are relatively universal. But other
features of adolescence depend largely on circumstances that are more environmentally variable. For
example, adolescents growing up in one country might have different opportunities for risk taking than
adolescents in a different country, and supports and sanctions for different behaviors in adolescence
depend on laws and values that might be specific to where adolescents live. Likewise, different
cultural norms regarding family and peer relationships shape adolescents’ experiences in these
domains. For example, in some countries, adolescents’ parents are expected to retain control over
major decisions, whereas in other countries, adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking
control of decision making.
Even within the same country, adolescents’ gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, religion,
sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and personality can shape both how adolescents behave
and how others respond to them, creating diverse developmental contexts for different adolescents.
For example, early puberty (that occurs before most other peers have experienced puberty) appears

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to be associated with worse outcomes for girls than boys, likely in part because girls who enter
puberty early tend to associate with older boys, which in turn is associated with early sexual behavior
and substance use. For adolescents who are ethnic or sexual minorities, discrimination sometimes
presents a set of challenges that nonminorities do not face.
Finally, genetic variations contribute an additional source of diversity in adolescence. Current
approaches emphasize gene X environment interactions, which often follow a differential susceptibility
model (Belsky & Pluess, 2009). That is, particular genetic variations are considered riskier than
others, but genetic variations also can make adolescents more or less susceptible to environmental
factors. For example, the association between the CHRM2genotype and adolescent externalizing
behavior (aggression and delinquency)has been found in adolescents whose parents are low in
monitoring behaviors (Dick et al., 2011). Thus, it is important to bear in mind that individual differences
play an important role in adolescent development.

Application

Share your experiences during high school which showed socio-emotional change: e.g.
partying, intimate friendship with opposite sex or same sex, etc. and how these provided learning for
your socio-emotional growth. Write briefly the experiences and learning.

Experiences during Teen SOCIO-EMOTIONAL GROWTH

Learnings along self-knowledge, self-identity, social relationships etc.
Years
1. Partying

2.Keeping intimate
friends, same or
opposite sex
3.Others…

Assessment:

1. What can parents do to promote their adolescents’ positive adjustment?

2. In what ways do changes in brain development and cognition make adolescents particularly
susceptible to peer influence?
3. How could interventions designed to prevent or reduce adolescents’ problem behavior be
developed to take advantage of what we know about adolescent development?
4. Reflecting on your own adolescence, provide examples of times when you think your
experience was different from those of your peers as a function of something unique about
you.

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5. In what ways was your experience of adolescence different from your parents’ experience of
adolescence? How do you think adolescence may be different 20 years from now?

References

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental

disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. ↵
2. Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child
Development, 67, 3296–3319. ↵
3. Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis-stress: Differential susceptibility to
environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908. ↵
4. Brown, B. B., & Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L.
Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 74–103). New York, NY: Wiley. ↵
5. Connolly, J., Furman, W., & Konarski, R. (2000). The role of peers in the emergence of
heterosexual romantic relationships in adolescence. Child Development, 71, 1395–1408. ↵
6. Corpuz, B. Ph.D. et.al (2018) The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles,
Quezon City Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

7. Dick, D. M., Meyers, J. L., Latendresse, S. J., Creemers, H. E., Lansford, J. E., … Huizink, A.
C. (2011). CHRM2, parental monitoring, and adolescent externalizing behavior: Evidence for
gene-environment interaction. Psychological Science, 22, 481–489. ↵
8. Dishion, T. J., & Tipsord, J. M. (2011). Peer contagion in child and adolescent social and
emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 189–214. ↵
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