MODULE #4 : ARGUMENTS AND FALLACIES
Fallacies of Reasoning
Fallacy is an erroneous reasoning that has the appearance of soundness.
There are two types of fallacy: formal and informal fallacy. On the one hand, formal fallacy
is identified through discrepancies in syllogistic patterns and terms. On the other hand,
informal fallacy is identified by further analysis and delving deeper into the flesh of the
arguments in order to see the illogical patterns.
Fallacy Definition Examples
Appeal to Pity A specific kind of appeal to 1. I know we don't love each other. But,
emotion in which someone tries if we don't get married it will crush
(Ad my mother. You know she has a
to win support for an argument weak heart. Do you really want to do
Misericordiam)
or idea by exploiting his or her that to her?
opponents feelings of pity or 2. If we don't adopt that puppy today,
guilt. they might put him down. Do you
want to be responsible for that?
Appeal to The fallacy that a proposition is 1. That face cream can't be good. Kim
Kardashian is selling it.
Ignorance (Ad true simply on the basis that it
2. Don't listen to Dave's argument on
Ignorantiam) has not been proven false or that gun control. He's not the brightest
it is false simply because it has bulb in the chandelier.
not been proven true.
Appeal to An appeal to the testimony of an 1. Richard Dawkins, an evolutionary
Inappropriate authority outside the authoritys biologist and perhaps the foremost
expert in the field, says that
Authority field of expertise evolution is true. Therefore, it's true.
2. Someone argues that drinking is
morally wrong and cites a sermon
from her pastor at church.
Appeal to Popular The fallacy of attempting to win 1. Gold is valuable because many
Belief (Ad popular assent to a conclusion by people pay for it.
2. Most people would agree that it is
Populum) arousing the feeling and improper to talk in the cinema
enthusiasm of the multitude during a movie, so don't do it
False Cause (Post This is the fallacy of arguing that 1. Our soccer team was losing until I
bought new shoes. We have not lost
Hoc) one event was caused by another
a game since I got my lucky shoes!
event merely because it occurred 2. I sneezed at the same time the
after that event. power went off. My sneeze did
something to make the power go
off.
Hasty This fallacy is committed when a 1. Three out of four schoolteachers
Generalization person draws a conclusion about prefer Bright Marks Markers, but I
only asked four teachers intotal.
a population based on a sample 2. Christine has a terrible experience
that is not large enough with a boyfriend. She decides that all
boys are mean.
False Dilemma Since that event followed this 1. You are for us, or you are against us.
2. I thought you cared about other
(False one, that event must have been
people, but I didn't see you at the
alternatives) caused by this one. fundraiser for the Harris Family.
Begging the A fallacy in which the premises 1. Everyone wants the new iPhone
because it is the hottest new gadget
Question (Petitio include the claim that the
on the market!
Principi) conclusion is true or (directly or 2. God is real because the Bible says so,
indirectly) assume that the and the Bible is from God.
conclusion is true
Slippery Slope A fallacy in which a person 1. If we allow the principal to change
asserts that some event must the date of the homecoming dance,
what's next? He's going to want to
inevitably follow from another cancel the dance altogether!
without any argument of 2. If we vote that it's okay for them to
inevitability or the event on raise the tuition at state universities,
question then they will raise it by thousands
of dollars every single year and
professors will double their salaries
Argumentum Ad This fallacy attempts to link the 1. A mother says that she does not
trust her pediatrician because he has
Hominem validity of a premise to
never been a mother.
characteristic or belief of the 2. A commercial for cat food shows a
person advocating the premise. cat lovingly rubbing her owners face
after eating a specific brand of food.
Argumentum Ad An argument where force, 1. If you don’t accept that the Sun
orbits the Earth, rather than the
Baculum coercion, or the threat of force, is
other way around, then you’ll be
given as a justification for a excommunicated from the Church.
conclusion.
Strawman fallacy Is committed when a person 1. Biology teacher begins teaching
evolution by stating that all things
simply ignores a person’s actual
evolve. Student says she just cannot
position and substitutes a accept that humans came from
distorted, exaggerated, or bugs.
misrepresented version of that 2. Student tells his professor that he
position thinks some of Donald Trump's
positions have merit. Professor says
he can't believe that the student
believes in support racism.
Red Herring Is committed when a person 1. Political candidate lays out his plan
introduces another topic or for economic stimulus, and his
opponent begins to talk about his tax
argument just to escape or records and how he has misled the
distract from what is being public.
discussed 2. A man who has cheated on his
spouse is confronted by a friend who
tells him that it is wrong. The man
begins to talk about right versus
wrong and who decides.
