S T R U C T U R A L A N A L Y S I S

Just because its tough, you wont do it? Rising up, straight to the top Have the guts, got the glory Went the distance; now I am not gonna stop Just a man and his will to survive Eye of the tiger, Rocky

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Solid Waste Management

Municipal Solid Waste

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Municipal Solid Waste: Topic: Characteristics, generation, collection and transportation of solid wastes, engineered systems for solid waste management (reuse/ recycle energy recovery, treatment and disposal).

Solid Waste Definition:

Waste arising from human and animal activities that are normally in solid nature and are discarded as useless. Per capita waste generation in major Indian cities ranges from 0.20 Kg to 0.6 Kg per person per day. Types of Solid Waste: Three general categories of solid wastes are a) Municipal Solid waste (MSW) b) Industrial Solid waste c) Hazardous Waste a) Municipal Solid waste: Municipal waste includes waste resulting from municipal activities and services such as street sweepings, dead animals, market waste and abandoned vehicles. Generally, this term Municipal Waste is used in a wider sense to incorporate domestic wastes, institutional wastes and commercial wastes. Municipal Solid waste comprising the wastes of food, rubbish material, ashes and residues, construction wastes, special wastes and treatment plant waste b) Industrial Solid waste: The discarded solid material of manufacturing processes and industrial operations comes in this category. There is a vast range of substances that are unique for each industry so they are considered separately from municipal wastes. c) Hazardous Waste: Hazardous waste is defined as wastes of industrial, instutional or consumer origin that, because of their physical, chemical or biological characteristics are potentially dangerous to human beings and the environment. In some cases the active agents may be liquid or gaseous, they are classified as solid waste because they are confined in solid containers. Typical examples are solvents, paints, and pesticides whose spent (empty) containers are frequently mixed with municipal wastes and become part of the urban waste stream. Certain hazardous waste can explode in the incinerators (controlled large kilns) and cause fires at land fill sites. Others such as pathological (disease producing) wastes from hospitals and radioactive waste, require special handling at all times.

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Solid Waste Management

Classification of Solid Waste in Tabular Form

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Solid Waste Management

COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE:

The composition and characteristics of municipal solid waste is not same throughout the world and even in the same country it changes from place to place and time to time. It depends upon the living standard, social customs, location of a place, climate and weather conditions etc. Higher is the standard of living, more is the waste produced. Alongwith the total quantity of waste produced, the composition of waste is also different for different income groups. Typical Composition of MSW is as follows: Components % by Mass Food Waste 6-26 Paper 15-45 Cardboard 3-15 Plastics 2-8 Textile 0-4 Rubber 0-2 Leather 0-2 Garden Trimming 0-20 Wood 1-4 Misc Organics 0-5 Glass 4-16 Tin Cans 2-8 NonFerrous metals 0-1 Ferrous Metals 1-4 Dirt, Ashes, Brick etc 0-10 The chemical characteristics indicate that as the inert matter increases with increase in population its alorific value decreases. So there are many interrelated factors which make it difficult to predict the composition and characteristics of the solid waste of any city, it is better to take sufficient sample and analyze them for a long time before conceiving any treatment/disposal or energy extraction project.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Density: The knowledge of density is important for the design of all elements of the solid waste management systems like storage, transport and disposal. For example for a known volume of the solid waste its density gives us the idea about the requirement of the truck in tonnage. Moisture content: Moisture content of the solid waste is expressed as the weight of moisture per unit weight of wet material. Moisture content varies generally from 20 to 45% depending upon the climatic conditions and level of city (income group) etc. The increase of moisture content increases the weight and thus the cost of transportation and thus the storage section should take care of it. Calorific value: Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from combustion of a unit weight of a substance, expressed as kilo calorie per kilogram. The calorific value is determined in the laboratory by Bomb

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Calorimeter. If the energy is to be recovered or the waste is to be disposed, by incineration (controlled burning) the following points should be considered: Organic matter gives energy only in dry condition. The moisture content as free water reduces the dry organic matter per kilogram and hence requires a significant amount of energy for evaporation. The ash content of the waste reduces the proportion of dry organic material per kilogram of waste. It also retains some heat. So for economical recovery of energy the waste should contain minimum amount of moisture, ash and other inorganic matter. These are the significance of determination of physical characteristics.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
The chemical characteristics of solid waste are determined for assessing the treatment process. Mainly three chemical characteristics are determined, chemical, bio-chemical and toxicological. Chemical quantities of solid waste in Indian urban centres are pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K), total carbon, carbon/nitrogen ratio, calorific value. Bio-chemical characteristics include carbohydrate, proteins, natural fiber, and biodegradable factor. Toxic characteristics include heavy metals, pesticides, insecticides etc.

WASTE MANAGEMENT APPROACH:

The solid waste management has a twofold approach. First is the minimization of waste at the source and other is the control on environmental pollution during its storage, conveyance and disposal.

That is, source reduction as the most preferred method, followed by reuse, recycle/recovery, treatment, and the least preferred method being disposal as depicted in the following flow chart:

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most preferred

SOURCE REDUCTION REUSE

RECYCLE/RECOV ERY TREATMENT Thermal Chemical Biological Physical least preferred

DISPOSAL

Figure 1: Flow chart of the waste management hierarchy. Summaries of each component of the hierarchy have been provided below to help parties understand the Boards perspective on the waste management hierarchy. Source Reduction Source reduction is the elimination or decrease, to the extent practical, of the volume/mass or toxicity of waste generated by using alternative materials or processes. This may be the most effective, proactive and potentially cost-reducing method of waste management as it reduces the amount of waste that has to be managed. This can be accomplished by, but not limited to: (a) Material elimination; (b) Inventory control and management; (c) Material substitution; (d) Process modification; and, (e) Improved housekeeping, maintenance, and/or training.

Reuse Reuse is the use of a product more than once for the same or different purpose, either on-site or off-site. An example is the reuse of an empty plastic pail to store or separate items in a garage.
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Solid Waste Management In this case, the pail is still used as a storage container. Alternatively, the pail could be used to hold up a sign by filling the pail with sand/gravel. In this case, the pails function has changed from its initial purpose. Another example is the reuse of used oil as fuel for space heating (note that the oil may require testing before burning in an approved burner). The examples provided above are for a case where a waste product is reused on-site. If the waste product has an alternative application, it could be shipped off-site for reuse in another industry. Prior to the reuse of any type of waste, it should be verified that the reuse of the waste is appropriate and will not cause a negative effect to the environment. Recycle/Recovery Recycle/recovery is the process by which materials otherwise destined for treatment or disposal are collected, processed, and/or remanufactured into the same or different product either on-site or off-site. An example of recycle/recovery is scrap metal that is separated from a waste source, consolidated, and shipped from site for reprocessing to make a new product. Backhauling of recyclable material on an empty truck or plane is encouraged. Treatment Treatment of waste is a method to reduce the volume, mass and/or toxicity prior to disposal. Common methods of treatment are thermal, physical, chemical, biological, and physical processes. Thermal Thermal treatment is the application of heat onto waste. Combustion can transform the waste to ash (and gases) and therefore reduce the bulkiness of the waste (i.e., occupy less volume) and reduce the mass. One method of combustion includes the use of an incinerator that is optimized to have a controlled burn and temperature so as to reduce production of toxins, and potentially allow for control on gaseous emissions. Another form of combustion is open burning. Open burning is not a controlled burn and therefore should be limited to materials that will not result in the production of toxic by-products and used only when absolutely necessary. Chemical Chemical treatment is the process of transforming waste to another form or reducing the toxicity through a chemical process. An example of chemical treatment is the addition of lime to acidic mine waters to neutralize the water and precipitate metals. Biological Biological treatment is the process of transforming waste to another form or reducing the toxicity through a biological process. Land farming and phytoremediation are examples of biological treatment that involve reduction of contaminant concentrations from impacted soil by microorganisms. Physical Physical treatment is the process of transforming waste to another form or reducing the toxicity through a physical process, such as filtration, flotation, gravity separation, adsorption and other techniques. Whereas biological, thermal, and chemical treatments often destroy toxic chemical
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Solid Waste Management constituents of waste, physical treatment does not. Instead physical treatment typically results in a waste stream that is easier to manage. For example, the removal of suspended particles in water within a settling pond may result in the release of cleaner decant water. The sludge remaining within a settling pond may need to be managed further as a waste product that is generated within the physical treatment process.
The most common methods of energy recovery and disposal for non hazardous solid waste are ncineration, composting and landfill. The final disposal of waste should be done in such a way that it remains a waste in actual sense, i.e. nothing can be recovered out of it and it could not be used any where. So before putting it on land for landfilling if it has a substantial portion of biodegradable fraction then compost (organic manure) should be made out of it. This shall reduce the final volume of the waste to be disposed on land and shall give us money in terms of the manure. The organic manure is environment friendly and also provides us micronutrients that increase the fertility of the soil. If this work is done more effectively by some special worms this is known as vermi-composting. 4.8.5.1 Incineration Incineration means burning of solid waste in controlled conditions. The most usual practice of disposal of solid waste is burning in open fields. This slow burning at low temperature produces many hazardous gases. Generally the waste is collected in the streets or roads and the heap of this waste is left there itself for drying or collection of more waste on it. Then this waste is either transported to some distant site or burnt there itself. This waste contains inorganic matter also and because of this burning in heaps there is no control of supply of oxygen or rather there is no oxygen supply except that present in the voids. This incomplete combustion at a low temperature produces hazardous gases and these gases pollute the environment very close to us. Particularly the gases produced by the burning of plastic, rubber and other such materials produce very much harmful gases. Incinerator means any enclosed device using controlled flame combustion. Incineration uses heat to convert complex toxic organic compounds into mostly carbon dioxide and water. At temperatures ranging from 400 to 1600C complex organic molecules break down into basic atoms. The incineration is a good method of disposal and recovery of energy (in the form of heat produced by burning) only if it works properly. The combustion temperatures of conventional incinerators are about 760 C in the furnace and more than 870 C in the secondary combustion chamber. These high temperature are required to avoid odour from incomplete combustion but are not sufficient to burn or even melt the glass. Some modern incinerators use supplementary fuel to produce high temperatures upto 1650 C to convert even metal and glass to ashes. These incinerators reduce waste volume significantly i.e. upto 97%. There are so many factors like thermal feed rate, waste feed rate, organic chlorine feed rate, minimum combustion gas temperature, gas residence time, adjustment of primary and secondary combustion units, removal of HCl, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and other air pollutants produced; that are to be controlled. Actually, the incineration is best way of disposing hazardous waste, like hospital and other wastes. The incineration is definitely better than open burning but as stated earlier if it is not properly working, with all controls, then it can prove to be more dangerous, as it gasifies the pollutants and sends them to the atmosphere. In general incinerators comprise of a storage pit, fuel tanks, a furnace, a heat recovery boiler, effluent gas purification unit, an induced draft fan and a stack (chimney).Though incineration is extensively used as a useful method of waste disposal, it is associated with some polluting discharges which are of environmental concern. These can effectively be controlled by installing suitable pollution control measures and by construction of furnace suitably and by controlling the combustion process. For the removal of SPM from the effluent gas a scrubbing water treatment unit or even Electro Static Precipitators are used in good installations.

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4.8.5.2 Landfill The most common and easy way of disposal of solid waste is dumping it on land. The inorganic waste like construction and demolition waste can be easily used for filling of low lying areas or plinth filling of buildings or the earthwork of roads. When the combined waste (inorganic and organic) is disposed on the land then the decomposition of the organic matter takes place in due course of time. This decomposition produces gases (like methane) and dark coloured dirty offensive water known as leachate. If the ground on which the waste is disposed is pervious then this leachate percolates and mixes with the ground water and badly pollutes it. If the waste is hazardous means that contains harmful chemicals and heavy metals, or pathogens then the situation becomes more aggravated. The mixing of these pollutant through leachate makes the water polluted and contaminated. Secondly in open landfills the rain water increases the volume of leachate and mixes it with the ground or surface water source more easily. So the landfill should be so designed that it contains an impermeable barrier to stop the mixing of leachate with the water. It should have a diversion for the rain water and proper arrangement of the collection treatment and disposal of leachate. Such type of landfill is known as the sanitary landfill and are the most desirable ones. They may appear costly, but for long lifetime of such works and comparing the end results the cost/ton of waste disposed might be less than any other method of disposal. 4.8.5.3 Composting The organic matter (consisting of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur) has a tendency of being converted into inorganic matter as the later is a stable form. The food, excreta and other organic waste gets decomposed (changed into inorganic form) and produce gases like biogas (mainly methane) and solids of decomposition like sulfates, nitrates, phosphates etc. These solid (nutrient) are extracted by the roots of plants and trees in dissolved form and they again produce the organic matter in the form of their products. Those products come in the food chain and again the organic waste is produced. This way the different natural cycles keep on proceeding. Composting is an organized method of producing compost manure (decomposed organic matter) through this natural phenomenon. Compost is more useful as it contains the nutrients like N, P, K as well as the micronutrients. Micronutrients like iron are very much useful for good health and immunity. As the organic matter can be decomposed in two ways i.e. in the presence of oxygen or in the absence of oxygen, composting can be done aerobically or anaerobically. During aerobic composting aerobic micro-organisms oxidize the organic compounds to carbon dioxide, nitrite and nitrates. The reaction is exothermic and the temperature rises. The nitrates, sulfates etc. are used by the plants and carbon is synthesized in the photosynthesis by the plants. In the anaerobic process the anaerobic bacteria, while metabolizing the nutrients, break down the organic compounds through a process of reduction. The gases evolved are mainly CH4 and CO2 (bio-gas). If collected properly as in a biogas plant the gas can be used for heating or even for driving engines. The composting can be done to the collected organic waste at some site or at the individual house hold.

4.8.5.3.1 Vermi-composting In the case of households or colonies vermi-composting which involves the stabilization of organic solid waste through special earthworm by conversion of the organic matter to worm casting is also done. Vermicomposting involves the culture of earthworms(vermiculture) for the stabilization of different variety of organic solid waste. Earthworms feed on any organic waste and consume two to five times of their body weight, excrete the mucus coated undigested matter as wormcasts. Wormcasts consists of organic matter that has undergone physical and chemical breakdown through the muscular activity that grinds the material to a particle size of 1 to 3 micron. The nutrient present in the wormcast are easily soluble in water and are thus readily available for the plant growth. Vermi-composting is a rich source of macro and micronutrients, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics and hormones. As per the MSWM the vermi-composting involves the stabilization of organic solid waste through earthworm consumption which converts the material into worm castings. Vermi-composting is the result
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of combined activity of micro-organisms and earthworms. Microbiological decomposition of biodegradable organic matter occurs through extracellular enzymatic activities (primary decomposition) whereas decomposition in earthworm occurs in alimentary tract by micro-organisms inhabiting the gut (secondary decomposition). Microbes such as fungi, actinomycetes, protozoa etc. are reported to inhabit the gut of earthworms. Ingested feed substrates are subjected to grinding in the anterior part of the worms gut (gizzard) resulting in particle size reduction. Vermitechnology, a tripartite system which involves biomass, microbes and earthworm as influenced by the abiotic factors like temperature, moisture and aeration etc. Microbial ecology changes according to change of abiotic factors in the biomass but decomposition never ceases. Conditions unfavorable to aerobic decomposition result in the death of earthworms and subsequently on vermi-composting occurs. Hence, preprocessing of the waste as well as providing favourable environmental condition is necessary for vermi-composting. The vermi-compost (manure) is relatively more stabilized and harmonises with soil system without any ill effects. Unfavourable conditions such as particle size of biomass and extent of its decomposition, very high temperature increase, anaerobic condition, toxicity of decomposition products, etc. matter much for the activity and progress of worms. This technology has been used for agriculture waste and is used on organic municipal solid waste also. The worms are special earthworms known as Pheretima sp, Eisenia sp, and Perionyx excavatus sp. These worms survive in the temperature range of 20-40oC and moisture range of 20-80%. The worms do not survive in pure organic substrate containing more than 40% fermentable organic substances. So fresh waste is mixed with partially or fully stabilized waste before it is subjected to vermi-composting. The worms are also adversely affected by high concentrations of such heavy metals as cadmium, chromium, lead and zinc. Due to these problems the vermi-composting is successful more on the household level (vegetables etc, organic waste) than the municipality level.

4.9 ENERGY RECOVERY FROM MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

The municipal solid waste contains organic (vegetables, food etc.) as well as inorganic matter (dust, dirt etc.). It is desirable that the energy present in its organic portion can be recovered through suitable processing and treatment technologies. Alongwith the gain of energy the following benefits are also there: (i) The total quantity of waste gets reduced by nearly 60 to 90% depending upon the characteristics of waste and the adopted process. (ii) As the quantity reduces the demand for land required for landfill as disposal also reduces. (iii) The cost of transportation also reduces as the quantity reduces. (iv) The overall environmental pollution reduces. Therefore, the energy recovery is as useful as the reuse and recycle of waste at the source. Following are the basic techniques of energy recovery as per the MSWM: (i) Thermo-chemical conversion: This process entails thermal decomposition of organic matter to produce either heat energy or fuel oil or gas; and (ii) Bio chemical conversion: This process is based on enzymatic decomposition of organic matter by microbiological action to produce methane gas or alcohol. The thermo-chemical conversion processes are useful for wastes containing high percentage of organic non-biodegradable matter and low moisture content. The main technological option in this category include Incineration (already explained) and Pyrolysis/ Gasification. The biochemical conversion processes, are preferred for wastes having high percentage of organic bio-degradable (putrescible) matter
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and high moisture content. The main technological option under this category is Anaerobic Digestion also known as Biomethanation.

4.9.1 Parameters Affecting Energy Recovery The main parameters that determine the potential of recovery of energy from waste are physical and chemical characteristics of waste and the recovery of energy also depends upon the process employed. The main physical parameters are: Size of constituent Density Moisture content Smaller size of the constituents aids in faster decomposition of the waste due to more specific area. Waste of high density shows a high proportion of biodegradable organic matter whereas the low density indicates the higher presence of paper plastic etc. High moisture content causes biodegradable waste fraction to decompose more rapidly than in dry conditions. The high moisture content makes the waste rather unsuitable for thermo-chemical conversion (like incineration, pyrolysis, gasification) for energy recovery as a major amount of heat is wasted in evaporating the moisture. The important chemical parameters for determining the energy recovery potential and the suitability of waste treatment through bio-chemical or thermo-chemical conversion are as follows: Volatile solids Fixed carbon content Calorific value Carbon and nitrogen ratio Toxicity Inerts For different processes of energy recovery the desirable range for different parameters is shown in the table given below. Generally for achieving satisfactory extraction of energy sorting, segregation and addition of required parameters is necessary.
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Table 4.8 Desirable Range of important Waste Parameters for Technical Viability of Energy Recovery ( source manual on MSWM) Waste treatment Basic principle Important waste Desirable range method parameters (suitably processed waste) Thermo-chemical Decomposition of Moisture content < 45% Conversion organic matter by Organic/Volatile > 40% action of heat matter Incineration pyrolysis Fixed carbon < 15% gasification Total Inerts < 35% Net-calorific value > 1200 kcal/kg Bio-chemical Decomposition Moisture content > 50% conversion of organic matter Organic-Volatile > 40% by microbial action matter Anaerobic digestion/ C/N ratio 2530 bio-methanation

Like this energy can be recovered from the solid waste which reduces the volume also and makes the waste suitable for final disposal. Now the final disposal may be as landfill, but it has also to be done in such a way to protect the environment from its bad effects (like leachates etc.). That is known as sanitary landfill.

4.10 SANITARY LANDFILL

The term Landfill means a unit operation for final disposal of municipal solid waste on land, that is designed and constructed with the objective of minimum impact on the environment. The term sanitary landfill is used for a landfill with the provision of
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liner (protective layer) and leachate collection system to prevent ground water contamination. Landfilling is done for the mixed waste, that is not hazardous but not found suitable for waste processing, and recycling. Land fill is not suggested for biowaste as energy can be recovered out of it and its decomposition in the landfill shall produce leachates. Actually landfilling should be used as the final disposal method and should be adopted for the waste from which the recycling is not possible and economic extraction of energy is also not possible. Sometimes it is useful for hazardous waste disposal, but then it has to be done very carefully. The following are the essential components of a MSW landfill as per the manual on MSWM: (i) A liner system at the base and sides of the landfill which prevents migration of leachate or gas to the surroundings soil. (ii) A leachate collection and control facility which collects and extracts within and from the base of the landfill and then treats the leachate. (iii) A gas collection and control facility which collects and extracts gas from within and from the top of the landfill and then treats it or uses it for energy recovery. (iv) A final cover system at the top of the landfill which enhances surface drainage, prevents infiltrating water and supports surface vegetation.
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(v) A surface water drainage system which collects and removes all surface runoff from the landfill site. (vi) An environmental monitoring system which periodically collects and analyses air, surface water, soil-gas and ground water samples around the landfill site. (vii) A closure and post closure plan which lists the steps that must be taken to close and secure a landfill site once the filling operation has been completed and the activities for long term monitoring, operation and maintenance of the completed landfill.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: AN OVERVIEW

The solid waste management has the following components: (i) Identification of waste and its minimization at the source (ii) Collection, segregation and storage at the site of collection (iii) Transportation (iv) Treatment (v) Energy recovery (vi) Disposal 4.8.1 Identification of Waste and its Minimization at the Source By the above described classification methods one can identify the waste easily. Identification helps in further processes of transportation, treatment and disposal, for example the hazardous waste is to be tackled in a different manner than the ordinary MSW. The minimization of the waste production is the best strategy. For this, first of all the process should be such that there is a least production of waste. For example if in a footwear making industry if the cut on the rubber sheet is made in such a way that alternate piece of the pair are placed one by the side of other; there shall be least production of waste sheet. Then the next step is to reuse the remaining waste sheet in the same process. But now there is a limit beyond which this cannot be used to maintain the required quality. This further remaining portion of the sheet comes as real waste to this process of footwear making. Now if a toy making machine is installed
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in the same factory which can use this remaining rubber sheet as the raw material. Then there shall be no waste production in the first factory and only the second unit shall produce some waste. Thus, the waste has been minimized at the source. This reduces the cost of transportation etc. everything. The second example is the production of flyash as the waste in the thermal power plants. A huge quantity of flyash is produced where coal is burnt for making electricity.

4.8.2 Collection, Segregation and Storage at the Site of Collection The main problem of solid waste management is the collection of solid waste. The household waste consists of all types of general waste. At present there is no scientific, clean, hygienic, efficient practice of waste collection in most of the cities of India including the metro cities. There is no practically imposed penalty on throwing of waste on the streets. Even defecating on open plots, sides of roads, railway lines; spitting on roads is a very common practice and nobody bothers about it. The ugly unhygienic scenes, and the bad smell (due to anaerobic digestion of organic matter) worsen the situation. Actually we are in a bad habit of either throwing the waste in front of the neighbors door, or on a vacant land or directly on the road. Even if the municipality provides a waste collection bin, nobody bothers to put the waste carefully in it. So the collection of waste is a big problem. In most of the developing countries the waste is handled manually. First of all the sweepers sweep the roads, streets etc. with their age old brooms (with poor designs). Then they will make heaps of the collected waste. The other person then lifts this collected waste to some ill maintained wheel barrows and transport it to the collection depots and make a heap there. Then the rag-pickers shall start their work and pick only most useful items to them as the thick plastic bags or metal if any. The stray animals like dogs, cows, pigs shall find their food from this heap and scatter it on the collectyon site. Then it shall be manually picked up at some irregular interval, transported in open tractor trolleys and then disposed off on some open land.
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The industrial waste is also handled in the same way. The collection and storage of waste is the most neglected operation in any industry. The wastewater having harmful colours, dyes, metals, heavy metals, organic matter (having high BOD) is discharged in the open drains to pollute the land and the river water. Similarly, the solid waste is thrown in open areas wherever the nearest site is available (may it be unguarded private land or government land). The best way would have been the segregation of waste at the generation point. Segregation means collecting it in different bins, or plastic bags. The domestic waste can be broadly separated as reusable (paper, plastic, metal etc.), and non reusable. The non reusable may have organic matter like kitchen waste or inorganic matter like dust, dirt etc. The organic matter is liable to decomposition (putrescible) and thus requires immediate attention. Fortunately in India the usable matter is rarely discarded as solid waste except which cannot be sold to kabaries. So even if only two containers or bags are used for separating organic and inorganic waste the problem is solved. This separated waste should be regularly collected by the worker directly from the houses at some well defined time. Then it should be transported in (covered vehicles)to some waste collection depots for utilization/transportation to different sites. The organic waste can be used for the production of biogas or for the extraction of energy, incineration (controlled burning or making organic compost, and vermi-composting. The storage in the intermediate collection sites should again be covered and out of the reach of the stray animals. Here it is proposed to make payment to the person collecting waste on the
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basis of the weight/volume of the waste collected by him/her and not on the daily basis. Here lies the actual problem. Because of the structure of the local municipal corporations and many other pressures this is generally not feasible. This is possible only if this work is given on contract basis and the work is done in a scientific professional way with the peoples participation (segregation and proper handing over of the waste). 4.8.3 Transportation of Solid Waste As stated earlier the waste is transported from the storage depots to the disposal sites in tractor trollies or ill designed open trucks. Though it has been instructed by the Honble court that the transportation must be done in closed containers only. The industrial waste must be transported separately and must be disposed in a safe way after suitable treatment. Any type of the hazardous waste should be labeled and coded so that in case of an accident the emergency services know how to handle a spillage. Actually the work of transportation of solid waste must be done through the technically competent and well reputed contractors under the strict supervision of the experienced and honest municipal authorities and watchful citizens. 4.8.4 Treatment of Solid Waste The waste has to be treated before disposal for the protection of environment. In the treatment the biodegradable waste can be processed by composting, vermi-composting, anaerobic digestion or any other appropriate biological processing for stabilization of waste. Actually every organic matter has a tendency to be converted into inorganic matter as the later is a stabilized form. If this conversion takes place in absence of oxygen (anaerobic digestion) which is a general case in solid waste processing, foul gases are evolved. During the anaerobic decomposition dirty, offensive dark coloured fluid is also generated that is known as the leachate. Generally the solid waste contains both municipal and industrial waste. Small scale industries also generate huge quantity of solid waste and they are generally not in a position to treat their waste individually. It is therefore advisable that in a group of small scale industries the different wastes are characterized, identified, quantified and stored for treatment through a combination of recycling, recovery and reuse of resources such as, raw material, bio gas, steam and manure. The combined effluent treatment plants are to be operated by the local bodies where the cost of construction operation and maintenance is to be shared by the industry in proportion to the quality and quantity of their waste. However the assessment of the quality and quantity of waste is very difficult and requires appropriate testing facilities. In any case the solid waste should be reduced in quantity at the source, segregated, then carefully transported and the economically treated before the final disposal.

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