WEEK 2
GEC 241- APPLIED MECHANICS II- DYNAMICS
CURVILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES
POSITION VECTOR, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
When a particle moves along a curve other than a straight line, the particle is said to be in curvilinear motion.
Hence to define the position P occupied by the particle at a given time t, a fixed reference system such as x,y,z
axes are drawn as shown in the figures below
Vector r is characterized by its magnitude, r, and its direction with respect to the reference axes; it completely
defines the position of the particle with respect to those axes. Hence the vector r is referred to as the position
vector of the particle at time t.
When the position of P moves to 𝑃𝑃 ′ at a later time 𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡, vector r1 is defined. The vector ∆𝒓𝒓 joining P and 𝑃𝑃 ′
represents the change in the position vector during the time interval ∆𝑡𝑡.
The average velocity of the particle over the time interval ∆𝑡𝑡 is defined as the quotient of ∆𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑡𝑡.
The instantaneous velocity of the particle at time t is obtained by choosing shorter and shorter time intervals
∆𝑡𝑡 and correspondingly shorter and shorter vector increments ∆𝑟𝑟. The instantaneous velocity is thus
represented by the vector
∆𝑟𝑟
𝑣𝑣 = lim (1)
∆𝑡𝑡→0 ∆𝑡𝑡
Note that as ∆𝑡𝑡 and ∆𝑟𝑟 becomes shorter, the points P and 𝑃𝑃 ′ get closer.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
which can be written as 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2)
The average acceleration of a particle over the time interval ∆𝑡𝑡 is defined as the quotient of ∆𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑡𝑡.
The instantaneous acceleration of a particle at time t is obtained by choosing smaller and smaller values for
∆𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑣𝑣. The instantaneous acceleration is thus represented by the vector
∆𝑣𝑣
𝑎𝑎 = lim (3)
∆𝑡𝑡→0 ∆𝑡𝑡
which can be written as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 = (4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
DERIVATION OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS
Let P(u) be the rectangular components of a derivative of a vector function in x,y,z axes.
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑃𝑃𝑦𝑦 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑃𝑃𝑧𝑧 𝒌𝒌 (𝟓𝟓)
where Px, Py, Pz are the rectangular scalar components of the vector P and I,J.K the unit vectors corresponding
respectively to the x, y and z axes.
The derivative of P is equal to the sum of the derivatives of the terms in the right-hand member.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧
= 𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌 (𝟔𝟔)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Rate of change of a vector
This occurs when the vector p is a function of the time t, its derivative dP/dt represents the rate of change of P
with respect to the frame Oxyz. i.e.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧
= 𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌 (𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Or 𝑃𝑃̇ = 𝑃𝑃̇ 𝑥𝑥𝒊𝒊 + 𝑃𝑃̇ 𝑦𝑦𝒋𝒋 + 𝑃𝑃̇ 𝑧𝑧𝒌𝒌 (𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕)
RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
It will be convenient to resolve the velocity v and the acceleration a of the particle into rectangular
components when the position of a particle P has been defined at any instant by its rectangular coordinates
x,y and z.
Resolving the position vector r of the particle into rectangular components, we have
𝒓𝒓 = 𝑥𝑥𝒊𝒊 + 𝑦𝑦𝒋𝒋 + 𝑧𝑧𝒌𝒌 (8)
Where x,y,z are functions of t. Differentiating twice, we obtain
𝑑𝑑𝒓𝒓
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥𝒊𝒊̇ + 𝑦𝑦̇ 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑧𝑧̇ 𝒌𝒌 (9)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 = = 𝑥𝑥̈ 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑦𝑦̈ 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑧𝑧̈ 𝒌𝒌 (10)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Where 𝑥𝑥,̇ 𝑦𝑦̇ , 𝑧𝑧̇ and 𝑥𝑥̈ , 𝑦𝑦,̈ 𝑧𝑧̈ represent, respectively, the first and second derivatives of x,y and z with respect to
t. i.e.
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥̇ 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦̇ 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧̇
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥̈ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦̈ 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧̈
The use of the rectangular components to describe the position, the velocity, and the acceleration of a particle
is particularly effective when the component 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 of the acceleration depends only upon t, x and /or 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 , and
when similarly 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 depends only upon t, y, and/or 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡, 𝑧𝑧 and/or 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 .
In other words, the motion of the particle in the x- direction, its motion in the y direction and its mtion in its z
direction can be considered separately.
For instance, in the motion of a projectile, the components of the acceleration are
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥̈ = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦̈ − 𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧̈ = 0
If the air resistance is neglected. Denoting by 𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧0 the coordinate of gun and by
(𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 )0 , �𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 � 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 )0 the components of the initial velocity 𝑣𝑣0 of the projectile (a bullet), we integrate twice
0
in t and obtain
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥̇ = (𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 )0 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦̇ = �𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 �0 − 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧̇ = (𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 )0
1
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 + (𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 )0 𝑡𝑡 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜 + �𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 �0 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 + (𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 )0 𝑡𝑡
2
If the projectile is fired in the xy plane from the origin O, we have 𝑥𝑥0 = 𝑦𝑦0 = 𝑧𝑧0 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 )0 = 0. The
equations of motion reduce to
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = (𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 )0 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = �𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 �0 − 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 0
1
𝑥𝑥 = (𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 )0 𝑡𝑡 𝑦𝑦 = �𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 �0 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2 𝑧𝑧 = 0
2
These equations show that the projectile remains in the xy plane.
Example 1
At any instant the horizontal position of the weather ballon in the figure below is defined by 𝑥𝑥 =
2
(8𝑡𝑡)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓, where t is in seconds. If the equation of the path is 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 �10, determine the magnitude and direction
of the velocity and the acceleration when t = 2 s.
SOLUTION
𝑑𝑑
Velocity. The velocity of the component in the x-direction is 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥̇ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (8𝑡𝑡) = 8 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 →
To find the relationship between the velocity components, chain rule of calculus will be used. When t=2 s,
x= 8(2)= 16 ft and so
𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2 2(16)(8)
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦̇ = � �10� = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥̇ ⁄10 = = 25.6 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 ↑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10
When t = 2 s, the magnitude of velocity is therefore
𝑣𝑣 = �82 + 25.62 = 26.8 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 25.6
The direction is tangent to the path where 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 8
= 72.60
𝑥𝑥
Acceleration: The relationship between the acceleration components is determined using the chain rule
𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥̇ = (8) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥̇
𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦̇ = � � = 2(𝑥𝑥̇ )𝑥𝑥̇ ⁄10 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥̈ ⁄10
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10
2(8)2� 2(16)(0)� 2
= 10 + 10 = 12.8 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 ↑
Thus, 𝑎𝑎 = √02 + 12.82 = 12.8 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 2
𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 12.8
The direction of a is 𝜃𝜃𝑎𝑎 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 0
= 900
𝑥𝑥
Example 2
For a short time, the path of an airplane is described by 𝑦𝑦 = (0.001𝑥𝑥 2 ) 𝑚𝑚. If the plane is rising with a constant
upward velocity of 10m/s, determine the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration of the plane when it
reaches an altitude of y=100 m.
SOLUTION
When y = 100m, then 100 = 0.001x2 or x = 316.2 m., 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 10 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡; 100 𝑚𝑚 = (10 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 )𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 = 10 𝑠𝑠
Velocity. Using the chain rule to find the relationship between the velocity components, we have
𝑦𝑦 = (0.001𝑥𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦̇ = (0.001𝑥𝑥 2 ) = (0.002𝑥𝑥)𝑥𝑥̇ = 0.002𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 10 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 = 0.002 (316.2𝑚𝑚 )(𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 )
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 15.81 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠
The magnitude of the velocity is 𝑣𝑣 = √15.812 + 102 = 18.7 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠
Acceleration. Using the chain rule, the time derivative of the equation (1) above gives the relation
between the acceleration components
𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣̇𝑦𝑦 = (0.002𝑥𝑥̇ )𝑥𝑥̇ + 0.002𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥̈ ) = 0.002(𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑥𝑥𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 )
𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 316.2𝑚𝑚, 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 15.81 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 , 𝑣𝑣̇𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 0
0 = 0.002[15.812 + 316.2(𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 )
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = −0.791 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2
The magnitude of the acceleration is 𝑎𝑎 = �(−0.791)2 + 02 = 0.791 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2
Example 3
The chipping machine is designed to eject wood chips at 𝑣𝑣0 = 25 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 as shown in the figure below. If the
tube is oriented at 300 from the horizontal, determine how high,ℎ, the chips strike the pile if at this instant
they land on the pole 20 ft from the tube.
SOLUTION
Analyzing the motion between points O and A, the three unknowns are the height h, time of flight tOA, and
vertical component of velocity (𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 )𝑦𝑦 .
Note that (𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 )𝑥𝑥 = (𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 )𝑥𝑥
The initial velocity of a chip has components of
(𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 )𝑥𝑥 = (25𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐300 ) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 = 21.65 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 →
(𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 )𝑦𝑦 = (25𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠300 ) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 = 12.5 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 ↑
Also (𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 )𝑥𝑥 = (𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 )𝑥𝑥 = 21.65 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = −32.2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 2 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 9.81 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2 )
Horizontal motion.
𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 = 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 + (𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 )𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
20 = 0 + 21.65𝑡𝑡𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝑡𝑡𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 0.9238 𝑠𝑠
Vertical motion.
1 2
𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴 = 𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜 + (𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 )𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
2
1
ℎ − 4 = 0 + (12.5)(0.9238) + (−32.2)(0.9238)2
2
ℎ = 1.81𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
RELATIVE MOTION IN A PLANE
Consider two particles A and B moving in space, the vectors 𝑟𝑟𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 define their position at any given instant
with respect to the fixed frame of reference Oxyz. Consider now a system of axes 𝑥𝑥 ′ , 𝑦𝑦 ′ , 𝑧𝑧 ′ centered at A and
parallel to the x, y, z axes. While the origin of these axes moves, their orientation remains the same, the frame
of reference A𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑧𝑧 ′ is in translation with respect to Oxyz. The vector 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 joining A and B defines the position
of B relative to the moving frame A𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑧𝑧 ′ or the position of B relative to A.
The position vector 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 of particle B is the sum of the position vector 𝑟𝑟𝐴𝐴 of particle A and of the position vector
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 of B relative to A.
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 = 𝑟𝑟𝐴𝐴 + 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 (11𝑎𝑎)
Differentiate with respect to t, we have
𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 = 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 + 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 (11𝑏𝑏)
And differentiating the velocity, we have
𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵 = 𝑎𝑎𝐴𝐴 + 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 (11𝑐𝑐)
The motion of B with respect to the fixed frame Oxyz is referred to as the absolute motion of B. The equations
derived show that the absolute motion of B can be obtained by combining the motion of A and the relative
motion of B with respect to the frame attached to A.
Example 4
Automobile A is travelling east at a constant speed of 36km/h. As automobile B crosses the intersection
shown, the automobile B starts from rest 35m north of the intersection and moves south with a constant
acceleration of 1.2m/s2. Determine the position, velocity and acceleration of B relative to A 5s after A crosses
the intersection.
SOLUTION
Motion of Automobile A
36×1000
The first speed 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 = 3600
= 10m/s
Note that the motion of A is uniform for any time t
𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 = +10mls, 𝑎𝑎𝐴𝐴 = 0
𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 = (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 )0 + 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 0 + 10𝑡𝑡
For t = 5 s
𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 = +10mls, 𝑎𝑎𝐴𝐴 = 0, 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 = 50𝑚𝑚
Motion of Automobile B- The motion of B is uniformly accelerated
𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵 = −1.2m/s,
𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 = (𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 )0 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0 − 1.2𝑡𝑡
1 1
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 = (𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 )0 + (𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 )0 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵 𝑡𝑡 2 = 35 + 0 − (1.2)𝑡𝑡 2
2 2
For t = 5 s, 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵 = −1.2m/s,
𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 = −1.2(5) = −6m/s
1
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵 = 35 − 2 (1.2)(5)2 = 20 𝑚𝑚
Motion of B relative to A
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 = 𝑟𝑟𝐴𝐴 + 𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 = 53.9𝑚𝑚
20
𝛼𝛼 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 �50 � = 21.80
𝑟𝑟𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 = 53.9𝑚𝑚 21.80
𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 = 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 + 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴
𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 = 11.66𝑚𝑚/s and the direction 𝛽𝛽 = 310
𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 =11.66m/s 31.00
𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵 ⁄𝐴𝐴 = 1.2 m/s2
TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL COMPONENTS
Note that the velocity of a particle is a vector tangent to the path of the particle but that in general, the
acceleration is not tangent to the path. It is sometimes convenient to resolve the acceleration into
components directed respectively, along the tangent and the normal to the path of the particle.
The tangential component of acceleration reflects a change in the speed of the particle while its normal
component reflects a change in the direction of motion of the particle. The acceleration of particle will be zero
only if both its components are zero. Thus the acceleration of a particle moving with constant speed along a
curve will not be zero unless the particle happens to pass through a point of inflection of the curve (where the
radius of curvature is infinite) or unless the curve is a straight line. The fact that the normal component of the
acceleration depends upon the radius of curvature of the path followed by the particle is taken into account in
the design of structures or mechanisms as widely different as airplane wings, rail road tracks, and cams.
Consider the diagrams below
Let 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 be the unit vector corresponding to P and 𝑒𝑒′𝑡𝑡 corresponding to 𝑃𝑃′. Drawing both vectors from the same
origin 𝑂𝑂′, we have ∆𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒′𝑡𝑡 − 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 .
∆𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡
Considering the vector ∆𝜃𝜃
, it was noted that as ∆𝜃𝜃 approaches zero, this vector becomes tangent to the unit
circle i.e. perpendicular to 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 and that its magnitudes approaches
∆𝜃𝜃 ∆𝜃𝜃
2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 2 � 2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 2 �
lim = lim =1
∆𝜃𝜃 →0 ∆𝜃𝜃 ∆𝜃𝜃 →0 ∆𝜃𝜃/2
Thus the vector obtained in the limit is a unit vector along the normal to the path of the particle, in the
direction toward which 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 turns. Denoting this vector by 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛 , we write
∆𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡
𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛 = lim = (12)
∆𝜃𝜃 →0 ∆𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Since the velocity v of the particle is tangent to the path it can be expressed as the product of the scalar 𝑣𝑣 and
the unit vector 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 .
V = 𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 (13)
To obtain the acceleration of the particle, differentiate with respect to t
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 + 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(14)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
But = . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡
Recall that 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
Also from elementary calculus, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑝𝑝 where 𝑝𝑝 is the radius of curvature of the path P.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣
Therefore, = 𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛 (15)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Substituting (15) into (14), we have
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛 (16)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
The scalar components of the acceleration are 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝
The relations obtained express that the tangential component of the acceleration is equal to the rate of
change of the speed of the particle, while the normal component is equal to the square of the speed divided
by the radius of curvature of the path at P.
Note that if the path is expressed as 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥), the radius of curvature 𝑝𝑝at any point on the path is determined
from the equation
[1+(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )2 ]3 ⁄2
𝑝𝑝 =
[𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 ⁄𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2 ]
Example 5
When the skier reaches point A along he parabolic path in the figure below, he has a speed of 6 m/s which is
increasing at 2m/s2. Determine the direction of his velocity and the direction and magnitude odf his
acceleration at this instant. Neglect the size of the skier in the calculation.
SOLUTION
1 1
Velocity. The velocity is always directed tangent to the path. Since 𝑦𝑦 = 20 𝑥𝑥 2 , 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10 𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 =
10 𝑚𝑚, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1
Hence at A, v makes an angle of 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 1 = 450 with the x axis
𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 = 6 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 450
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
The acceleration is determined from 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 + 𝑝𝑝
𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛 .
However, we need to determine the radius of curvature of the path at A using the formula
1
[1+(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )2 ]3 ⁄2 [1+( 𝑥𝑥 )2 ]3 ⁄2
𝑝𝑝 = = 10
1 at x = 10 m
[𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 ⁄𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2 ]
10
= 28.28 m
Acceleration becomes
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑎𝑎𝐴𝐴 = 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝
62
= 2𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒
28.28 𝑛𝑛
𝑎𝑎 = 2𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡 + 1.273𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2
The magnitude of acceleration is
𝑎𝑎 = �22 + 1.2732 = 2.37 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2
2
∅ = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 = 57.50
1.273
Thus the direction of the acceleration is 450+900+57.50-1800 = 12.50
Example 6
A race car C travels around the horizontal circular track that has a radius of 300 ft. If the car increases its speed
at a constant rate of 7 ft/s2, starting from rest, determine the time needed for it to reach an acceleration of 8
ft/s2. What is its speed at this instant?
SOLUTION
Note that the origin of the n and t axes is coincident with the car at the instant considered. The t axis is in the
direction of the motion, and the positive n axis is directed toward the centre of the circle. His coordinate
system is selected since the path is known.
Acceleration.
The magnitude of the acceleration can be related to its components using 𝑎𝑎 = �𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛2 . Here 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 7 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 2 .
𝑣𝑣 2
Since 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝
, the velocity as a function of time must be determined first.
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 + (𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 )𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣 = 0 + 7𝑡𝑡 = 7𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣 2 (7𝑡𝑡)2
Thus 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝
= 300
= 0.163𝑡𝑡 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠 2
The time needed for the acceleration to reach 8 ft/s2 is therefore
𝑎𝑎 = �𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛2
8 = �72 + (0.163𝑡𝑡 2 )2
t = 4.87 s
Velocity. The speed at time t = 4.87 s is
𝑣𝑣 = 7𝑡𝑡 = 7(4.87) = 34.1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓⁄𝑠𝑠
NOTE: Remember the velocity will always be tangent to the path whereas the acceleration will be directed
with the curvature of the path.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A particle is travelling along a straight path described as = 0.75𝑥𝑥 . If its position along the x axis is
𝑥𝑥 = (8𝑡𝑡)𝑚𝑚, where t is in seconds, determine its speed when t = 2 s.
2. A particle is constrained to travel along the path. If 𝑥𝑥 = (4𝑡𝑡 2 )𝑚𝑚, where t is in seconds, determine the
magnitude of the particle’s velocity and acceleration when t= 0.5 s.
3. A particle traveling along a parabolic path 𝑦𝑦 = 0.25𝑥𝑥 2 . If 𝑥𝑥 = (2𝑡𝑡 2 )𝑚𝑚, where t is in seconds,
determine the magnitude of the particle’s velocity and acceleration when t = 2s.
4. When x = 10 ft, the crate has a speed of 20 ft/s which is increasing at 6 ft/s2. Determine the direction
of the crate’s velocity and the magnitude of the crate’s acceleration at this instant.
5. A boat is sailing along a circular path of 𝑣𝑣 = (0.0625𝑡𝑡 2 ) 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠, where t is in seconds. Determine the
magnitude of its acceleration when t= 10 s.
