Physical-Technical

Principles

Part of the Basic Explosion Protection

Compendium
Disclaimer
The content of this publication has been compiled by the editor with
due and thorough regard of the legal regulations valid at the date
of publication and of established technical measures. Nevertheless,
incomplete, inaccurate, or ambiguous assertions cannot be exclu-
ded in the publication. The publication consists of several individual
brochures containing general fundamental information on explosion
protection. The content of the publication is not intended for and
is not suitable for assessing the hazard situation of a specific plant.
All regulations on explosion protection are established by German
law, including the German Protection at Work Act, and national and
international standards. Adherence to these regulations and the
German Protection at Work Act are fundamental obligations of the
plant designer, plant operator, and employer.
Explosion protection regulations are subject to legal guidelines and
can vary by country.
Furthermore, industrial plants can differ greatly from one another in
their design, materials used, and methods of operation. The individu-
al brochures of this compendium provide an overview of topics
relating to explosion protection. With this in mind, the technical and
organizational measures for explosion protection can only
be detailed generally and thus incompletely. In a given specific case,
each plant operator must determine his requirements and approach
based
on an individual hazard assessment, and implement and document
these in a fashion verifiable in accordance with the national
regulations.
Reference is made to IEC/EN standards where appropriate.
Many other countries have similar national standards in force.
Reference to other national standards is made when necessary
for clarity or accuracy. Make an inquiry—we’ll be happy to help!

For the supply of products, the current issue of the following docu-
ment is applicable: The General Terms of Delivery for Products and
Services of the Electrical Indus-try, published by the Central Asso-
ciation of the Electrical Industry (Zentralverband Elektrotechnik und
Elektroindustrie (ZVEI) e.V.) in its most recent version as well as the
supplementary clause: “Expanded reservation of proprietorship.“
Table of Contents

Table of Contents
About this Basic Brochure................................................................................... 6

Introduction........................................................................................................... 7

The Prerequisites of an Explosion.................................................................... 10

Protective Measures........................................................................................... 14

Primary Explosion Protection......................................................................................... 15

Secondary Explosion Protection.................................................................................... 19

Tertiary Explosion Protection......................................................................................... 27

Preventing Explosion Propagation for Gases ................................................................ 28

Preventing Explosion Propagation for Dusts ................................................................. 29

Assessing Explosion Hazards........................................................................... 30

Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liquids................................... 31

Safety Parameters of Combustible Dusts......................................................... 39

Sources and References.................................................................................... 44

Basic Compendiums by Pepperl+Fuchs........................................................... 45

Index.................................................................................................................... 46

4
About this Basic Brochure

About this Basic Brochure

This brochure is part of the “Explosion Protection“ compendium and with the aim to provide
plant operators with an overview of the topic on explosion protection.

Your Reliable Partner

Pepperl+Fuchs is a leading developer and manufacturer of electronic sensors and compo-

nents for the worldwide automation market. Our process automation division is a market
leader in the intrinsic safety explosion protection sector. For more than 70 years, our con-
tinuous innovations, high-quality products, and constant growth have made us your reliable
business partner in the process industry.

Lifelong Learning

Anyone who works in automation is constantly confronted with new technologies and
developments. With continuous education and lifelong learning, we can keep pace with
these developments. Our compendiums convey theoretical principles. Our training courses
show in detail the practical application of what we have learned from our experience.
You can find further information on our solutions, publications, and training on our website,
www.pepperl-fuchs.com.

6
 Introduction

Introduction
Explosions often result in catastrophic personal injury and property damage.
Therefore, special protective measures must be taken in plants that are at risk of explosion.
These protective measures are based on knowledge about the substances used and their
safety-relevant properties.

Historical Development

Steam engines, coal mining, and steel production were the cornerstones for industrializa-
tion in the middle of the 19th Century. The wood available from European forests was
no longer sufficient to feed the ever-increasing number of steam engines. Bituminous coal
was the ideal “new“ energy source and was mined at the surface at first. Later, deeper
shafts became necessary to find deposits.

Explosion hazards due to ignitable methane/air mixtures (firedamp) were unheard of

in surface mining at that time. However, in the underground coal shafts, the methane
concentration of the breathing air could reach dangerous explosion limits. Underground
explosions, triggered by tools, or light sources—and often fueled by the subsequent
ignition of dispersed coal dust— claimed countless human lives. The coal mining industry
was therefore forced to address these explosion hazards. Initially, safety lamps were
developed that could no longer ignite atmospheres rich in methane.

Around 1880, the electrification of the mines led to another massive increase in explosion
accidents. Only after functioning protective measures for avoiding electrically generated
ignition sources were introduced were further technical advances possible. The “flame-
proof enclosure,“ “increased safety,“ and “intrinsic safety“ types of protection emerged
at this time.

Over time, steel became ever more important as a material. Previously, however, furnaces
could only be operated using charcoal, as bituminous coal is not suitable for steel produc-
tion. Steel only became available as a mass-produced product through transforming coal
into coke. A combustible gas was produced as a side product of coke oven plants. This
mixture of hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide was originally used for illumination
and for heating steam boilers.

But soon enough, the first explosions due to coke oven gases occurred. The types of pro-
tection, which at that time were focused on methane, now needed to be adapted to
the properties of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Many more combustible substances
have gradually been added due to the use of mineral oil components and the
ever-developing chemical industry.

7
Introduction

Current Practices

In order to assess possible explosion risks, the chemical-physical behavior and the
safety-relevant properties of each substance are taken into account. These properties
are described in safety parameters (SP) of combustible gases and liquids or in SPs for
combustible dusts.

Combustion Processes

From a physical viewpoint, combustion and explosion are exothermic reactions with dif-
ferent reaction rates. Unstable substances exist that can spontaneously combust without
external energy input. These substances will not be dealt with here. Moreover, explosive
substances exist, where the oxidizing agent is bound to the combustible substance.
These substances fall under the Explosive Substances Ordinances and will not be dealt
with here.

This brochure deals with combustible substances that, when mixed with air under
atmospheric conditions, can cause an explosion when ignited.

Subdivision into Groups I, II, and II

In the European Union, the explosion hazards for underground mining and the explosion
hazards outside of mining (surface mining) are considered separately
(Directive 2014/34/EU; ATEX Directive). To differentiate, the European Directive uses
group classifications “I“ (mining) and “II“ (other areas outside of the mining industry).

The Directive 2014/34/EU subdivides Group II further into Group IIG (gases) and
Group IID (dusts). The scope of the Directive also determines “atmospheric conditions.“
This concerns the situation in which combustible substances are released into
breathing air and therefore endanger employees.

International device standardization is technically implemented by the International Electro-

technical Commission (IEC) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
for nonelectrical apparatus.

This results in discrepancies in the labeling of dusts, as the IEC have differentiated the
identification system for electrical apparatus for explosive atmospheres even further.
Now the technical identification for Group II is only used for devices that are used with gas-
es. For Group III, devices that can be used with dusts are identified. This branching allows
further subdivision of Group III into fibers and lint (IIIA), nonconductive dust (IIIB),
and conductive dust (IIIC).

For the purposes of simplification, in this compendium we refer to regulations according to

IEC if referring to the worldwide standard, even if an ISO standard should be used as the
basis in individual cases.

8
 Introduction

Categories for North American Classification

Today, in brief, we can differentiate between the IEC and the North American procedure.
The differences lie in the categorization of explosion hazardous areas, the design of ap-
paratus, and the installation technology of electrical systems. The categorization of these
areas is carried out in North America in accordance with the National Electrical Code
NFPA 70, Article 500. The categorization takes places according to the following material
groups:

Class I: gases, vapors, and mist

Class II: dust
Class III: fibers and suspended particles

The areas are then further subcategorized according to the probability of occurrence
of these materials being present in a potentially hazardous quantity:

Division 1: high probability of explosion hazardous materials being present in

a potentially hazardous quantity
Division 2: low probability of explosion hazardous materials being present in

a potentially hazardous quantity

9
The Prerequisites of an Explosion

The Prerequisites of an Explosion

For an explosion to occur, 3 components must be present at the same time:

A combustible substance, for example:

zz Flammable gases
zz Mists and vapors of combustible liquids
zz Combustible dusts, fibers, and suspended particles
An oxidizing agent:
zz Oxygen, normally from the air
Ignition energy
zz An energy input that triggers the combustion process, usually electrical or thermal.

For this, a minimum ignition energy is required. The amount of energy needed
depends on the exact physical conditions.

The combination of these components is referred to as the “ignition triangle.“

Ignition Triangle

Ignition Energy

Oxidizer Combustible

Figure 1.  The ignition triangle consists of 3 components

For an explosion to occur, further prerequisites must be fulfilled, such as the following:

The mixing ratio of the fuel and the oxidant is within defined limits.
A potentially hazardous amount is present.
The input of energy is higher than the minimum ignition energy or the temperature

is higher than the minimum ignition temperature.

All methods of explosion protection aim to eliminate at least one component of

the ignition triangle and therefore eliminate the risk of explosion.

10
 The Prerequisites of an Explosion

Rate of Combustion - Flame Velocity (v)

After ignition, combustion is perpetuated through the unburned mixture at a specific rate
of combustion. This process depends on the mixing ratio of fuel to air and the degree of
dispersion. The dispersing combustion gas propels a flame, which can reach a speed
of up to several kilometers per second.

Depending on the rate of combustion, one of the following phenomena is applicable:

Low-speed detonation: fewer m/s, pressure increase up to 1 bar

Deflagration: up to 330 m/s, pressure increase up to 10 bar; v < the speed of sound
Detonation: up to several km/s, shock waves of up to over 20 bar

Explosion Speed and Consequences

Detonation
20 bar up to ≈ 3000 m/s

Lockheed SR-71: 970 m/s

Deflagration
Gas: 10 bar
Dust: 14 bar up to ≈ 330 m/s

Ferrari 599 GTO: 93 m/s

Low-speed detonation cm/s

(low pressure rise) up to a few m/s

Sprinter: 10 m/s

Figure 2.  Explosion pressure and propagation speed of pressure waves

11
The Prerequisites of an Explosion

≈ 100 % death toll

(lung damage)
2000 mbar

Structural steel ≈ 50 % death toll

constructions collapse 600 mbar
(lung damage)

Walls and roofs

collapse
500 mbar

Eardrum rupture
140 mbar
100 mbar
Persons are thrown down
Houses become uninhabitable 70 mbar
Windowpanes burst 30 mbar

Figure 3.  Effects of explosion pressure on buildings and humans

Atmospheric Conditions

The main aim of explosion protection is to ensure occupational safety. Employees usual-
ly work under normal atmospheric conditions. These are, according to IEC/EN 60079-0,
defined as follows:

Temperature -20 ˚C ... +60 ˚C

Pressure 80 kPa (0.8 bar) ... 110 kPa (1.1 bar)
Air with a normal oxygen content, usually 21 vol.-%

Degree of Dispersion

Ignition can only occur if the combustible substance is mixed with oxygen to a sufficient
level.

First, the combustible substance must be sufficiently distributed, i. e., the degree
of dispersion must be sufficiently high.

12
 The Prerequisites of an Explosion

Range of Concentration

A combustible mixture is only explosive within substance-specific limits. The lowest

concentration at which an explosion is possible is referred to as the “lower explosive limit“
(LEL). The highest concentration at which an explosion is possible is referred to as
the “upper explosive limit“ (UEL). A combustible mixture within these explosion limits is
referred to as an explosive mixture. As long as the atmospheric conditions are fulfilled,
the mixture is then referred to as a “potentially explosive atmosphere.“

Potentially Hazardous Quantities

The hazard assessment of the employer must determine whether the quantity of explosive
mixture or potentially explosive atmosphere poses a threat.

Potentially hazardous quantities are not defined in most countries.

In Germany, a potentially hazardous quantity is defined as 10 L of potentially explosive

atmosphere. For spaces that are smaller than 100 m3, the potentially hazardous quantity
is reached at 1/10 000 of the spatial volume. In this case, 1/10 000 of the spatial volume
results from the product of 1 % of the ceiling height and 1 % of the area of the room.

Flash Point

Vaporized liquids can only be ignited if enough vapor is emitted from the liquid.

If the temperature of the liquid is so high that the vapor phase can be ignited above
an enclosed liquid surface, then the flash point is reached or already exceeded.

Liquids are very difficult to ignite directly. In practice, the vapors above a liquid surface
are ignited, which can subsequently lead to the liquid itself also being ignited.

Oxygen Content

A potentially explosive atmosphere can be prevented by removing the oxygen in the atmo-
sphere. The explosion limits (see “Range of Concentration,“ p. 13) are applicable to an
oxygen concentration of 21 vol.-% in the air. The oxygen concentration at which the most
flammable mixture begins to ignite can be determined experimentally for each substance.

This concentration is the limiting oxygen concentration (LOC).

13
Protective Measures

Protective Measures
According to the statutory occupational safety obligations of Germany, the STOP principle
is to be used to protect employees:

1. Substitution
2. Technical measures
3. Organizational measures
4. Personal measures

In the introduction of the IEC/EN 60079-14:2013 standard regarding “Selecting and erecting
electrical installations,“ the IEC specifies which preventative measures must be used
to reduce the risk of explosion:

1. Replacing a combustible substance with another substance that is not ignitable,

or difficult to ignite (S)
2. Monitoring (T, O)
3. Diluting (T, O, P)

According to European ATEX regulations (Directive 1999/92/EG), the principles

of integrated explosion protection must be used to protect employees.

Prevent the occur- Prevent the ignition Limit the conse-

rence of a potenti- of a potentially quences of an
ally explosive explosive atmos- explosion to an
atmosphere phere acceptable extent

Primary Secondary Tertiary

explosion protection explosion protection explosion protection

Technical + organizational protective measures

1. Primary explosion protection: Preventing the occurrence of a hazardous,

potentially explosive atmosphere (S or T)
2. Secondary explosion protection: Preventing possible ignition sources (T, O)
3. Tertiary or structural explosion protection: Suppressing the explosion or reducing
the possible effects of an explosion (T, O, P)

14
 Protective Measures

Primary Explosion Protection

Typical measures for observing primary explosion protection are using noncombustible
substances, preventing releases and displacing the atmospheric oxygen, i. e., inerting the
plant interiors. Further measures include extracting emissions and diluting an existing gas
concentration using mechanical or natural ventilation measures. The latter measures are
often combined with monitoring the fuel concentration in operational areas.

Precautions for Preventing a Potentially Explosive Atmosphere

To prevent a potentially explosive atmosphere, the following aspects must be considered:

The substances selected

Using noncombustible substances
Using solvents with a flash point above the processing temperature
Avoiding powdered products or products which may form dust, e. g., using sugar syrup

in recipes instead of powdered sugar

Monitoring of the Concentration of Combustible Substances

The concentration of combustible substances can be influenced by the flash point,

ventilation measures, and dust elimination.

Reducing the concentration so that it is below the lower explosive limit (LEL) using
ventilation measures, e. g., suction at the exit point, interior ventilation
Using liquids with high flash points or increasing their flash points by adding

noncombustible liquids
Disposing of deposited dusts regularly without dispersing the dusts, e. g.,

by wet cleaning or using suction, before the quantity deposited can become dangerous
Decreasing or eliminating dust layers in difficult-to-reach locations using structural

measures, e. g., by avoiding horizontal surfaces

A mixture is nonincendive when it is under the LEL as it is too “lean.“ If the amount of fuel
released is restricted, the concentration of the gas/air mixture remains under the LEL.
The risk of a combustion reaction that can continue independently is eliminated.

15
Protective Measures

If the concentration is to be decreased using ventilation, mechanical ventilation systems

are subject to particular requirements:

An active and specific ventilation duct must be available.

The extracted air may not come into contact with ignition sources.
Ventilators must be explosion-protected if a potentially explosive atmosphere is

to be facilitated. Observe the zone or division classification!

Transported air may not contain combustible substances.
The effectiveness of the exhaust fan must be continually monitored, e. g., using gas leak

detectors or excess flow valves.

zz Before the first commissioning, and regularly thereafter, the ventilation system and

its associated monitoring systems must be checked for effectiveness and to ensure
it is in perfect condition.

Inertization or Displacement of Atmospheric Oxygen

The reactivity of fuel/air mixtures is decreased by reducing the concentration of the oxygen.
This can be achieved by inertization, which is based on the addition of inert gases,
generally nitrogen. This enables the oxygen concentration in the mixture to be reduced to
the point that the fuel/air mixture is no longer explosive. The decisive limit value is defined
by the limiting oxygen concentration. To ensure that inertization is effective, the oxygen
concentration or the flow rate of the inert gas must be constantly monitored.

If the approved threshold range is not upheld, appropriate protective measures are
triggered. In order to achieve this, the maximum oxygen concentration in the plant must
remain significantly lower than the limiting oxygen concentration. This allows sufficient
reaction time to be given for activating designated protective measures in the event
of a failure, e. g., making ignition sources inactive.

Adaptation of the Operating Conditions

Forliquids: avoid heating to or above the flash point

Prevent the release of substances, e. g., by providing a vacuum in equipment

Processes in which the operating temperature remains below the flash point must
be secure enough to ensure that no temperature excesses can occur. To ensure
that a potentially explosive atmosphere does not occur due to a fault, warning devices
must be provided if temperature excesses still cannot be excluded.

16
 Protective Measures

Structural Precautions in the Plant

Prevent the release of substances: Mechanically sound plants and fasteners are used
for this purpose--e. g., dual end face mechanical seals, tongue-and-groove flanges,
welded connections, and magnetically coupled unsealed pumps
Use enclosed cycles of substances, e. g., double valve systems when filling containers,

product feeders when removing probes, etc.

Use vapor return devices when decanting combustible liquids
If substances escape: ensure rapid dilution, e. g., by relocating the operations outdoors.
The natural air exchange in outdoor plants is significantly better than that of work stations

inside buildings. An air speed of 0.5 m/s, according to IEC/EN 60079-10, corresponds
to a ventilation number of approximately 100/h. In a room, according to BGR 104
(German occupational health and safety regulation)/TRBS 2152-2 (German technical
regulation for safety in the workplace) only a value of approximately 1/h is reached.

Monitoring with Gas Leak Detectors

Gas leak detectors are used to monitor, the effectiveness of ventilation systems in areas
where potentially explosive gas atmospheres would not usually occur.

If the defined fuel concentration, e. g., 10 % of the LEL, is reached, the ventilation system
is stepped up, or an additional ventilation unit is switched on to counteract a potentially
explosive atmosphere. At the same time, the employees are warned that there is
an increasingly hazardous situation by audible and visual signals.

If the fuel concentration continues to increase, the ignition of the potentially

explosive atmosphere is prevented by promptly shutting down all potential ignition sources.
Example: automatic shutdown at 25 % of the LEL.

Such gas leak detectors take over control of safety functions and must therefore
correspond to the requirements of Directive 2014/34/EU regarding their functional safety
and reliability. In Germany, TRGS 725:2016 is also useful.

17
Protective Measures

The Specifics of Handling Dusts

The overriding aim of primary explosion protection is to prevent a potentially explosive

atmosphere from arising. If the prevention of the potentially explosive atmosphere cannot
be guaranteed, measures must be taken to limit the potentially explosive atmosphere, both
in terms of time and space. Although only the dispersed dust cloud can explode,
the deposited dust also poses a risk. There are several reasons for this:

Deposited dust has a smolder temperature

Deposited dust can be dispersed at any time
The amount of deposited dust can accumulate
The smolder temperature of the dust reduces when the layer thickness increases
Apparatus dissipate less heat when the layer thickness is increased and become

hotter

Removing deposited dusts is therefore an important measure for primary explosion

protection. If deposited dust with a layer thickness of 1 mm is dispersed, this creates
a cloud that fills the space above it.

Deposited dust layers must therefore be regularly removed. This requires the site
of the deposit to be readily accessible.

Cleaning processes must be used that do not cause dispersions.

Common methods include:

Wetcleaning methods
Removal using vacuum cleaners

To ensure that the vacuum cleaner does not become an ignition source, these devices
must have an explosion-protected design. Personnel must find structural and design-based
measures that make the cleaning process easier. Horizontal surfaces on which dust
can deposit are to be avoided. For cable trays, chamfered roofings help, which
systematically channel the dust onto the floor or into areas that are easily and safely
accessible. Walls must have a smooth and jointless design. Floor markings and cleaning
schedules can ensure that a dangerous layer thickness does not accumulate.

18
 Protective Measures

Secondary Explosion Protection

If the risk of potentially explosive atmosphere formation cannot be eliminated despite
the use of primary measures, secondary explosion protection measures must be used.
Their aim is to prevent the ignition of the hazardous atmospheres. If the release of various
substances is possible, the measures must be orientated towards the SPs of the
most ignition-capable substance.

Determination of Explosion Hazardous Areas (IEC Zones)

Hazardous areas, or “zones,“ are differentiated based on the frequency and duration
of the occurrence of an explosive atmosphere. Using zone classification, different areas
are determined depending on the type of combustible substances, gases, vapors, mists,
and dusts. Release conditions are also part of the classification: frequent, occasional
during normal operation, never during normal operation, for a short time during faults.

Potentially Explosive Atmosphere, Zone Classification

Zone Type of fuel Potentially explosive atmosphere: duration of occurrence
0 Gases, vapors, mists Permanent, frequent, over long periods of time

20 Dust clouds
1 Gases, vapors, mists Occasional during normal operation
21 Dust clouds
2 Gases, vapors, mists Not to be expected during normal operation. Possible short-term
22 Dust clouds occurrences when deviating from standard operation
Table 1.  Classification of zones according to types of fuel and the duration of occurrence.

Example for Zone Classification of a Fuel Tank

Zone 1 Vent

Zone 2

Zone 0
Gasoline storage
tank without
floating roof

Figure 4.  Schematic view of how the surroundings of a fuel tank with a fixed roof and vent are divided into different zones

19
Protective Measures

Determination of Explosion Hazardous Areas (NEC/CEC Divisions)

Hazardous areas are dependent on the type of flammable materials present and
are divided into the following 3 categories:

Class I: Locations containing flammable gases, flammable liquid-produced vapors,

or combustible liquid produced vapors
Class II: Locations containing combustible dusts
Class III: Locations containing combustible fibers and flyings

The probability of occurrence of these materials is taken into consideration

through the classification into divisions:

The 2­– Division Model

Class I (gases and Class II (combustible Class III (combustible fi-
vapors) In accordan- dust or powder) In ac- bers or flyings) Divisions
ce with NEC 500.5 and cordance with NEC 500.6 in accordance with NEC
CEC J18–004 and CEC 18‑008 500.7 and CEC 18–010
Division 1 Areas containing dange- Areas containing dange- Areas containing dan-
rous concentrations of rous concentrations of gerous concentrations
flammable gases, vapors, combustible dusts cont- of combustible fibers or
or mist continuously or inuously or occasionally flyings continuously or
occasionally under normal under normal operating occasionally under normal
operating conditions. conditions. operating conditions.
Division 2 Areas probably not cont- Areas probably not Areas probably not cont-
aining dangerous concent- containing dangerous aining dangerous concen-
rations of flammable gases, concentrations of combus- trations of combustible
vapors, or mist under nor- tible dusts under normal fibers or flyings under nor-
mal operating conditions. operating conditions. mal operating conditions.

Table 2.  Classification into divisions

Classes of hazardous areas are divided into subgroups dependent on the type
of flammable gas or vapor present.

20
 Protective Measures

The subgroups and the gases contained within each subgroup are based on the maximum
experimental safe gap (MESG) or the minimum ignition current (MIC).

Class I, Flammable Gases and Vapors: Groups

Group A Atmospheres containing acetylene.
Group B Atmospheres containing hydrogen and flammable process gases with more than 30 %
hydrogen by volume, or gases or vapors posing a similar risk level such as butadiene
and ethylene oxide.
Group C Atmospheres such as ether, ethylene, or gases or vapors posing a similar risk level.
Group D Atmospheres such as acetone, ammonia, benzene, butane, cyclopropane, ethanol, gaso-
line, hexane methanol, methane, natural gas, naphtha, propane, or gases
or vapors posing a similar risk level.
Table 3.  Groups A ... D subdivision of Class I

Class II, Combustible Dusts: Groups

Group E Atmospheres containing acetylene.
Group F Atmospheres containing hydrogen and flammable process gases with more than 30 %
hydrogen by volume, or gases or vapors posing a similar risk level such as butadiene
and ethylene oxide.
Group G Atmospheres such as ether, ethylene, or gases or vapors posing a similar risk level.
Table 4.  Groups E ... G subdivision of Class II

Class III, Fibers and Flyings: Divisions

Class III locations are hazardous locations where easily ignitable fibers or flyings are
present. However these fibers or flyings are not likely to be in suspension in the air
in quantities sufficient to produce ignitable mixtures.

Easily ignitable fibers and flyings include rayon, cotton, sisal, hemp, cocoa fiber, kapok,
Spanish moss, excelsior, etc. Locations belonging in Class III usually include
parts of textile mills, cotton gins, flax-processing plants, clothing manufacturing plants,
woodworking plants, etc.

Class III locations are subdivided into the following divisions:

Class III, Division 1: Locations in which easily ignitable fibers or flyings are handled,
manufactured, or used.
Class III, Division 2: Locations in which easily ignitable fibers or flyings are stored

or handled.

Class III locations are not further subdivided into groups.

21
Protective Measures

Example of a Division-Based Area Classification

The following figure shows a gasoline tank with a fixed roof and vent as a typical example
of a Class I hazardous area applicable in North America with categorization into
Divisions 1 and 2.

Example of a Division-Based Area Classification of a Storage Tank

Class I, Division 2 Class I, Division 1

(from 5 ...10 ft radius) (5 ft radius around vent)

Vent
Outdoors
Gasoline storage
10 ft (3 m) tank without 10 ft (3 m)
floating roof

circular dike
around tank

Class I, Division 2

Figure 5.  Schematic of a division-based area classification of a gasoline storage tank with fixed lid and breather.

The 3-Zone Model in North America and Canada

In 1988 in Canada, plants for Class I applications were transferred to the 3-zone model of
the IEC. For plants built after 1988, the 3-zone model is mandatory (CEC, 1988 edition).
In 1996 in North America, the NEC 505 section was introduced for Class I applications.
Since the time of this addition to the NEC, area classification according to the IEC zones
has been an option for companies.

Class I, Gases and Vapors

Zone 0 Areas containing dangerous concentrations of flammable gases, vapors, or mist
continuously or for long periods under normal operating conditions.
Zone 1 Areas containing dangerous concentrations of flammable gases, vapors, or mist during nor-
mal operating conditions, during repair or maintenance operations, or because of leakage.
Zone 2 Areas likely to contain not containing dangerous concentrations of flammable gases,
vapors, or mist under normal operating conditions.
Table 5.  Zones in accordance with NEC 505.5 and CEC 18-006

However, in North America the traditional division practice dominates, and the opportunity
for zone classification is still seen as secondary.

22
 Protective Measures

Determination of Ignition Sources

All ignition sources must be eliminated or reduced to the appropriate level within the zones
or divisions. The hazard assessment must identify ignition sources and determine
circumstances in which the ignition sources could become active.

Ignition hazards may potentially first arise through operations and activities of employees
in the plant, for example, during cleaning processes or maintenance work.
These fundamental operations must be considered during a hazard assessment.

Examples of typical ignition sources from EN 1127-1 are:

Hot surfaces
Flames
Electrical sparks
Electrostatic spark discharges
Mechanical sparks
Electrical equalization currents
Ionizing radiation
Electromagnetic fields (radio waves)
Visible light, UV and infrared radiation
Ultrasound
Lightning
Adiabatic compression and shock waves
Exothermic reactions and the spontaneous ignition of dusts

Equipment Without Explosion Protection

Equipment without explosion protection must be located outside of the zones or divisions.
This prevents a potentially explosive atmosphere and an active ignition source being
in the same space.

Explosion-Protected Equipment

If neither spatial separation nor the shutdown of the equipment is not possible,
explosion-protected equipment must be used. If used as intended, such equipment poses
no ignition source for the relevant zones/divisions and therefore does not need to be shut
down. The one prerequisite is that the equipment conforms to defined equipment
categories that are specified in the relevant zones/divisions.

23
Protective Measures

IEC and NEC/CEC Zone/Equipment Category Class/Division

Correlation
IEC NEC/CEC

Zone Equipment Category Class Division Requirements

1
0 II 1G I
Safety must be guaranteed,
even in the case of rare device
malfunctions
20 II 1D II, III

1 II 2G I
Safety must be guaranteed if
frequent device malfunctions or
fault states are expected
21 II 2D II, III

2
2 II 3G I
Work equipment may not
operate as an ignition source
during normal operation.
22 II 3D II, III

Table 6.  Correlating zones and equipment categories, respectively Classes and Divisions with the respective require-
ments.

The level of effort that must be made by the manufacturer regarding protection for this
equipment depends on the probability that a potentially explosive atmosphere is expected.
Consequently, it is considerably easier to provide equipment for Zones 2 or 22/Division 2
than for Zones 0 or 20/Division 1. Generally, equipment category 1G or 1D/Division 1
devices offer a high level of safety and can also be used in the less critical Zones 1 and 2,
or Zones 21 and 22/Division 2.

Selection of Equipment According to Temperature Classes (IEC Zones)

The maximum acceptable surface temperature of the equipment is restricted by the various
ignition temperatures of the gases and vapors. During the process of determining a tem-
perature class, the manufacturer adds a safety margin for the highest measured surface
temperature (during normal operation or in the case of a fault) for all equipment categories.
This is 5 K for temperature classes T6 ... T3; for temperature classes T2 and T1, it is 10 K.
For equipment category 1, only 80 % of the respective temperature class may be reached.

24
 Protective Measures

Temperature Classes
Temperature class of Ignition temperature of Maximum surface tempe-
the equipment the gases rature of the equipment
T1 > 450 ˚C < 450 ˚C
T2 > 300 ˚C < 300 ˚C
T3 > 200 ˚C < 200 ˚C
T4 > 135 ˚C < 135 ˚C
T5 > 100 ˚C < 100 ˚C
T6 > 85 ˚C < 85 ˚C
Table 7.  Correlating temperature classes, ignition temperature of the gases, and the maximum surface temperature.

Classification of Surface Temperature for Divisions (NEC/CEC)

Apparatus installed directly in a hazardous area must be classified for the maximum
surface temperature that the device produces under intended operation or in the event
of a fault. The maximum surface temperature must be below the minimum ignition
temperature of the gas present.

In the US and Canada, as in Europe, 6 temperature classes exist: T1 ... T6. The classes T2,
T3, and T4 are divided into further subclasses, as indicated in the following table.

Temperature Classes for Divisions

Temperature class in
Maximum Temperature
North America
°C °F
450 842 T1
300 572 T2
280 536 T2A
260 500 T2B
230 446 T2C
215 419 T2D
200 392 T3
180 356 T3A
165 329 T3B
160 320 T3C
135 275 T4
120 248 T4A
100 212 T5
85 185 T6

Table 8.  Classification of surface temperature.

Each gas is allocated to a temperature class according to its ignition temperature.

Note that for all specific mixtures there is no connection between ignition energy
and ignition temperature.

25
Protective Measures

Example: Hydrogen has a minimum ignition energy of 20 µJ and an ignition temperature of
560 °C (1040 °F). By contrast, acetaldehyde has an ignition energy of more than
180 µJ and an ignition temperature of 140 °C (284 °F).

An apparatus classified for a particular temperature class can be used in the presence
of all gases if its ignition temperature is above the temperature class rating of
the apparatus. For example, a T5 classified apparatus can be used with all gases
with an ignition temperature above 100 °C (212 °F).

For all explosion protection methods, a temperature classification is required for

all surfaces that may be exposed to a potentially explosive atmosphere.

Selection According to Surface Temperature for Dusts

The device manufacturer determines the highest measured surface temperature

(in normal operation and in cases of a fault) of their equipment and specifies this.

The device operator must ensure that the dust cloud only reaches 2/3 of its ignition
temperature and that a safety distance of 75 K is upheld from the smolder temperature
of the dust layer. If the deposits exceed a layer thickness of 5 mm, the acceptable
temperature limit value must be reduced accordingly.

Selection of Equipment According to Explosion Groups

Gases and vapors in Group II/Class I used on surface areas are divided into
the following explosion subgroups according to their minimum ignition energy:
IEC NEC/CEC Minimum Ignition Energy
Subgroup IIA Group D high ignition energy
Subgroup IIB Group C medium ignition energy
Subgroup IIC Groups A and B low ignition energy

Table 9.  IEC and NEC/CEC surface area grouping concepts based on the minimum ignition energy

The ignition probability increases from Subgroups IIA ... IIC/ Groups D ... A and B.

Substances in the IIC / A and B explosion groups require the lowest amount of ignition en-
ergy, and can therefore be ignited relatively easily. As energy may be released when using
some types of protection and during possible electrostatic discharges, equipment
is labeled with the applicable subgroup or group and selected according to this.

Types of protection that release energy include intrinsic safety (energy release via sparks)
and flameproof/explosion-proof enclosures (energy release through enclosure joints).
For flameproof/explosion-proof enclosures, each subgroup specifies the
substance-specific maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) for the apparatus needed
to prevent flashback: the maximum size of a gap without ignitable flashback.

26
 Protective Measures

Tertiary Explosion Protection

Tertiary or structural explosion protection must be provided if it cannot be avoided that
potentially explosive atmospheres and active ignition sources may meet in the same space.
However, by designing containers and equipment in accordance with the maximum explo-
sion pressure possible, the effects of the explosion can be controlled. Also, the propagation
of the explosion to other sections of the plant must be prevented using explosion
decoupling. The options are presented in brief below.

Designs That Are Resistant to Explosion Pressure

Containers of this kind are able to withstand the explosion pressure without lasting
deformation or damage. They are dimensioned using the calculation and building
regulations for pressure containers.

Designs That Are Resistant to Explosion Pressure Shock

Devices, protective systems, and Ex components must be able to withstand the maximum
explosion pressure without rupturing-deformation is acceptable. The required strength
can be established by experimenting with prototypes. It is necessary to test the affected
devices, protective systems, and Ex components after an explosion to determine whether
this equipment can continue to be operated safely.

Explosion Pressure Relief

Relief is achieved using a specific derivative of the combustion products and the unburned
mixture components via a sufficiently large relief joint. This relief enables the maximum
explosion pressure to be reduced to the maximum reduced explosion pressure. Each sec-
tion of the plant is designed according to the maximum reduced explosion pressure. The
size of the relief joint complies with the maximum rate of pressure rise. All products
of combustion, whether burned, unburned, or burning, must be discharged in a way
in which they are not dangerous.

27
Protective Measures

Explosion Suppression

If an explosion occurs, systems for explosion suppression prevent the maximum

explosion pressure from being reached. For this, appropriate extinguishing agents are
injected into the ongoing explosion. This process is triggered by a combined detector
system that detects rapid explosion pressure rise using simultaneous infrared radiation.
This stops the explosion, and the reduced explosion pressure does not exceed the
maximum acceptable overpressure for the plant. The devices and plants to be protected
can also be designed for a reduced explosion pressure. The advantages of explosion
suppression are:

No flame emergence and no pressure effects in the space

Not dependent on installation location and can be used with toxic products
No product release

Preventing Explosion Propagation for Gases

Deflagration Flame Arresters

Deflagration flame arresters are used in order to avoid explosion propagation via pipelines
(e. g., filling or exhaust lines) or vents into neighboring sections of the plant. They prevent
the explosion from being propagated through flames and can resist the explosion pressure
and the thermal stress of a deflagration.

Detonation Flame Arresters

If high speeds are expected during flame propagation or detonation, detonation flame
arresters are required. These arresters withstand the mechanical and thermal stress
of a detonation and prevent propagation.

Extinguishing Barriers

These solutions prevent explosion propagation in pipelines by extinguishing the flames

of the explosion through injecting a suitable extinguishing agent. They are activated by
detectors.

Flashback Arrestors for Flames

A flashback can be structurally prevented. If, for example, the temperature of a flame
arrester increases, this is usually caused by a continuous flame on one side of the flame
arrestor. In this case, measures are triggered that completely interrupt the flame path using
sliders.

28
 Protective Measures

Preventing Explosion Propagation for Dusts

Due to the risk of blockage by dust particles, not all above-noted procedures are suitable
for preventing the propagation of dust explosions. The following procedures are suitable
for dusts:

Extinguishing barriers: see “Extinguishing Barriers,“ p. 28, extinguishing

barriers for gases
Quick closing slide valves, quick closing flaps

These appliances take a short time to close in order to prevent flame and pressure
propagation in pipelines. The closing process can be carried out using mechanical parts,
which are driven by the pressure wave, or using a detector which controls the drive unit.

Rotary Feeders

Rotary feeders are specially constructed components that prevent flame and pressure
transfers. If an explosion occurs, the rotor is automatically shut down in order to preempt
the discharge of smoldering or burning dust.

Double Valve Systems

For this, 2 valves are connected in a way that only allows one to be open at a time.
Explosion propagation in the product stream can be prevented by using this effect,
which is similar to that of a canal lock.

29
Assessing Explosion Hazards

Assessing Explosion Hazards

Possible explosion hazards can be assessed in the following ways. The substances in-
volved are considered based on their ignition and explosion behavior, manner of release,
and safety-relevant properties. In practice, safety parameters (SP) are used as a basis
for the safe operation of processing plants. SPs define the dangerous properties
of combustible substances and delineate operation and design parameters for fire and
explosion protection.

In addition to the SPs, process parameters must be included in the assessment.

Explosion hazards can exist during the vaporization of a liquid or during the atomization
of liquids under high pressure (clouding). Knowing whether atmospheric conditions
or deviations thereof (pressure, temperature, oxygen content) are present is also important
for the assessment of an explosion hazard.

SPs are not constants, but are instead assessment criteria based on experimental measur-
ing techniques. The investigation of the substances is based on the historical development
of explosion protection. The first SPs related to methane and coal dust. Subsequent
parameters were scaled in relation to those which were already known.

30
 Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liquids

Safety Parameters of
Combustible Gases and Liquids
To enable figures to be compared, standardized measuring techniques are used,
which are based on various boundary conditions. Therefore, the figures from one technique
may deviate from those from another technique.

Example: Determining the maximum rate of explosion pressure rise: Depending

on the selected technique, the measurement of the explosion pressure rise rate delivers
speeds of pressure rise that deviate from each other but are always reproducible. The
reason for these deviations is the fact that the maximum rate of explosion pressure rise
depends on volume, and the containers used are either 20-L spheres or 1 m3 containers,
depending on the method. See also EN 14034-2 2011-04 for dusts and EN 15967 2011-10
for gases.

Figure 6.  20-L equipment for determining the rate of explosion pressure rise.
Source: Kühne AG

31
Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liquids

The formation of explosive gas/air mixtures can be prevented by using one of the
following measures:

Notreaching the lower explosive limit

Notreaching the limiting oxygen concentration
Exceeding the upper explosive limit

The ignition of explosive gas/air mixtures can be prevented by using one of the
following measures:

Not reaching the ignition temperature and minimum ignition energy

The effects of an explosion can be controlled in the following ways:

Adjustment of the corresponding protective measures to the maximum explosion

pressure and the maximum rate of explosion pressure rise

Typically, a sufficient safety distance to each limit value is determined and monitored.
Therefore, the following safety parameters should be evaluated in order to assess
the hazards of combustion gas, vapors, and mists:

Flash point in liquids

The lower and upper explosive limit
Limiting oxygen concentration
Ignition temperature
Minimum ignition energy or explosion group
Maximum explosion pressure
Maximum rate of explosion pressure rise

For information regarding dusts, see “Safety Parameters of Combustible Dusts,“ p. 39 .

Distinctive Properties of Gases

All substances with a temperature above their boiling point are considered gases. Under
atmospheric conditions between -20 °C ... +60 °C, substances are gaseous if their boiling
point is below the ambient temperature.

If a combustible gas is released in a room that is filled with air, spontaneous and continual
mixing occurs, due to the random movements of gas particles. Through this process,
the combustible gas distributes itself throughout the room. The combustible gas can
no longer be separated from the air. The warmer and lighter the gases are, the quicker
they mix and the quicker the differences in concentration within the room balance.

32
 Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liquids

Distinctive Properties of Liquids

At temperatures below a substance’s boiling point, the liquid can create vapor instead.
The vapor phase can coexist with the liquid phase. Depending on the temperature,
an equilibrium can occur between these phases.

The vapors over a liquid surface are liquid molecules that could overcome the surface
tension due to their kinetic energy and now move among air molecules. Every liquid
has a characteristic vapor pressure that only depends on the temperature. After a specific
temperature, this vapor pressure corresponds to the pressure of the surrounding
atmosphere. The result of this is that the liquid boils when above this temperature.

Flash Points of Combustible Liquids

The flash point is used to assess the fire and explosion hazards of a liquid. It specifies
the lowest temperature at which the liquid gives off enough combustible vapors
to immediately ignite with an effective ignition source under normal ambient conditions.

As the boiling point has been exceeded, combustible gases are already in a gaseous state
and do not have a flash point.

Flash Point and Ignition Temperature of Selected Liquids

Substance Flash point [˚C] Ignition temperature [˚C]

Gasoline -40 +320

Acetone < -20 +535

Hexane < -20 +230

Carbon disulfide < -20 +95

Acetaldehyde < -20 +155

Methanol +9 +440

Ethanol +12 +400

Acetic acid +38 +485

Fuel oil no. 2 > +55 +220

Diesel fuel > +55 +220

Table 10.  Flash point and ignition temperature of frequently used liquids

33
Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liquids

Spraying Combustible Liquids

If a liquid is finely distributed, sprayed in the air or released in the form of aerosols
(spray painting, use of aerosol cans, mists forming due to leaking pressurized cable
conduits, etc.), it can be ignited in temperatures below its flash point. This depends
on the mixing ratio of liquid droplets and atmospheric oxygen.

Explosive Limits

If combustible gases and vapors mix with air, combustion and therefore an explosion after
ignition, can only occur if the components are within a substance-specific range of concen-
trations. The concentration limits at which this is no longer possible are designated
as the lower explosive limit (LEL) and the upper explosive limit (UEL).

Example of a Minimum Ignition Curve

Ignition energy
[mJ]

MIE

Vapor concentration
LEL UEL [vol.-%]

A B C
Figure 7.  Typical minimum ignition curve under atmospheric conditions. Ignition energy as a function of the concentration
of a substance in air (O2 with 21 vol.-%)

Section A: Below the lower explosion limit (LEL), the mixture is not ignitable, because it is
too lean. The mixture is noncombustible and non-explosive but could promote a fire.
Section B: Above the minimum ignition energy (MIE), the mixture is explosible in an

explosive atmosphere between to 2 explosion limits. That means, the mixture can cause
a combustion with flame propagation.
Section C: Above the upper explosive limit (UEL), the mixture is not ignitable,

because it is too rich. The oxygen content it too small to cause an explosion.
The mixture is combustible.

34
 Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liquids

The explosion hazard is assessed using the flash point as an SP. The flash point is defined
as the temperature at which an ignitable vapor/air mixture forms above the closed surface
of a liquid. It is important to note that the flash point has differing values depending on
whether it is determined in a closed or an open cup.

Natural Gas 5.0 ... 15 Vol.-%

Hydrogen 4.0 ... 77 Vol.-%

Gasoline 0.6 ... 7.6 Vol.-%

Carbon 1.0 ... 60 Vol.-%

Sulfide

Hexane 1.0 ... 8.9 Vol.-%

Figure 8.  Explosive limits of selected gases and vapors

Limiting Oxygen Concentration

Flammability and reaction to fire depend on the oxygen content. Explosions can
no longer occur below a specific limit value or a limiting oxygen concentration.
The limit value is determined by introducing an inert gas, often nitrogen, into the mixture.
This causes the natural oxygen fraction of the air to be reduced by diluting from
20.8 vol.-%, the point where an explosion is no longer possible under the defined
test conditions.

If you consider that carbon monoxide can explode with an oxygen content of only 4 %,
knowledge regarding the limiting oxygen concentration is essential if an environment is to
be created that is assuredly free from explosion hazards due to existing oxygen.

For example, the inside of a container can be rendered inert so the oxygen can be
displaced from it. This can be achieved by purging the container with an inert gas, by filling
the container with quartz sand, oil, etc. Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, noble gases, exhaust
gases, and water vapor are the most commonly used gases for inertization processes.

35
Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liquids

Minimum Ignition Temperature and Temperature Classes

The ignition temperature of a combustible substance is the lowest temperature at which

the most flammable mixture of a substance--in the form of gas, vapor, mist, or dispersed
dust--and air can still be brought to explosion under defined conditions. Based on their
ignitability, combustible gases and vapors are subdivided into temperature classes
that are assigned to their defined range of ignition temperatures. The maximum surface
temperature of a potential ignition source, e.g., of an electrical apparatus, must always be
lower than the ignition temperature of the gas or vapor/air mixture in which it is used.

Temperature Classes of Different Chemical Substances

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
(> 450˚C) (> 300˚C) (> 200˚C) (> 135˚C) (> 100˚C) (> 85˚C)
Acetone Ethanol Hexane Acetaldehyde Carbon disulfide
Acetic acid Gasoline Diesel fuel
Methane Methanol Fuel oil no. 2
Propane Ethene Hydrogen sulfide
Ammonia Butane
Benzene
Toluene
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen

Table 11.  Classification of various gases and vapors into the respective temperature class. Source: GESTIS

Combustible dusts are not classified according to temperature classes. Instead, the min-
imum ignition temperature of the dispersed dust/air cloud is compared to the maximum
surface temperature of a potential ignition source. Specified safety distances must
be observed for this process. For additional information, see “Safety Parameters of Com-
bustible Dusts,” p. 39 .

Minimum Ignition Energy and Explosion Group

The minimum ignition energy is the smallest amount of electric energy, determined under
predefined test conditions, which is sufficient to ignite the flammable mixture in
an explosive atmosphere when discharged.

36
 Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liquids

Minimum Ignition Energy of Different Chemical Substances

Substance Minimum ignition energy [mJ]
Methane 0.29
Butane 0.25
Propane 0.24
Benzene 0.20
Ammonia 0.14
Ethene 0.082
Hydrogen 0.019
Carbon disulfide 0.009

Table 12.  Minimum ignition energy of various gases and vapors. Source: GESTIS

Gases and vapors in Group II/Class I are divided into the following explosions subgroups
according to their minimum ignition energy:
IEC NEC/CEC Minimum Ignition Energy
Subgroup IIA Group D high ignition energy
Subgroup IIB Group C medium ignition energy
Subgroup IIC Groups A and B low ignition energy

Table 13.  IEC and NEC/CEC surface area grouping concepts based on the minimum ignition energy

The hazard potential increases from IIA ... IIC/Groups D ... A and B. Substances in the

IIC/A and B explosion groups require the lowest amount of ignition energy, and can
therefore be ignited relatively easily.

Since energy may be released when using some types of protection and during possible
electrostatic discharges, apparatus is labeled with the applicable subdivision.
Types of protection that release energy include “intrinsic safety“ and “flameproof/
explosion-proof enclosures.“ The type of protection “intrinsic safety“ allows for energy
to be released in form of sparks. The type of protection “flameproof/explosion-proof
enclosure“ provides a suitable enclosure design that allows energy to escape
via an interstice. In the latter case, each subdivision specifies the substance-specific
safe gap needed to prevent flashback for each apparatus.

37
Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liquids

Ignition Energy according to Explosion Group and Temperature Class

Explosion
Group Temperature Class
IEC NEC/ T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
CEC (> 450 °C) (> 300 °C) (> 200 °C) (> 145 °C) (> 100 °C) (> 85 °C)
IIA D Acetone Gasoline Hexane Acetal-
Ignition Energy

dehyde

Acetic acid Methanol Diesel fuel

no. 2

Methane Butane Fuel oil

Propane no. 2

Ammonia
Benzene
Toluene
IIB C Hydrogen Ethanol Hydrogen
cyanide Ethen sulfide

IIC B Hydrogen Carbon

disulfide

Table 14.  Examples of ignition energies of different explosion groups in connection with temperature classes.
Source: GESTIS

Maximum Explosion Overpressure

The maximum occurring explosion overpressure pmax of most organic gases and vapors
when mixed with air in atmospheric initial conditions is approximately 8 bar ... 10 bar.
In contrast to the maximum rate of explosion pressure rise, the maximum explosion
overpressure is not dependent on volume.

Maximum Rate of Explosion Pressure Rise

The maximum rate of explosion pressure rise of a substance indicates how rapidly
the explosion overpressure can build up in a reference container. Because this value
is volume-dependent, the cubic law applies. According to this law, the product
of the maximum rate of explosion and the cubic root of the volume is a constant (CL).

(dp/dt) max x V1/3 = CL

The CL value is the maximum rate of explosion pressure rise based on volume (e. g.,
1 cubic meter, or 20 liters). Transferring a CL value to other containers is, strictly speaking,
only possible if it has the same dimensions as the original.

The maximum explosion overpressure and the maximum rate of explosion pressure rise
are required as limit values in order to implement structural protective measures of
“explosion-proof design,“ “explosion pressure relief,“ and “explosion suppression.“

38
 Safety Parameters of Combustible Dusts

Safety Parameters of
Combustible Dusts
The following applies to combustible solid substances: The larger the surface area
of the fuel per unit of weight, the quicker the substance reacts with atmospheric oxygen.
Approximately 80 % of all industrially processed dusts are combustible and can--
depending on the grain size--form explosive mixtures in the air. For a dust explosion to be
possible, the dust must be distributed finely in the atmosphere, i. e., be dispersed, and exist
within defined concentration limits.

Deviating Explosion Behaviors of Dust and Gas

If a gas cloud is ignited, the resulting explosion pressure causes rapid propagation
of the combustion gases and therefore causes a dilution of the gas/air mixture that has not
yet burned. If the LEL is not reached because of this dilution, the explosion comes to
a standstill. If a dust cloud is ignited, the resulting explosion pressure causes
the dispersion of further dust layers that had previously been inactive. These new dust
clouds can extend to neighboring buildings and sections of the plant. At the same time,
the first explosion generates burning dust, which represents a “long-lasting“ ignition source
and triggers subsequent explosions. In unfavorable circumstances, this process
can repeat itself multiple times.

The formation of explosive dust/air mixtures can be prevented if the lower explosive limit
and the limiting oxygen concentration are not reached.
The ignition of explosive dust/air mixtures can be prevented if the ignition temperature

and the minimum ignition energy of the dispersed dust cloud are not reached.
At the same time, it must be ensured that the smolder temperature of the deposited dusts
is not reached.
The effects of an explosion are influenced by adjusting the corresponding protective

measures to the maximum explosion pressure and the maximum rate of pressure rise.

Especially regarding dusts, the plant operator must ensure that a sufficiently safe distance
is observed for every limit value. Only the plant operator knows the individual situation,
which is determined by the grain size and possible layer thickness of the dust deposits and
can determine and observe the limit values while taking these conditions into account.

39
Safety Parameters of Combustible Dusts

Due to these variables and in contrast to gases, no fixed temperature classes can be used
for dusts. To assess the hazards regarding dusts, the following safety parameters
for deposited dusts or dispersed dusts are examples of those used as a basis:

Grainsize
Smolder temperature
Minimum ignition temperature

These are described in detail in the following sections.

Grain Size

The grain size is often specified using the median value, which corresponds to
the average grain size. This means that 50 % of the dust is coarser by weight, and 50 %
is finer by weight than the given median value. During the processing and transportation of
coarse solids, dusts can be released. In general, dust with a grain size of over 400 μm
is classified as nonincendive. However, they have still caused explosions, e. g., when filling
silos. The reason for this is a fraction of the dust that has smaller particle sizes, which can
be attributed to abrasion caused by transportation or the addition of pollen. Because the
coarse content settles rapidly, and fine content remains in the air for longer, an explosive
dust cloud can separate from the dust when filling a silo.

Smolder Temperature

The smolder temperature of dust layers is the lowest temperature of a heated exposed
surface, on which a 5-mm thick layer of deposited dust ignites. The smolder temperature
is lower for thicker layers.

Minimum Ignition Temperature

The minimum ignition temperature relates to a dust cloud. It is the lowest temperature of a
hot surface determined under specified test conditions, at which the flammable mixture of
dust and air is ignited in an oven. For combustible dust, the minimum ignition temperature
of the dispersed dust/air cloud is compared to the maximum surface temperature
of a potential ignition source. Specified safety factors must be taken into account during
this process.

40
 Safety Parameters of Combustible Dusts

Dust Particle Sizes and Ignition Temperatures

Cloud ignition Layer smolder

Substance Median value [µm]
temperature temperature
Brown coal 50 410 250
Activated carbon 22 670 335
Milk powder 63 440 340
Carboxymethyl 24 350 310
cellulose

Table 15.  Median value, ignition temperature, and smolder temperature of different dusts.

Auto-Ignition Temperature

The auto-ignition temperature relates to a deposited dust layer, which ignites itself when
subjected to a thermal effect on all sides in the presence of air, without any other ignition
sources. Spontaneous ignition is caused if the rate of heat production of the oxidation
reaction or decomposition reaction is higher than the rate of heat loss from the dust layer.
The heat resulting from the reaction can also cause a low-temperature carbonization gas
that is able to form an explosive gas/air mixture.

Explosive Limits

As with gases, dusts are only explosive within defined concentration limits. Depending on
material and grain size, the amount of dust needed for the lower explosive limit is approxi-
mately 20 g/m3 ... 60 g/m3 air and for the upper explosive limit is approximately 
2 kg/m3 ... 6 kg/m3 air.

Exceeding the upper explosive limit for a prolonged period of time would prevent a dust
explosion, but only if the dispersed dust is not disturbed or displaced. However, this is not
practical, as the dust concentration within a cloud is not homogeneous. The upper dust
explosive limit is therefore of lesser importance with regard to safety-related
considerations.

Limiting Oxygen Concentration

As well as the addition of inert gases such as nitrogen, powdered inert materials such as
calcium sulfate, ammonium phosphate, sodium bicarbonate, powdered rock, or other
noncombustible substances can be used to reduce the risk of explosion. It is important
that the inert material(s) cannot react with the fuel.

For additional information see “Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liq-
uids,” p. 31.

41
Safety Parameters of Combustible Dusts

Minimum Ignition Energy

The minimum ignition energy (MIE) of combustible dusts is typically much higher than
those of gases and vapors. The MIE of the dust depends on the grain size, the surface
texture, and the material moisture.

Maximum Explosion Overpressure

For dusts, the maximum explosion overpressure pmax can be up to 14 bar in enclosed
containers.

For additional information see “Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liq-
uids,” p. 31.

Maximum Rate of Explosion Pressure Rise

For dusts, the constant for the maximum rate of rise is represented by KSt (rate of explosion
pressure rise and the cubed root of the volume.) Combustible dusts are assigned
3 graduated dust explosion classes according to their KSt value: St 1, St 2, and St 3.
KSt value [bar·m·s-1] Dust explosion class
...< 200 St 1
200 ≤ ... < 300 St 2
300 ≤ ... St 3
Table 16.  Maximum rate of pressure rise for each dust explosion class.

The dust explosion classes provide advice for selecting suitable protection concepts
regarding dust explosions and how protective measures for structural explosion protection
should be designed. Typical protective measures for structural explosion protection
are explosion-proof designs, explosion pressure relief, and explosion suppression.

For additional information see “Safety Parameters of Combustible Gases and Liq-
uids,” p. 31.

42
Safety Parameters of Combustible Dusts

43
Sources and References

Sources and References

Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitssicherheit (BAuA, German Federal Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health): Technische Regel für Betriebssicherheit (TRBS 2152 Teil
2): Vermeidung oder Einschränkung gefährlicher explosionsfähiger Atmosphäre (Techni-
cal rules for operational safety [TRBS 2152 part 2]: Avoidance or restriction of potentially
explosive atmospheres.) Germany, 2012.

EN 1127-1: 2011: Explosive atmospheres--Explosion prevention and protection--Part 1:

Basic concepts and methodology

EN 13821: 2003-03--Potentially explosive atmospheres--Explosion prevention

and protection--Determination of minimum ignition energy of dust/air mixtures

EN 14034-1: 2011-04--Determination of explosion characteristics of dust clouds--Part 1:

Determination of the maximum explosion pressure Pmax of dust clouds

EN 14034-2: 2011-04--Determination of explosion characteristics of dust clouds--Part 2:

Determination of the maximum rate of explosion pressure rise (dp/dt) max of dust clouds

EN 14034-3: 2011-04--Determination of explosion characteristics of dust clouds--Part 3:

Determination of the lower explosion limit LEL of dust clouds

EN 14034-4: 2011-04--Determination of explosion characteristics of dust clouds - Part 4:

Determination of the limiting oxygen concentration LOC of dust clouds

EN 14522: 2005-12--Determination of the auto ignition temperature of gases and vapors

EN 15967: 2011-10--Determination of maximum explosion pressure and the maximum rate

of pressure rise of gases and vapors

EN 1839: 2010-01--Determination of explosion limits of gases and gas/air mixtures

Information system on hazardous substances of the German Social Accident Insurance

(GESTIS): http://www.dguv.de/ifa/gestis/gestis-stoffdatenbank/index-2.jsp

Kühne AG (Switzerland)

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB, National Metrology Institute of Germany)

44
 Basic Compendiums by Pepperl+Fuchs

Basic Compendiums by
Pepperl+Fuchs
Pepperl+Fuchs, ed., Physical-technical principles--Terminology definitions, explosions,
examples, prerequisites, combustible substances and characteristic values,
ignition sources.

Pepperl+Fuchs, ed., Types of protection for electrical apparatus-Types of protection

for gas hazardous areas, functional principle, identification, specifics for use.

Pepperl+Fuchs, ed., Testing and maintenance--Testing and maintenance in accordance

with IEC/EN 60079-17.

Pepperl+Fuchs, ed., Type of protection intrinsic safety--Verification of intrinsic safety

particularly in fieldbus applications.

Pepperl+Fuchs, ed., Dust explosion protection--Types of protection for dust hazardous

areas, specifics of combustible dust, functional principle, identification, specifics for use.

Pepperl+Fuchs, ed., Installation in hazardous areas--DIN EN 60079-14: Electrical

installations in potentially hazardous atmospheres: design, selection, and erection.

Pepperl+Fuchs, ed., Rules and directives worldwide-- Legal regulations of regions and
countries for market access of explosion-protected equipment.

Pepperl+Fuchs, ed., Repair of explosion-protected apparatus--Repair in accordance

with IEC/EN 60079-19.

Pepperl+Fuchs, ed., Nonelectric explosion protection: Specifics of nonelectric equipment,

ignition hazard assessment, types of protection, identification.

45
Index

Index
Symbols equipment categories and zones����������������������� 20
2014/34/EU������������������������������������������������������� 16 equipment design resistant to explosion
pressure������������������������������������������������������������ 22
A equipment design resistant to explosion
pressure shock�������������������������������������������������� 22
aerosol�������������������������������������������������������������� 29 explosion behavior of substances��������������������� 25
atmospheric conditions������������������������������������� 11 explosion group�������������������������������������������� 27, 33
auto-ignition temperature, dust�������������������������� 37 explosion groups of equipment������������������������� 21
avoiding gas/air mixture ignition������������������������ 27 explosion hazardous areas������������������������������� 18
avoiding gas/air mixtures����������������������������������� 27 explosion overpressure, maximum�������������������� 27
explosion overpressure pmax������������������������������ 34
B explosion point, lower, LEP������������������������������� 31
BGR 104����������������������������������������������������������� 16 explosion pressure relief����������������������������������� 23
boiling point������������������������������������������������������� 28 explosion pressure rise, maximum���������� 26, 27, 34
explosion propagation of dusts�������������������������� 24
C explosion propagation of gases������������������������� 23
explosions���������������������������������������������������������� 8
characteristics, substances������������������������������� 25 explosion suppression�������������������������������������� 23
coal dust����������������������������������������������������������� 26 explosion triangle����������������������������������������������� 9
coke oven plant�������������������������������������������������� 8 explosive limit, lower����������������������������������������� 27
combustible dusts��������������������������������������������� 35 explosive limit, lower, LEL��������������������������������� 29
combustible substance�������������������������������������� 9 explosive limits, dust����������������������������������������� 37
combustion triangle�������������������������������������������� 9 explosive limit, upper����������������������������������������� 27
condensation���������������������������������������������������� 28 explosive limit, upper, UEL�������������������������������� 29
explosive substances����������������������������������������� 8
D
degree of dispersion����������������������������������������� 11 F
dust, auto-ignition temperature�������������������������� 37 features, substances����������������������������������������� 25
dust cloud, ignition characteristics�������������������� 35 flash point������������������������������������������� 12, 27, 28, 29
dust explosion class������������������������������������������ 39 flash point, definition����������������������������������������� 30
dust, explosive limits����������������������������������������� 37
dust, grain size�������������������������������������������������� 36 G
dust group���������������������������������������������������������� 8
dust, limiting oxygen concentration������������������� 37 gas, boiling point����������������������������������������������� 28
dust, maximum explosion overpressure������������ 38 gas clouds, ignition characteristics�������������������� 35
dust, maximum explosion pressure rise������������ 38 gaseous state���������������������������������������������������� 28
dust, minimum ignition energy��������������������������� 38 gas group����������������������������������������������������������� 8
dust, minimum ignition temperature������������������� 36 grain size, dust�������������������������������������������������� 36
dust, smolder temperature�������������������������������� 36
I
E IEC��������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
EN 1127‑1���������������������������������������������������������� 19 IEC/EN 60079‑0������������������������������������������������ 11
EN 14034-2 2011-04������������������������������������������ 26 IEC/EN 60079‑10���������������������������������������������� 16
EN 15967 2011-10��������������������������������������������� 26 IEC/EN 60079-14:2013�������������������������������������� 13
energy release, controlled��������������������������������� 33 ignition behavior of substances������������������������� 25

46
 Index

ignition curve, typical���������������������������������������� 30

ignition energy�����������������������������������������������9, 33
R
ignition sources������������������������������������������������� 19 rate of combustion��������������������������������������������� 10
ignition temperature������������������������������������� 27, 29
ignition triangle��������������������������������������������������� 9 S
IIA, IIB, IIC��������������������������������������������������������� 33 safety parameters safety parameters , SP��������� 25
International Electrotechnical Commission��������� 8 safety parameters, SP dust������������������������������� 35
secondary explosion protection�������������������� 13, 18
L shock wave������������������������������������������������������� 10
LEL������������������������������������������������������������������� 27 smolder temperature, dust�������������������������������� 36
limiting oxygen concentration����������������������� 27, 31 spontaneous explosions������������������������������������� 8
limiting oxygen concentration, dust������������������� 37 spraying������������������������������������������������������������ 29
limiting oxygen concentration, LOC������������������� 13 St 1������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
liquid����������������������������������������������������������������� 28 ST 2������������������������������������������������������������������ 38
liquid, combustible�������������������������������������������� 28 ST 3������������������������������������������������������������������ 38
liquid state��������������������������������������������������������� 28 STOP principle�������������������������������������������������� 13
lower explosion limit, LEL���������������������������������� 11 structural explosion protection�������������������������� 13
surface mining, explosion group II���������������������� 8
M surface temperatures of equipment������������������� 21

maximum explosion overpressure, dust������������ 38

maximum explosion pressure rise, dust������������ 38
T
measuring techniques, standardized����������������� 26 temperature class��������������������������������������������� 31
methane������������������������������������������������������������ 26 temperature classes of equipment�������������������� 20
methane explosion��������������������������������������������� 8 tertiary explosion protection������������������������� 13, 22
minimum ignition energy, definition������������������� 32 TRBS 2152‑2����������������������������������������������������� 16
minimum ignition energy, dust��������������������������� 38 TRGS 725:2016������������������������������������������������� 16
minimum ignition energy, MIE��������������������������� 27 types of protection, emergence of���������������������� 7
minimum ignition temperature, definition����������� 31
minimum ignition temperature, dust������������������� 36 U
mining, explosion����������������������������������������������� 7 UEL������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
mining, explosion group I����������������������������������� 8 upper explosion limit, UEL��������������������������������� 11

O V
oxidizer�������������������������������������������������������������� 9 vaporization������������������������������������������������������ 28
oxygen content�������������������������������������������������� 13
Z
P
zone classification��������������������������������������������� 18
physical-chemical behavior of substances�������� 25
potentially explosive atmosphere������������������11, 18
potentially hazardous quantities������������������������ 12
pressure wave��������������������������������������������������� 10
primary explosion protection������������������������ 13, 14
propagation speed�������������������������������������������� 10
protective measures������������������������������������������ 13

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