Submitted to: Miss Sana Aslam

Submitted by: Laiba Muqaddas FA20-BPY-090, Amatul FA20-BPY-035, Madina Sultani FA20-

BPY-040 & Aneeza Gull FA20-BPY-077

Course: Developmental psychology

Date: 5 June, 2023

Assignment: 4

Semester: 6th

Humanity Department

COMSATS UNIVERSITY LAHORE

Constructivist and Direct Instruction Approaches

It is a learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individual’s actively

constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher. In the

constructivist view, teachers should not attempt to simply pour information into children mind,

rather children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and

think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher. Today,

constructivism may include an emphasis on collaboration, children working with each other in

their efforts to know and understand. A teacher with a constructivist instructional philosophy

would not have children memorize information rotely but would provide opportunities to fully

construct the knowledge and understand the material. Various test, quizzes, portfolios, class-

room observations should be utilized rather than a single score on a single test.

School and Developmental Status

Early Childhood Education

Attending pre-school is rapidly becoming the norm for U.S Children. In 2002, 43 states

funded pre-kindergarten programs, and 55-percent of U.S. which included both the center based

programs and private pre-school programs. There are many variations in the way young children

are educated.

The Child-Centered Kindergarten

In 1840’s Freidrich Frobel’s concern for quality education for young children led to the

founding of the kindergarten, literally “a garden for children”. As the children require careful

nurturing. Nurturing is still key in the child-centered kindergarten. It emphasizes the education of
whole child and concern for his/her physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development.

Instruction is organized around the child needs, interests and learning styles. Emphasis is on the

process of learning rather than what is learned. The child-centered kindergarten honors three

principles; each child follows a unique developmental pattern, young children learn best through

first hand experiences with people and materials, and play is extremely important in the child

total development. Experimenting, exploring, discovering, trying out, restructuring, speaking and

listening are frequent activities in excellent kindergarten programs.

The Montessori Approach

Montessori schools are patterned after the educational philosophy of Maria Montessori,

who was an Italian physician-turned educator, who crafted a revolutionary approach to young

children education at the beginning of the 20th century. It is a philosophy of education in which

children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities. They are allowed

to move from one activity to another as they desire. The teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a

director. The teacher shows the child how to perform intellectual activities, demonstrates

interesting ways to explore curriculum materials, and offers help when the child request it. Some

develop mentalists favor the Montessori approach, but others maintain that it neglects children’s

social development. Montessori fosters independence and development of the cognitive skills, it

deemphasizes verbal interaction between the teacher and peer interaction. It restricts imaginative

play and that it is heavy reliance on self-corrective materials may not adequately allow for

creativity and for a variety of learning skills.

Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Education

A growing number of educators and psychologists stress that preschool and young

elementary school children learn best through active, hands-on teaching methods such as games
and dramatic play. They know that children develop at varying rates and that schools need to

allow for these individual differences. They also note that schools should focus on improving

children socioemotional development as well as their cognitive development. Developmentally

appropriate education: education that focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children

age appropriateness and the uniqueness of each child individual appropriateness. Such practice

contrasts with developmentally inappropriate practice, which ignores the concrete, hands-on

approach to learning. Direct teaching largely through abstract paper and pencil activities

presented to large group of young children is believed to be developmentally in-appropriate.

Education for Young Children who are Disadvantaged

For many years, U.S children who were from low-income families did not receive any

education before they entered the first grade. For this a compensatory program was launched

which was project head-start that was designed to provide children the opportunity to acquire the

skills and experiences important for success in schools. The goals vary greatly around the

country. Different evaluations support the positive influence of quality early childhood programs

on both the cognitive and social worlds of disadvantaged young children. This project head start

brought low-income children benefits including the school competence, abilities, attitudes and

values and impact on the family.

Controversies in Early childhood education

In reality many high-quality early childhood education programs include both academic

and constructivist approaches. The competent early childhood programs should focus on

cognitive development, and socio-emotional development not only on the cognitive

development.
Elementary School

For many children, entering the first grade signals a change from a home child to being a

school-child, a situation in which the new roles and obligations are experienced. Children take up

the new role of being the student, interact, develop new relationships, adopt new reference

groups and develop new standards by which to judge themselves.

Educating Adolescents

The transition to middle or junior high school

Gradually the ninth grade was restored to high school, middle schools included 7th and

8th grade, or even 6th. The creation of middle schools was influenced by the early onset if

puberty in recent decades. The first year of the middle or junior high school can be difficult for

many students, due to their perceptions of the quality of their school, the school dissatisfaction

increased no matter how academically successful the student was. it can be stressful as well, as

the transition takes place at a time when many changes in the individual, in the family or in

school were occurring at the same time, there were also changes in social cognition, increased

responsibility and decreased dependency on parents, a more impersonal school structure,

heterogeneous group of students increased focus on achievement and performance of their

assessment. The students faces top-dog phenomena in which they move from the oldest, biggest,

and most powerful students in elementary school to being the youngest, smallest and least

powerful students.

Effective Schools for Young Adolescents

Educators and psychologists worry that junior high and middle schools gave become

watered down versions of high school, mimicking their curricular and extracurricular schedules.
Critics argue that these schools should offer activities that reflect a wide range of individual

differences in biological and psychological development.

High School

High school foster passivity and creates pathways to create an identity. Some pass out

with holding skills in arithmetic, writing while others dropout which results in not finding decent

jobs. In the last half of the century and first several years of rhea 21st century, U.S dropout

declines have decreased. In the 1940 more than 16 percent dropped out which was 8 percent by

2008. The reasons for drop out include economic reasons, not liking school, being suspended,

personal reasons, marriage and pregnancy. The most effective programs to discourage dropping

out were early reading programs, tutoring, counselling, and mentoring, creation of the caring

environment also helps.

College and Adult Education

Going to college offers many practical benefits, even beyond an education, the more

education individuals have, the more income they will earn.

Transition to College

Transition from elementary school to middle or junior high school involves change and

possible stress, so does the transition from high school to college. The two transitions have many

parallels.

The transition from high school to college involves movement to a larger, more impersonal

school structure, interaction with peers from more diverse geographical and sometimes more

diverse ethnic backgrounds, and increased focus on achievement and its assessment. Today

college students experience more stress and are more depressed than in the past, they are more
overwhelmed and women are twice more prone to depression as compared to males. The happy

college students were highly social, more extraverted, and had stronger romantic and social

relationships than to less happy students who spent more time alone.

Adult Education

It refers to all forms of schooling and learning in which adults participate. Adult education

includes literacy training, community development, university credit programs, on-the-job

training, and continuing professional education. In 1985, individuals over the age of 25

represented 45 percent of the enrollment in credit courses in U.S. At the beginning of 21st

century, and large and expanding number of college students are adults who pursue education

and advanced degrees on a part-time basis. The increase in adult education is a result of the

increased leisure time for some individuals and the need to update information and skills for

others. Women represent the majority of adult learners, almost 60 percent. In the 35 and over

age group, women constitute an even greater percentage of the enrollment in adult education,

almost 70 percent. Some of these women devoted their early adult lives to parenting and decided

to go back to school to enter a new career.

Educating children with disabilities

Learning Disabilities: Learning disabilities are disorders that affect the ability to Understand or

use spoken or written language. Do mathematical calculations.

Example: One child may struggle with reading and spelling, while another loves books but can’t

understand. Still another child may have difficulty understanding what others are saying or

communicating out loud. The problems are very different, but they are all learning disorders.
About 40% of children’s are receiving special education services children have speech or

language impairments, mental retardation, or serious emotional disturbance.

Reading disability (dyslexia)

Dyslexia is a learning disorder that involves difficulty reading due to problems

identifying speech sounds and learning how they relate to letters and words (decoding). Also

called a reading disability, dyslexia is a result of individual differences in areas of the brain that

process language. Dyslexia is a category that is reserved for individuals who have a severe

impairment in their ability to read and spell. Children with learning disabilities often have

difficulties in handwriting spelling, or composition. Their writing may be extremely slow, it may

be virtually illegible, and they may make numerous spelling errors because of their inability to

match up sounds and letters.

Signs of Dyslexia

 Confuse visually similar words such as cat and cot.

 Read/write slowly.

 Need to re-read paragraphs to understand them.

 Find it hard to listen and maintain focus.

 Find it hard to concentrate if there are distractions.

 Problems spelling.

 Avoiding activities that involve reading.

 Mispronouncing names or words, or problems retrieving words.

 Spending an unusually long time completing tasks that involve reading or writing.
ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)

ADHD, which stands for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, is a

neurodevelopmental disorder that affects both children and adults. It is characterized by

persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that significantly impact daily

functioning and quality of life.It Is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of

childhood. It is usually first diagnosed in childhood and often lasts into adulthood. Children with

ADHD may have trouble paying attention, controlling impulsive behaviors (may act without

thinking about what the result will be), and it significantly impact daily life functioning.

Inattention: Inattentive symptoms of ADHD include:

 Being easily distracted by external stimuli or internal thoughts.

 Struggling to follow instructions or complete tasks that require sustained mental effort.

 Often appearing forgetful, losing important items, and being disorganized.

Hyperactivity(symptoms)

 Being unable to sit still, especially in calm or quiet surroundings.

 Being unable to concentrate on tasks.

 Excessive physical movement.

 Excessive talking.

 Being unable to wait their turn.

 Acting without thinking.

 Interrupting conversations
Impulsivity(symptoms)

 Restlessness

 No patience level

 Acting without thinking.

Types of ADHD

Predominantly Inattentive Presentation: Individuals with this subtype primarily

struggle with inattention and may appear quiet, daydreaming, or easily overwhelmed. They may

be less disruptive but still face challenges with focusing and completing tasks.

Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Presentation: Individuals with this subtype

display more hyperactive and impulsive behaviors. They may have difficulty staying still, be

talkative, and act on impulse without considering consequences.

Combined Presentation: This is the most common subtype, where individuals exhibit a

combination of inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive symptoms.

The exact causes of ADHD are not fully understood, but research suggests a combination

of genetic, environmental, and neurological factors. Some common risk factors associated with

ADHD include a family history of ADHD, exposure to environmental toxins during pregnancy,

premature birth, and low birth weight. Diagnosing ADHD involves a comprehensive evaluation

conducted by healthcare professionals. The process typically includes gathering information

from parents, teachers, and the individual themselves. It is important to rule out other medical or

psychological conditions that may present similar symptoms.

Medication: Stimulant medications (e.g., amphetamines) and non-stimulant medications

are commonly prescribed to manage symptoms of ADHD. These medications work by affecting

neurotransmitters in the brain to improve attention, impulse control, and hyperactivity.

Behavioral Interventions: Behavioral therapy, psychoeducation, and skills training are

essential components of ADHD treatment. These interventions aim to help individuals develop

strategies for managing their symptoms, improving organizational skills, and enhancing social

interactions.

Socio-Economic status: Socioeconomic status refers to the position or standing of an

individual or a group within a social hierarchy, based on their access to and control over

resources. It is often determined by factors such as income, education, occupation, and wealth.

SES is a multidimensional construct that encompasses economic, educational, and occupational

dimensions.

Ethnicity: Ethnicity refers to the shared cultural heritage, ancestry, traditions, and

practices of a particular group of people. It involves a sense of identity, belonging, and common

history. Ethnicity is often characterized by factors such as language, religion, customs, and

shared values. Some key points about ethnicity include:

Mastery motivation
 Carol Dweck and her colleagues have developed the concept of mastery

motivation, which refers to the desire to develop one’s skills and abilities through hard

work and efforts.

Dweck has identified three different orientations that individuals may have towards achievement:

1. Helpless orientation: Individuals with a helpless orientation tend to believe that their

abilities are fixed and cannot be changed through effort. They may feel overwhelmed by

challenges and difficulties, and may give up easily when faced with obstacles. This can

lead to a lack of motivation and a sense of helplessness.

2. Mastery orientation: Individuals with a mastery orientation tend to believe that their

abilities can be developed through hard work and effort. They are motivated by a desire

to learn and improve, and are willing to take on challenges and persist in the face of

obstacles. This can lead to a sense of competence and self-confidence.

3. Performance orientation: Individuals with a performance orientation tend to be

primarily concerned with demonstrating their abilities and avoiding failure. They may be

motivated by a desire to outperform others or to receive recognition for their

achievements. This can lead to a focus on performance goals rather than learning goals,

and a tendency to avoid challenges or give up in the face of obstacles.

Mindset

Carol Dweck is a psychologist who developed the concept of “mindset” in her book

“Mindset: The New Psychology of Success” (2006). According to Dweck, mindset refers to the

beliefs and attitudes that individuals have about their abilities and intelligence.
Types of mindset

 Fixed mindset

 Growth mindset

Fixed mindset

Individuals with a fixed mindset believe that their abilities and intelligence are fixed traits

that cannot be developed or changed.

Growth mindset

In contrast, individuals with a growth mindset believe that their abilities and intelligence

can be developed and improved through hard work and effort.

Examples of fixed and growth mindset

1. Fixed mindset: “I’m just not good at math.” Growth mindset: “I need to work harder and

practice more to get better at math.”

2. Fixed mindset: “I’m not a creative person.” Growth mindset: “I can develop my creativity

through practice and experimentation.”

Goal setting, planning and self monitoring

According to Bandura and his colleagues, goal setting, planning, and self-monitoring are

important components of self-regulated learning. These processes involve setting specific goals,

developing strategies for achieving those goals, and monitoring progress towards those goals.

Goal setting involves identifying specific, measurable, and achievable goals that learners want

to accomplish. The goals should be challenging enough to motivate learners, but not so difficult
that they become discouraged. Once goals are set, learners can create plans for achieving those

goals.

Examples

• A student sets a goal of earning an A in a challenging course.

• A professional sets a goal of completing a project by a specific deadline.

Planning involves developing strategies for achieving goals, such as breaking down goals into

smaller, more manageable tasks, allocating time and resources, and identifying potential

obstacles and solutions. Planning also involves developing self-regulatory skills, such as self-

reflection, self-evaluation, and self-motivation.

Examples

• A student creates a study schedule that breaks down their goal of earning an A into

smaller, more manageable tasks.

• A professional creates a project plan that includes timelines, milestones, and resources

needed to complete the project.

Self-monitoring involves tracking progress towards goals and making adjustments as needed.

This includes monitoring one’s own performance, evaluating the effectiveness of strategies, and

making changes to strategies or goals as needed. Self-monitoring also involves self-reflection,

self-evaluation, and self-regulation, and helps learners to develop a sense of control over their

own learning process.

Examples

• A student tracks their progress towards their goal of earning an A by regularly reviewing

their grades and seeking feedback from their teacher.

progress against milestones, and making adjustments to the project plan as needed.

Cross cultural comparisons

Cross-cultural comparisons involve studying and analyzing cultural differences and

similarities across different societies or groups. These comparisons can be made in various areas,

such as education, language, social norms, values, and traditions.

Comparative studies can help researchers to identify and understand the ways in which different

cultures shape human behavior, beliefs, and attitudes. They can also help to identify areas of

commonality and difference between cultures, and provide insights into how cultural factors can

influence various aspects of life, such as communication, decision-making, and social

interactions.

Research in life span development

Stevenson and his colleagues conducted cross-cultural comparisons of learning and math

instruction across several countries, including Japan, Taiwan, and the United States. They found

that there were significant differences in how math was taught and learned in these different

cultural contexts.

 One key difference was in the emphasis on rote memorization versus conceptual

understanding. In the United States, math instruction often emphasizes memorization of

developing a deep understanding of mathematical concepts and principles.

 Another difference was in the role of the teacher. In Japan and Taiwan, teachers are

often viewed as experts who are responsible for guiding students through the learning

process. In the United States, there is often a greater emphasis on student-centered

learning, where students are encouraged to explore and discover mathematical concepts

on their own.

 Finally, there were differences in the amount of time and effort devoted to math

learning. In Japan and Taiwan, students often spend more time on math instruction than

in the United States, and there is a greater emphasis on practicing and mastering math

skills.

Career, Work and retirement

Developmental change

Children's understanding of careers changes significantly throughout their development.

In early childhood, children's career aspirations are often based on their interests and

hobbies, and they may not have a realistic understanding of the requirements or demands

of different jobs. As they get older, children begin to learn more about the world of work

through their experiences in school, their families, and their communities.

John Holland's Personality Theory

Realistic

 Likes to work with animals, tools, or machines; generally avoids social activities like

teaching, healing, and informing others;

plants and animals;

 Values practical things you can see, touch, and use like plants and animals, tools,

equipment, or machines; and

 Sees self as practical, mechanical, and realistic.

Social

 Likes to do things to help people -- like, teaching, nursing, or giving first aid, providing

information; generally avoids using machines, tools, or animals to achieve a goal;

 Is good at teaching, counseling, nursing, or giving information;

 Values helping people and solving social problems; and

 Sees self as helpful, friendly, and trustworthy.

Investigative

 Likes to study and solve math or science problems; generally avoids leading, selling, or

persuading people;

 Is good at understanding and solving science and math problems;

 Values science; and

 Sees self as precise, scientific, and intellectual.

Enterprising
  Likes to lead and persuade people, and to sell things and ideas; generally avoids activities

that require careful observation and scientific, analytical thinking;

 Is good at leading people and selling things or ideas;

 Values success in politics, leadership, or business; and

 Sees self as energetic, ambitious, and sociable.

Artistic

 Likes to do creative activities like art, drama, crafts, dance, music, or creative writing;

generally avoids highly ordered or repetitive activities;

 Has good artistic abilities -- in creative writing, drama, crafts, music, or art;

 Values the creative arts -- like drama, music, art, or the works of creative writers; and

 Sees self as expressive, original, and independent.

Conventional

 Likes to work with numbers, records, or machines in a set, orderly way; generally avoids

ambiguous, unstructured activities

 Is good at working with written records and numbers in a systematic, orderly way;

 Values success in business; and

 Sees self as orderly, and good at following a set plan.

Work in adolescence
 Development of skills: Adolescence (12-18) is a critical period for acquiring various

skills, and work experiences can contribute to skill development. Employment opportunities can

provide teenagers with practical skills such as time management, teamwork, problem-solving,

communication, responsibility and financial independent.

History of adolescence work

In the early 19th century, child labor was common in many parts of the world.

History, adolescents have worked in a variety of roles, including agriculture,

manufacturing, and domestic service. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, child labor

laws have been implemented in many countries to protect children and ensure they

receive an education. Today, many adolescents work in part-time or seasonal jobs to gain

work experience and earn money. But still common in many parts of the world.

Advantages and disadvantages of work in adolescence

The advantages of working in adolescence include gaining work experience, learning

responsibility, learning time management skills, earning money, and developing a strong work

ethic. The disadvantages include experiencing stress and burnout, missing out on time with

family and friends, and struggling to balance work, school responsibilities, missing out on some

social events and extracurricular activities.

Work in adulthood

Working in adulthood (19-40) is a major part of life for many people. Working in

adulthood provides an opportunity to develop skills, earn money, and contribute to

society. It can also provide a sense of purpose and fulfillment. However, it's important to

balance work with self-care and to maintain a healthy work-life balance It can provide
 financial security, social interaction, and a sense of purpose. Working in adulthood can be

a great way to achieve your goals and live a fulfilling life.  

Work in middle adulthood

Middle adulthood is the period of life from approximately 40 to 65 years of age. It is a

time of great change and transition, both personally and professionally. Many people in middle

adulthood are raising families, advancing their careers, and dealing with the challenges. A job

provides a steady income, which can help to ensure financial security in middle adulthood. This

is especially important for people who are raising children or caring for elderly parents.

Work in late adulthood

Working in late adulthood (65+) refers to individuals who continue to engage in

employment. Working in late adulthood can be a great way to stay active, engaged, and

social. Late adulthood is often seen as a time to strike a balance between work and

personal life. The young people have opportunity to learn and grow from their

experiences. This can lead to increased wisdom and a deeper understanding of the world.

It can also provide financial stability and a sense of purpose

Retirement

The period in a person's life when they decide to stop working or reduce their work

hours. Retirement can be a time of relaxation, pursuing hobbies, spending time with

family and friends, and engaging in activities that bring joy and fulfillment. Some

individuals choose to travel, volunteer, or explore new interests during their retirement

years.