Geographical information systems

and Remote sensing

Presented by
Sylion Muramira
Department of CEGE
COURSE INTRODUCTION
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM AND REMOTE SENSING
BY SYLION MURAMIRA
 COURSE CONTENT

a) Introduction (GIS and RS Concepts)

b) Applications of GIS & RS
c) Spatial data modelling
d) Spatial data visualization
e) Spatial data analysis
f) Spatial data sources and acquisition
g) Database-Database management system
h) Principles of Remote sensing
i) Digital image interpretation and key resources
j) Practical work out
• What is GIS?
• What are GIS data used in Envir/Water resources mgt
• Where GIS data come from?
• Why do we need GIS in our daily duties/activities
• What are GIS software being used nowadays?
• What are GIS Data format?
features/geographical phenomena
Shapefile v geodatabase
Raster/vector data
Spatial/non-spatial data
 Environmental Application
Topical Areas:
Forestry Applications
Environmental Application Example
Agricultural Applications Ecosystem Management
Hydrological Applications Suitability Analysis
Geological Applications Pollution Monitoring
Land Use Planning Waste Management
Risk Management Environmental Planning and Management
Wildlife Management Population Analysis
General Application Water Quality Species Distribution
Areas: Ecosystems
Characterization Monitoring Protected Areas
Assessment Pollution Coastal Area Management
Monitoring Waste
Modeling Biodiversity Assessment
Analysis Biodiversity Water Quality
Management Conservation Management and Protection
 Site characterization :involves the compilation of survey data, aerial photos, hydrological data,well and soil samples, and a

variety of other information. GIS is used to organize and refine data to help develop strategies for preliminary assessments,

site inspections, and remedial investigation feasibility studies for site cleanup

 Pollution Monitoring: A GIS can be used to track the spread of pollutants and assess the damage to affected areas. GIS

software helps build a framework of information necessary to assess and minimize risk to populations and natural resources

from contamination or natural disasters

 Waste management:storage containers, prioritize inspections, and monitor the transportation of hazardous materials. And

also look for areas with suitable land use and geology and distances away from water bodies or major roads
Environmental Planning and Management : with GIS You can manage relationships among biological and cultural resources
such as air quality, noise, traffic, and socioeconomic data. This example, prepared by the Chambers Group, shows area’s wildlife
within the framework of the general plan. Areas within the city are ranked according to their overall wildlife potential.
L 1A
What is GIS ?
“A computer - assisted system that enable people for the
capture, storage ,retrieval, analysis and display of
spatial data, within a particular Organization”.
(Clarke, 1986)
A GIS is a computer-based system that provides the
following four sets of capabilities to
handle geo-referenced data:
 Input
 data management (data storage and retrieval)
 manipulation and analysis
 Output.
(Aronoff, 1989)
Father of GIS – Rojar Tomlinson
Elements of GIS:

People Software

Data

GIS
Method
Hardware
What GIS can do?

What GIS can do Real world Problems

Identification Where ?
Locate What is there?
Trends What if ?
Patterns What has changed ?
Optimum path What relations exists
between ?
Models What is the best route?
What Analysis GIS can do ?

 Simple Query
 Spatial Querying
 Single Layer Operation
 Multiple- Layer Operations
 Spatial Modeling
 Surface Analysis
 Network Analysis
 Point Pattern Analysis
 Grid Analysis
 Why GIS ?
 Facilities faster process of operation.
Provides many real world problems with option of many scenarios.
Decision making tool with support of organized data.
Integrating technology.
Dynamic map display and interactive query
GIS is a powerful tool for handling spatial data.
In GIS, data are maintained in digital format.
In GIS, data are in more compact form then that of paper maps, tables etc.
Large quantities and types of data can be maintained retrieved at greater speed.
It has the ability to manipulate the spatial data and corresponding attributes
information and to integrate different types of data in a single platform.
GIS Software
The most popular GIS software packages are:
• ESRI (ArcGIS, ArcView 3.0)
• MapInfo
• IDRISI
• Manifold
• Inter Graph Geo Media
• Small World
• GRASS
• MS MapPoint
• ERDAS Imagine
• ILWIS
• ER Mapper
• JTMaps (India)
• ENVI
 Free classes
1. U.S. Geological Survey Getting Started with a GIS
http://webgis.wr.usgs.gov/globalgis/tutorials/index.html

2. University of South Carolina GIS Short Course Handouts

Download PDF files.
http://www.cas.sc.edu/gis/training/handouts.html

3. Introduction to ArcGIS
This tutorial is intended to introduce you to the basic use of ArcGIS 8.2.
http://web.mit.edu/gis/www/introarcgis/

4. Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access (PASDA)

http://www.pasda.psu.edu/tutorials/default.asp

5. Trimble
http://www.trimble.com/gps/index.shtml

6. The National Center for Geographic Information Analysis (NCGIA)

http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/toc.html#UNIT38

7. Canada Centre for Remote Sensing

http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/fundam/index_e.php
8. Remote Sensing
This comprehensive Remote Sensing tutorial by Dr. Nicholas M. Short is awesome!
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/

9. Global Positions
Free tutorials for ArcGis
http://www.globalpositions.com/Free.html

10. Esri free courses

http://training.esri.com/gateway/index.cfm?fa=search.resu lts&cannedsearch=2

11. Learn2Map Free GIS Tutorial and Shapefile Atlas

http://www.mapcruzin.com/free-learn-to-map-gis-tutorialand- shapefile-atlas.htm
Tutorial and Atlas.
http://www.mapcruzin.com/free-learn-to-map-gis-tutorialand-shapefile-atlas.htm

12. GIS Primer:

Comprehensive GIS resource from National Informatics Center (NIC), India
Free online lessons: http://gis.nic.in/gisprimer/

13. Introduction to GIS:

For teachers and learners
http://linfiniti.com/dla/
GIS Courses Institute:
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) Dehradun ,Various certificate courses & training
program on RS&GIS.
CSRE, IIT Bombay Mumbai M.Tech and Ph.D. courses.
Centre for Environment, Institute of Science and Technology Hyderabad ,M.Tech program in
Environmental Geomatics
Indian Institute of Surveying and Mapping (Survey of India) Hyderabad ,M.Tech program in
Geomatics
Rolta Academy Mumbai 3 months intensive GIS course.
Pune
Advanced Computing Training School (ACTS) C-DAC's Pune Offers Diploma in
Geoinformatics (DGI)
All India Institute of Local Self Government Pune 'Certificate Course in GIS'
CDAC-Pune Offers Six Months Post Graduate Diploma in Geoinformatics.
Institute of Environment Education and Research, Bharati Vidyapeeth University Conducts a
Ph.D. and two years full time Masters in Geoinformatics.
Pune University M.Sc Geoinformatics, PGBSc (Applied) in GIS & RS
Sinhgad College of Science (M. Sc. in Geo-Informatics)
Symbiosis Institute of Geoinformatics Pune M Sc Programme in Geoinformatics

GIS Training Institutes in India - GIS in India

www.gisinindia.com/directory/gis-training-institutes-in-india
 A Career in GIS
Position

GIS careers include responsibilities such as GIS Developer GIS Data Specialist

• Cartographic design GIS Engineer GIS Mapping Technician

• Data analysis
GIS Analyst GIS Mapping Assistant
• Computer programming
• Database administration Geospatial Analyst GIS Business Analyst

• Project management GIS Project Manager GIS Programmer

• System administration
Jr.Gis Associate Geographer
• Careers in GIS can also encompass
business development, managerial, and ArcGIS Cartographic designer
administrative roles. Developer/Programmer
GIS Applications Developer Database administrator.

Entry level (GIS digitisers) GIS MANAGER

Research Associate (R.A.) Project Fellow

Scientist
APPLICATIONS OF GIS
Helping With Global Problems
Terrorism
Overpopulation
Environmental Pollution
Global Recession
Deforestation
Natural disasters etc.
Helping With Local Problems
Investigating an industrial facility .
Figuring out the best route for an emergency

Other local problems

Who Uses GIS?
Skills are with few people But
GIS is now a days taught in schools, colleges & universities
through out the world
Professionals of many fields are getting aware
Internet users of GIS have grown rapidly
 REAL Observe Process / Interpret DECISION
WORLD DATA INFORMATION
Filter MAKING

Various Sectors
Natural Resources Management
Disaster Management & Mitigation
Engineering(Construction management,…
Education
Business GIS
Electoral process
Environment
Military Applications
Infrastructure –Power, Telecom, Transport etc.
Urban Planning etc…
 Urban Planning & Development
 Urban sprawl analysis

 Cadastral mapping & land management

 Land use / land cover mapping & analysis
 Site selection
 SOI Toposheet (Pune City) Satellite Image (Pune City)

Scale of SOI Toposheet 1: 25000 Liss-III Satellite Image

Spatial resolution 23.5m
GIS APPLICATIONS IN CONSTRUCTION
MANAGEMENT
GIS applications have proliferated in the construction industry in
recent years.
GIS can be used for:

 Progress monitoring system in construction

 3-D data analysis

 Site location and Client Distance

 Comparison of data Construction scheduling and progress control with 3-D

visualization
Why is there a need to implement GIS in the construction
industry?

GIS improves construction planning and design efficiency

by integrating locational and thematic information in a single
environment

Using GIS, you can build a data model that includes

geographic layers (such as soils, geology, and vegetation),
built layers (such as land use, buildings, highways, and
infrastructure), and social layers (such as social data and
code requirements)
 Take Home Assignment
1. What is the use of GIS from
A) Environmental engineering point of view?
B) Water resources Engineering point of view?
2.What are GIS data needed and used by :
A) Environmental Engineer,
B) Water Engineer
3. Why GIS is so important for Engineers particularly?
4. What are the sources of GIS data in Rwanda?
5.What are the open source GIS software's do you know?
6.What are the commercial source GIS soft wares do you know?
7.How GIS data can be collected and stored by Engineers
8. Discuss Categories of Geographical data.
9.What features or Objects that can be mapped by Engineers in Rwanda?
10. Discuss 10 GIS applications in Environmental resources management.
 GIS & Remote Sensing

Spatial Data Modeling

BY :
Sylion Muramira (MSc, Btech ,Surveying &GIS )
 Outline
 Geographic phenomena:
 Objects and fields
 Discrete and continuous fields
 Boundaries
 Spatial data model:
 Vector data model
 Raster data model
 Data structure
 Vector data model
 Raster data model
 Resolution in raster data model
 Geographic phenomena (1)
 Geographic phenomena exist in the real world
 Geographic phenomena are a manifestation of
an entity that can be:
 named
 geo-referenced (geographic)
 assigned a time at which it is or was present
 There are different types of phenomena,
 To recognize them, we can select the correct
way to store them in GIS environment.
 Geographic phenomena (2)

Air temperature
Shoreline  Geographic phenomena are
the studied objects of a GIS.
 Geographic phenomena exist
in the real world, everything
Soil you see outside is a
type Geographic phenomenon.
 Some of the things you do
not see are also Geographic
phenomena like temperature.
Elevation Rocks
Water temperature
Geographic phenomena (3)

 We need to come up with a

digital representations of
tessellation geographic phenomena in
order to store them in a GIS.
 This is not easy because
isolines different phenomena require
different digital
representations

TIN  Also, multiple

representations are possible
for the same phenomenon.
 Types of geographic phenomena (1)

 Two types of geographic phenomena: field and

object
 A field is a geographic phenomenon for which
every point in the study area a value can be
defined.
 An object is geographic phenomena that do not
cover the entire study area,
 The space in between two objects is empty or
defined.
Types of geographic phenomena (2)

 Typical examples of fields:

temperature, barometric
pressure and elevation.
 In picture on the left you see an
example of elevation.
 You can measure the height
(altitude) everywhere.
 Even if an area is flat, elevation
can be measured at any point.
 Types of geographic fields (3)
 Two types of geographic fields: discrete and
continuous fields.
 Continuous field:
 The principal function is assumed to be continuous.
 Continuity means that all changes in field values are
gradual (example elevation).
 Discrete fields:
 They cut up the study area in equally exclusive
bounded parts,
 with all locations in one part having the same field
value (for example land use)
 Types of geographic fields (4)

 Discrete: Categorical and Discontinuous

data represent objects belonging to:
A class (soil type),
 A category (Zoning), or
A group (a district hospital)
 Continuous : Non discrete and surface :
Usually, it represents the continuity in data
like elevation, slope, radiation levels, pollution
levels, noise… etc
 Continuous Fields

 Continuous means that all

changes in field values are
gradual
Slope  In a differentiable field we can
measure the change.
 In the example on the left, we
can measure the gradient
slope as the change of
elevation.
 Discrete fields (1)

forest

agriculture
 Discrete fields cut up the
study space in subparts
with a clear boundary, with
Valley all locations in one part
having the same value.
 Typical examples are land
agriculture
classifications, geological
classes, soil types, land use
types, crop types or natural
agriculture
vegetation types.

road
 Discrete field (2)

 Objects are discrete and bounded

entities.
 The space between objects is
empty or not defined.
 Here, the space is not really
empty, it my contain roads,
gardens, driveways etc, but these
house are not houses or buildings.
house

No house: empty
 Object
 The position of an object in space
is determined by a combination
of one or more of the following
parameters:
 Location (where is it?)
 Shape (what form?)
 Point
 Line
 Polygon
 Size (how big?)
 Orientation (which direction?)
The river is an object, with a
location, Shape and a direction
 Boundaries (1)

Crisp
 Both objects and
discrete fields have
boundaries
 Two different types of
Boundary boundaries:
 A crisp boundary is one
that can be determined
with precision
 Fuzzy boundary is not a
precise line, but rather
Fuzzy an area of transition.
 Data model and Data Structure (1)

 Data model:
 Computer representations are divided in two
groups: raster and vector data models.
 The next step is to understand how data models
can be applied to represent geographic fields and
objects.
 Data structure:
 Data structures provide information that
computer requires to reconstruct the spatial data
model in digital form.
 Vector data model
 Derived from the formulation of spatial concepts that
emphasize on real world objects
 Geometry primitives of vector data model are point,
line and polygon.
 A point feature is a spot (or location) that has no
physical or actual spatial dimensions.
 A point feature represented by a single coordinate
and only has a geometric property of location. A line
is a one-dimensional feature having only length, no
width.
 A line is represented by series of points and has the
geometrical properties of location and length.
 Polygon: A spatial feature that is represented by a
series of lines and has the geometric properties of
size and perimeter.
 Two types of data model

2 4 4
Lac 2 4 4 4 4
1 1 2 4
1 1 1 2
1 1 1 1 2
Forest 1 1 1 1 2
1 1 1 2
1 1 1 2 3
1 2
House 2
2

Vector Data Model Raster Data Model

 Representation of Spatial Data
Vector Data Raster Data
Representation representation
Focus of the Discrete feature with Continuous
model precise shape and phenomena and
boundary image on the earth
Main source Aerial photography Aerial photography
GPS Receivers Satellite imagery
Digitized from paper Rasterized from
map vector map
Vectorized from raster
data
 Representation of Spatial Data
Vector Data Representation Raster Data
representation
Spatial Points stored as X,Y coordinates Cells (grids)
storage Lines stored as paths of connected
X,Y coordinates
Polygons stored as closed paths

Geographic Map overlay, buffering, adjacency, Spatial coincidence

analysis and proximity Proximity
Polygon dissolve and overlay Surface analysis
Spatial and logical query
Address geocoding

Cartographic Best for drawing the precise shape Best for presenting
output and position of the feature images and continuous
features
 Raster Data Model
Reality
 In the raster data model, individual
cells are used as the building
blocks to create a total map.
 The cells are of the same shape
and size,
 The field attribute value assigned
to a cell is associated with the
Building entire area occupied by the cell.

Road

Field
 Raster data model

 Pixel or Cell= a
Origin
Pixel (cell) square representing
a specific portion of
an area. Always with
the same size
 Rows & Columns =
Cartesian matrix.
Value Each cell has a
Line 9 unique row/column
address
 Values = one value
Column 3
by pixel
 Examples of Raster Data
Satellite Imagery

Classified image

Scanned Image

Aerial Photography
 Raster Structure
Normal raster – regular tessellation
 Besides regular
tessellations, there are also
irregular tessellations:
 Partition of the space into
mutually disjoint cells.
Quadtree – irregular tessellation  Cells vary in size and shape
 Adapts to spatial
phenomena
 Example: Quadtree
 Vector Data Model (1)

 A vector data model uses X and Y co-ordinates to

store the shape of a spatial entity.
 In the vector model, the point is the basic building
block from which all spatial entities are
constructed.
 As such, the simplest spatial entity is the point.
 Lines and polygons are constructed by connecting
a series of points into chains and polygons.
 The more complex the shape, the greater the
number of points needed.
 Vector Data Model (2)

 Points are defined as single

coordinate pairs (x, y) when we
work in 2D, or as coordinate
triplets (x, y, z) when we work in
3D.
 Points are best used to
represent objects that are
described as shape.

Points representing
trees along a road
 Vector Data Model (3)

Line representations:
 Used to represent one-
dimensional objects (roads,
railroads, canals, rivers…)
 Line is defined by 2 end nodes
and 0-n internal nodes to define
the shape of the line.
 An internal node or vertex is
Begin node Vertex
Line or arc
like a point that only serves to
define the line.
End node
 Vector Data Model (4)

Area representations:
 When area objects are stored
using a vector approach, the
usual technique is to apply a
boundary model.
 The area is defined by de
boundary of the area

You store the

boundary of the area
 Vector Data Model (5)

 A simple representation of the

area features would be to list
for each polygon the list of
lines that describes its
boundary.
 This is called a polygon-by-
polygon representation.
 Each line in the list would be a
sequence that starts with a
node and ends with one.
Total boundary of the
polygon
 Vector Data Model (6)

 The reason why this is not a

good representation is called
data redundancy.
 This means that shared
boundaries between polygons
are stored double.

When storing the second

boundary , some line
segments are duplicated
 Vector Data Model (7)
Line 3

Line 2 Topology
 The boundary model or
topological data model is an
improved representation of
Line 1 the polygon-by-polygon
model.
 It stores parts of a polygon’s
boundary as separate line
segments.
 Vector Data Model (8)
3
4 Line D Topology
 It also indicated
Line E 7
Line L 6
which polygon is on
5 Line K
8 XX
the left and which is
Line M ZZ Line J Line F
15 9
Line I on the right of each
arc
10
Line H
Line N Line O 12
Line G 11
14 13Line Q
Line P Line From To Node Left Right
QQ Node polygon polygon
N 15 14 QQ

P 14 13 QQ

O 15 13 ZZ QQ

I 9 10 XX ZZ
 Vector Data Model (9)

 We can determine the left and

the right polygon, because the
line segment has a direction.
 The direction of the line
segment is from the “From
From Node 15 Node….” to the “ToNode….”
Left

Right

To node 13
Topology and Spatial Relationship

Disjoint/Near covered by

Meet/adjacent contains

equal
covers

inside Overlap/
Intersect
Source: Wolfgang Kainz
Resolution (1)

 Selecting appropriate
number of points to
represent an entity is similar
to selecting the raster
resolution.
 The more complex the
shape of the line or polygon
the more points are used.
 Resolution (2)
Each cell represents an area of
10 by 10 meters, the
resolution is 10x10 meter
 The size of the area that a
1 1 2 2 1 3 4 4 4 single raster cell represents
1 2 2 1 1 2 3 4 4 is called the raster’s
1 2 1 1 3 3 4
resolution
2 1
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 4

1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 4

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3

1 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 3
 Resolution in raster data Model (1)
Refers to the size of the pixel or grid cell used for representation
Objects or surfaces can be represented in detail if the grid cells are very
small
 Small size of grid cell = High resolution
High
Large
resolution
size of grid cell
= =Large
Low resolution
data storage
Low resolution requirements
= Small data storage
requirements
Grid Cell Width = 30 meters Grid Cell Width = 1 km
 Resolution in raster data Model (2)
Limits:
 Resolution is different from accuracy the
more homogeneous an area, the larger the cell
size can be without affecting accuracy.
 Finer cell size than the input resolution will not
produce more accurate data than the input data
(different cell size can be stored and analyzed
together).
 Larger cells may encompass more than one data
value (loss of resolution).
 Cost of for database storage, processing speed for
analysis.
Vector data model – Raster Model (1)

 In vector representations a
georeference is explicitly
associate with the geographic
phenomena.
 A georeference is a coordinate
pair from some geographic
space, also known as a vector.
Vector Data Model – Raster Model (2)

 Raster representation do not

explicitly store georeference of
the phenomena.
 They provide a georeference of
the lower left corner and the
resolution.
 The georeference of all other
cells can be derived from this
information.
 Merits of raster and vector data models
Raster model Vector
Simple data structure, easy to More compact data structure.
understand and use. More accurate and credible than raster
Easy for overlay operations. format.

High spatial variability is Provides efficient encoding of topology,

effectively represented. More efficient implementation of
More or less required for operations that require topological
efficient manipulation and information, such as network analysis.
enhancement of digital images. Better suited to supporting graphics that
closely approximate hand-drawn maps.
 Limitations of raster and vector data models
Raster model Vector
Spatial inaccuracies are More complex data structure
common than the simple raster.
Less compact data structures Overlay operations are more
difficult to implement.
Topological relationships are
more difficult to represent Representation of high spatial
variability is inefficient.
Output of graphics is less
aesthetically as boundaries tend Manipulation and enhancement
to have blocky appearance of digital images cannot be
rather than the smooth line of effectively done in the vector
hand-drawn maps. domain.
 Reading Materials

1. Heywood, I., Cornelius, S. and Carver, S. An

Introduction to Geographic Information
Systems, 2nd edition, Pearson Education Ltd,
Glasgow, 2002 : Chapter 3, pages 46-70

2. De By, R. & alii, Principles of Geographic

Information Systems. An Introductory Texbook,
ITC, 2004, 226p. Read :
– Chapter 2 excluding 2.2.4 “Topology and spatial
relationships”,
– pages 73-75: “Spatial data storage and
maintenance”
 GIS & Remote Sensing

Spatial Data Presentation and

Visualization

BY :
Sylion Muramira (MSc, BTech ,Surveying &GIS )
 Lecture outline

▪ Different forms of GIS ▪ The cartographic toolbox

output
▪ Map Cosmetic
▪ GIS and Maps
▪ Map dissemination
▪ Map types
▪ The dimensions of
spatial data
▪ Visualization Process
▪ Visualization Strategies
 Reports GIS Outputs
Graphs

Internet
Paper Map

GIS
Data
Image Document
Rwanda.mxd
Kigali.jpg

Copyright © 2000–2004 ESRI. All rights reserved.

 GIS and Maps (1): Maps Function
▪ Function of maps

Maps help to answer questions:

✓ …where…? (location)
✓ …what…? (characteristics)
✓ …when…? (time)

or a combination of these.
 GIS and Maps (2):
Function - Where

Maps and location:

"Where are the forest
areas in Rwanda?"
 GIS and Maps (3):
Data Characteristics

▪ "What is the predominant land

use category in Nyamasheke and
Rusizi Districts?"

▪ What additional information do

we need to answer this question?
 GIS and Maps (4): Function – When
Maps and time: "When Mukura Forest was
smallest?"
1988 49,09 Km² 31, 61 Km² 2005
 GIS and Maps (5)

Maps are ‘generalizations’, or ‘abstractions’, of reality

 GIS and Maps (7)
▪ Map definition
✓ A map is a reduced and simplified representation of
(parts of) the earth surface on a plane.
✓ A representation, or abstraction, of geographic reality.
✓ A tool for presenting geographic information in a way
that is visual, digital or tactile.
 Types of maps (1)

Topographic maps
visualize the
earth’s surface as
accurately as
possible (within the
limitations of map
scale).
Thematic Map: Distribution Population per
District
 Types of maps (3) : Choropleth map

▪ Choropleth maps are

frequently used to present
classified data on socio-
economic variables such as
population, density by
area….
Choropleth map: Medical Doctors per
District
Population Map: Sector level
Visualization process
Factors of the visualization process

scale topographic/thematic qualitative/quantitative

 Visualization strategies (1)
▪ Maps as final products
▪ a means of visual communication
▪ Maps as intermediate products
▪ an aid to visual thinking
Visualization strategies (2)
 Visualization strategies (3)

▪ What is the purpose of the map ?

▪ Who will read the map ?
▪ Where will the map be used ?
▪ What data are available to compose the map ?
▪ ….. ?
 Visualization strategies (4)

Audience?

Objective?
Reality?
Final
Final design
design
Technical Scale?
limits?
Need to
Mode generalize?
of use?
Visualization strategies (5)
 Visualization strategies (6)

Cartographer
Reality GIS/CAD specialist
Recognize
Select
Compil Classify
Simplify
e
Symbolize

Mental image Map

of reality Read
Analyze
Imagin

? e
Interpret
Map user
 Kinds of data
▪ What kind of data do I have ?
▪ Nominal data (qualitative)

▪ Ordinal data (qualitative, but with some order)

▪ Interval data (quantitative, with an arbitrary zero,

for instance oC)

▪ Ratio data (quantitative, with an absolute zero)

4-
23
 Kinds of data – nominal data
▪ Landcover, districts, sectors, usage of sources
for electricity…

4-
24
 Kinds of data – ordinal data
▪ Areas at malaria risk based on altitude

4-
25
 Kinds of data – ratio data
▪ Confirmed Malaria cases per 10,000 inhabitants

4-
26
 The cartographic toolbox

▪ How can I map the data ?

✓ Point, line and area symbols

✓ Bertin’s 6 visual variables

The cartographic toolbox (2)

Point, line and area symbols

Proportional or graduated symbols?

+ Scaled symbols, each measurable

- Restrictions in sizes
- Values are represented in measure
units

- Graduated symbols, only

categories
- Not measurable
+ Variability in sizes
4-
29
Bertin’s 6 graphical variables (3)
 The level of details
▪ It is important that maps only show
what is necessary to communicate.
▪ The level of detail shown in a map
can also determine how well a map
communicates information.
IGN 1:100,000
▪ Too much detail and the map can
become difficult to read.
▪ As Wood (1993) points out, what
you choose to leave out is as
important as what you ‘leave in’

IGN 1:250,000
 Watershed areas

What is bad about these two examples?

Watershed areas – better
 Population density

What is bad about these two examples?

Population density – a good solution
 How to map terrain elevation

Elevation layer tints Elevation layer tints

contours
with hill shading
From map to 3D model
Draping information over a terrain model
3D may also be used to map other types of
quantitative data
Analytical Surfaces -- Chemical Spill
Concentration
 Issues in cartographic design
Map Cosmetic (1)
▪ Colors, shade patterns, and text
➢ Perception of colors and symbols
➢ Legibility of features and text
➢ Visual contrast and hierarchy

Siz Value
e

▪ Map Element (map+marginal information) and Visual balance

 Map Cosmetic (2)
Identifying map elements
Title

Map body

Legend
North arrow
Scale bar Designed by Makram 2002

Author text
◆ What is missing ? Source, Logo…
 Maps Cosmetic (3): Elements
▪ In designing a map so that it
best achieves its objectives, it
is necessary to consider a
number of key map design
elements (Robinson 1995):
✓ The frame of reference
✓ The projection used
✓ The features to be mapped
✓ Level of generalization
✓ Annotation used
✓ Symbology employed
 Maps Cosmetic (4)
Elements
▪ A grid may be used to give
a spatial frame of
reference
▪ An inset map showing the
location of the main map
area within its wider
geographical setting is a
very useful device
Map dissemination (2)

Soft-copy

Hard-copy
 GIS and Remote Sensing

Spatial Data Analysis

By Sylion Muramira
[email protected]
+25078867944
6/17/2023 1
 Spatial Data analysis
 Recall1: GIS Functionalities

Capture Analyze

Storage Display

Output
Request

6/17/2023 2
 Spatial Data analysis

Recall 2: GIS Particularity?

Dynamic spatial relationship between geographic object and/or
their attributes

GRAPHIC DATA ATTRIBUTES DATA

CULTURE pente code altitude surface

blé 0.12 13 52 5600,25
blé 0.45 10 55 10866,52
sorgho 0.62 12 60 3872,21
DYNAMIC maïs 1.12 0 55 1829,05
Linkage jachère 0.87 17 55 125485,60
mil 0.41 0 57 1512,34
blé 0.14 17 52 10092,95
jachère 0.65 12 52 6409,38
maïs 0.22 18 52 6448,49

Points, lines, Polygons

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 Spatial Data analysis

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 Spatial Data analysis

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 Spatial Data analysis

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 Spatial Data analysis

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 Spatial data analysis

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 Spatial Data analysis

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 Main GIS spatial analysis functions

• Retrieval, classification and measurement

functions
• Overlay functions
• Neighbourhoods functions
• Connectivity analysis (or network analysis)

6/17/2023 10
 Overview
• For many users, analysis is the • Measurement
most interesting part of a GIS, – In Vector
because analysis will provide – In Raster
them with answers to their
questions. • (Re) Classification
• There is a wide range of • Distance functions
analysis functionality available – Buffer
in a GIS (on the right you see – Thiessen polygon
a list of the topics we will • Overlay
discuss)
– In Vector
– In Raster
• Spatial Query (retrieval)
– By attribute
– By topological
relationships

6/17/2023 11
 Spatial Data Analysis – Why? (1)

Principal objectives of Spatial Data Analysis:

• to transform and combine data from different

sources/disciplines into useful information
• to improve one’s understanding
• to satisfy the requirements or objectives of
decision makers/planners

6/17/2023 12
 Spatial Data Analysis – Why? (2)

Typical questions to be answered in SDA:

• they can be prescriptive:
 What are the most suitable locations for new housing
areas?

• Or predictive:
 Which areas are most risky for bush fires?
 What will be the size of the lake behind a new dam?
 How many people have to be displaced?
 Which areas have a high risk for soil subsidence due
to salt extraction?

6/17/2023 13
 SDA example: Potential Flood Risk Zone

Imagine this is Musanze!

Example from EarthSat Corporation, Washington D.C.

Support the decision-making process at local/ national/regional level

6/17/2023 14
 Measurement (3)
Vector - Point
• Vector measurements
x,y,z include: location, length,
coordinates distance and area size
• Location  always stored by
GIS
– One coordinate pair for
points
– List of pairs for lines and
polygons

6/17/2023 18
153
 Measurement (4)
Vector - Length
• Length is associated with
How long is the boundary? polylines, and with
polygon boundaries.
• It can be stored by the
GIS or computed on the
fly

How long is the line?

6/17/2023 19
153
 Measurement (6)
Vector - Distance
• Distance between
two points 
p ? Pythagorean
distance function:
q
dist ( p, q)  ( x p  xq ) 2  ( y p  yq ) 2
Xp Yp
?
(yp-yq)2
Xq Yq
(xp-xq)2

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153
 Measurement (8)
Vector - Polygon
• Polygons have a centroid.
• The centroid is the center of
mass of the polygon, the point
on which it would balance
under a homogeneously applied
force like gravity.
• Note that the centroid can be
The centroid of a square building will outside the polygon
be in the middle • The location of the centroid of
a polygon can be either stored
or computed on the fly

For the ITC building, the centroid is

outside the polygon
6/17/2023 23
153
 Measurement (9)
Vector - Distance
• If one or both features are not
? a point we will measure the
p minimal distance between the
two features
q

q
p

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153
 Measurement (10)
Raster - Location
Resolution: 20 x 20 • Raster measurements include:
meters location, distance, length and
area size
• Location of an individual cell 
derived from anchor point and
resolution
• The cell’s location can be its
lower left corner or midpoint

Cell location:
X: 25546
X: 25546 + 30= 25576
Y: 468678
Y: 468678 + 30 = 468708

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154
 Measurement (11)
Raster - Area
• Area size  number of
cells * cell size
• When you know the
resolution you can
calculate the area of a
single cell. In this
example 30 x 30 meters
= 900 m2.
• The number of cells is
Cell size: 30 m x 30 m
also called the frequency
900 * 5 = 4500 m2 or count.

6/17/2023 26
154
 Measurement (12)
Raster – Distance- Euclidean
• There are different ways to
measure the distance between
two cells:
– Euclidean distance
Euclidean Distance ? – Manhattan distance
– Zone distance
• The Euclidean distance in a
1 cell = 30
raster layer is the distance
meters between the anchor points
2 cells = 60 m (for example the center) of
the two cells
Distance: √ (602 +302) = 67.08 meter

6/17/2023 27
 Measurement (13)
Raster Distance-Manhattan
• When using the
Manhattan distance, we
can move around the
cells but not through the
Manhattan Distance ?
cells.
• We will measure the
length over the cell
boundaries.
• Note, we do use the
Manhattan Distance: 5 * 30 = 150 meters corners of the cells, not
the anchor points

6/17/2023 28
 Measurement (14)
Raster Distance-Distance
Distance 30 • Another method to measure
the distance in a raster is the
‘proximity’ method.
Distance 30* √2
• It does not measure a single
distance but it measures the
distance for every cell to the
nearest source.
• It constructs the layer by
72 42 30
either moving straight or
60 30 0
diagonal. When moving
diagonal the distance is the
cell size * √2
Proximity Distance measured • This method is also referred
from the lower right cell to as ‘spread’

6/17/2023 29
 Measurement (15)
Raster - Length
• The length of a line feature is computed as the
sum of distances between consecutive cells.
• This computation is prone to errors!

6/17/2023 30
 (Re) Classification (1)
• Classification is a technique of
purposefully removing detail There are different types of
from an input data set in reclassification:
order to reveal patterns • User controlled classification
• reclassify data in different – Classification table
systems or for different • Automatic classification
purposes. – Equal interval technique
• Example: soil types – Equal frequency technique
reclassified into soil suitability – …
for agricultural purpose
• (Re) classification will
produce a new output data
set.
• If the input dataset itself is a
classification we speak of re-
classification.
• In vector, classification will
produce a new attribute, in
raster it will produce a new
raster layer.
6/17/2023 31
161
 (Re) Classification (2)
Two Examples of classification tables:
• In user-controlled
Old value New value

391 - 2474 1
classification we indicate
2475 - 6030 2
the classification
6031 - 8164 3
attribute and the
classification method.
Code Old value New value
• This is normally done via
10 Planned Residential Residential
a classification table.
20 Industrial Commercial

30 Commercial Commercial

The top table, the original values are

ranges, in the lower table the old
values already were a classification.

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161
 (Re) Classification (3)
• When using automatic
Create 8 classes
classification the user
specifies the no. of output
Use “equal interval” classes.
• Computer decides the class
break points.
• Four techniques of
determining the class breaks
are discussed:
– Equal interval:
– Equal frequency
(quantile)
– Natural Breaks
– Standard deviation

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162
 (Re) Classification (4)
Classifying quantitative values

• Can modify classes

Equal interval Natural breaks

Quantile Standard deviation

6/17/2023 34
 (Re) Classification (5)
Equal Interval

• Equal interval is calculated as

(vmax – vmin) /n
• Vmax is the maximum attribute
value, vmin is the minimum
attribute value and n is the
number of classes.
• In our example: (10-1) / 5 ≈ 2
• Each class will have two values.

Two original
values per class

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162
 (Re) Classification (6)
Quantile

• Equal frequency, is also called

quantile.
• Total number of features /
number of classes (n)
• The objectives is to create
categories with roughly equal
number of features (or cells).

Total number of
cells 25 / 5 = 5 cells
per class

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162
 (Re) Classification (7)
Comparing quantile and equal interval

Quantile Equal interval

Each class contains the Divides values into

same number of features equal ranges

If defined, you set the interval

6/17/2023 37
 (Re) Classification (8)
Natural Breaks
• Default method developed by George Jenks
(cartographer)
• Identifies breakpoints between values
• Shows clusters or concentrations of values

6/17/2023 38
 (Re) Classification (9)
Standard Deviation

• Shows distribution above and below the mean

Mean = 1,173
493 947 1,400 1,853 2,307
4
3
2
-2 -1 +1 +2 +3
1
0
260 807 1,354 1,900 2,447
Standard deviation = 453

6/17/2023 39
 (Re) Classification (10)
Classification Histogram
• The two techniques are
illustrated here again. On the
horizontal axis the original
values. The classes are the
blue vertical lines.
• In the equal interval
example, the blue lines are
equally spaced. On the
Equal interval technique vertical axis the frequency.
• In the equal frequency
technique, when the
frequency goes up, the
classes become smaller.

Equal frequency technique

6/17/2023 40
162
 (Re) Classification (11)
Post Processing - Vector

• Vector reclassification can be

performed with (or without)
post-processing.
• With post-processing we
mean that adjacent features
that after classification have
the same class are merged
together.
• This is called spatial
merging, aggregation or
dissolving.

Left, without post-processing, right with

post-processing.

6/17/2023 41
161
 (Re) Classification (12)
Post Processing - Raster

34.6 45.8 51.3 56.9

43.7 49.9 54.0 59.3 • For raster datasets, post-

processing is not possible,
47.6 54.2 56.8 62.5 only the value of the cell will
change.
49.8 58.8 65.2 66.1
• Post-processing of vector data
is only sensible for lines and
polygons.
3 4 5 5

4 4 5 5

4 5 5 6

4 5 6 6

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161
 Buffer and neighborhood functions
(1)
• There are many different • We will discuss one
types of buffers and neighborhood functions:
neighborhood functions – Thiessen polygons
• A buffer creates a zone of (proximity-allocation)
interest around an entity
(point, line or polygon). This
buffer is purely based on
distance.
• Buffers can be stored as new
polygons.

6/17/2023 43
 Buffer and neighborhood functions
(2)
• Principle is simple, we select one
or more target locations and
determine the area around them.
• Buffer generation can be
Buffer of 500 meters around the Main
performed on vector as well as
Roads raster data.
• Target locations can be point,
lines or polygons in a vector
environment

Buffer of 1 km around the Highways

6/17/2023 44
171
 Buffer and neighborhood functions
(3)
Between
0- 100 m
• Buffers can be simple, or
Between zonated.
Between 200-300 m • With a zonated buffer the
100-200 m
buffer consists of multiple
rings each representing a
different distance
• In vector buffer generation
the buffer will become a new
polygon in the output layer

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171
 Buffer and neighborhood functions
(4)
raster layers:
• Need target cell (s)
• The distance function applies the
Pythagorean distance between
the cell centers.
• Using cell resolution as the unit
• The distance from a non-target
cell to the target is the minimal
distance one can find between
that non-target cell and any
target cell.

6/17/2023 46
171
 Buffer and neighborhood functions (5)
Spatial interpolation

Thiessen polygons
• It will generate a polygon
around each target location
that identifies all those
locations that ‘ belong to’ that
target
• Thiessen polygons differ from
other interpolation techniques
because they produce a discrete
output.
For each store, identify the area for
• Some people do not consider
which this store is the closest. This
is the service area for that store
them to be an interpolation
technique.

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172
 Buffer and neighborhood functions (6)

• Thiessen polygons partition the plane into polygons so that each

polygon contains locations that are closer to the polygon’s
midpoint than to any other midpoints.
• Easier to construct Thiessen polygons based on Delaunay
triangulation.

1/2
1/2

6/17/2023 48
 Overlay (1)
• Combine several map layers into
one. New spatial elements are
created.
Vector
overlay • Standard overlay operators take
two input data layers, and
assume they are geo-referenced
in the same system, and overlap
in study area. If either condition
is not met, the use of an
overlay operator is senseless.
Raster • The principle of spatial overlay
overlay is to compare the
characteristics of the same
location in both data layers, and
to produce a new output value
for each location.

6/17/2023 49
163
 Overlay (2)
Overview of the topics discussed:

• Vector overlay techniques (different types

of entities)
– Point - in - polygon
– Line - in - polygon
– Polygon - in - polygon
• Vector overlay techniques (different types
of overlays)
– Union
– Clip (cookie cutter)
– Intersection
• Raster overlay techniques

6/17/2023 50
163
 Overlay (3)
Vector
• Involves complicated geometric calculations to
create new topology.
• Spatial features are combined.
• New attributes are assigned to each new feature,
such as area, parameters.
• The attributes from the input map layers are
kept in the output.

6/17/2023 51
 Overlay (4)
Vector – Point in Polygon
• Point in polygon overlay is
used to find out the polygons
in which a point falls.
• This technique is also referred
to as a spatial join, the
attributes of the polygon layer
(districts) are added to the
table of the point layer
(hospitals) not based on a key
attribute but based on the
location.

6/17/2023 52
 Reading materials

Heywood, I., Cornelius, S. and Carver, S. An

Introduction to Geographic Information
Systems, 2nd edition, Pearson Education Ltd,
Glasgow, 2002
Read (2h) :
-Chapter 6, pages 109-124

6/17/2023 53
 Further Readings
De By, R. & alii, Principles of Geographic Information
Systems. An Introductory Texbook, ITC, 2004, 226p.
Read :
– Chapter 3:
• 3.3.3 Spatial querying and analysis
– Chapter 5:
• 5.3.1 Generating discrete field representations from point
data
– Chapter 6:
• Except 6.5 Network analysis

6/17/2023 54
 GIS and Remote Sensing

Spatial Data Sources

and Acquisition

By Sylion Muramira
[email protected]
+25078867944
1
 Objectives

 Basic theoretical and practical knowledge/skills

to create, acquire and edit spatial data
 Understanding of the importance of topology and
spatial relationships on spatial data capture
quality
 Understanding of the concepts, tools and
methods to input and transfer spatial data

2
 Outline
 Overview of spatial data inputs
 Methods of data acquisition
• Direct spatial data acquisition
• Digitizing
• Obtaining spatial data elsewhere
 Data Editing/Preparation

Data Capture and Storage and

Preparation Maintenance

Manipulation and
Data Presentation
Analysis

3
 Spatial data input (overview)

 Importance of data input

→ The quality of final products depends on the
quality of the input data
 Sources of data for GIS
 Primary sources (using direct spatial data
acquisition techniques)
o Field data Collection (ground based survey, GPS),
remotely sensed images
 Secondary Sources (using spatial data collected
earlier)
o Paper maps and available digital data sets

4
 Spatial data sources
Ground-based field surveying

5
 Spatial data sources (cont)
Aerial based survey

6
 Spatial data sources (cont)
Satellite images
LANDSAT (lava flows)

7
 Spatial data sources (cont)

Hardcopy maps Digital data

Coordinates GIS
Data
480585.5, 3769234.6
483194.1, 3768432.3
485285.8, 3768391.2
484327.4, 3768565.9

8
 Methods of Data Acquisition

 Methods widely used:

 Digitizing (scanning or automated digitizing,
tablet digitizing, on screen digitizing)
o Digitizing (existing) paper maps requires the
conversion of an analogue map into a digital map
 Ground-based field survey and GPS location
integration
 Collecting available digital data from elsewhere

9
 Digitising (1)

Method Devices
Manual  coordinate entry via keyboard
 digitising tablet with cursor
 mouse cursor on the computer monitor
(heads-up digitising)
 digital photogrammetry
Automatic  Scanner
Semi-automatic  Line-following software
digitizing

10
 Digitising (2)
Digitising
process

11
 Digitising (3)
Manual digitising
 A human operator follows the map’s features (mostly lines)
with a mouse device over the map, thereby tracing the lines,
and storing location coordinates relative to a number of
previously defined control points.
 There are two forms of digitizing: on-tablet and on-screen
manual digitizing

12
 Digitising (4)
 On-tablet digitizing
The original map is fitted on a special surface (the tablet)
and the operator moves a mouse device over the map,
selecting important points.
 On-screen digitizing
A scanned image of the map (or some other image) is shown
on the computer screen, and the operator moves an
ordinary mouse cursor over the screen, again selecting
important points.

 In both on-tablet and on-screen digitizing, the GIS is used

to record points, and from the recorded points, line
features can later be constructed.

13
 Digitising (5)
Semi automatic and automatic digitizing
 A scanned image of the original map is used and the
GIS is used to find features in the image
 The technique is semi-automatic or automatic
depending on how much operator interaction is
required
 If vector data are to be extracted, a process known
as vectorization follows the scanning process

14
 Digitizing (6)
 The scanning process
A map, a slide, a photograph or other paper document
is put in digital form by moving an electronic light
detector across the map surface

Flatbed scanner

Film scanner

Large format sheetfed scanner

15
 Digitizing (7)
The scanning process (cont)
 Deciding on a scanning resolution
 The scanner’s resolution is expressed in terms of the number of
pixels it can identify per inch; the unit is dot per inch (dpi).
 e.g: 300 dpi
o 300 dpi = 300 dots per 2.54 cm
 118 dots per cm
 11,8 dots per mm
 3 dots per 0.25 mm  3 pixels on raster map
 Minimum required resolution depends on the details in the map
and the digitising technique:
o For manual on-screen digitizing of a paper map, a
resolution of 200-300 dpi is sufficient
o For on-screen digitizing of aerial photographs, higher
resolutions are recommended – typically, at least 800 dpi

16
 Digitising (8)

The scanning process (cont)

 After scanning, the resulting image can be
improved with various image processing
techniques:
 correction of colors, brightness and contrast,
removal of noise, smoothing of lines, …
 A scanned image is NOT a structured data set of
classified and coded objects
 To obtain this, additional work is required:
o data have to be vectorized and further structured.

17
 Digitizing (9)
Automatic digitising
Vectorization process
 Vectorization is a process that extracts points, lines and
polygons from a scanned image
 It involves skeletonizing and feature forming
 skeletonizing: thinning scanned lines to retain only centrelines. It
removes all pixels that make the line wider than just one pixel
 converting the remaining centre line pixels to series of (x,y)
coordinate pairs, which define the resulting polyline
 forming features and attaching attributes to them
 The process may be entirely automated or performed semi-
automatically
 Limitation:
 Vectorisation causes errors !
 (missing features, noise, wrong features)
 Post-processing is required to correct for errors

18
 Digitizing (10)
Automatic digitising
Vectorization process

19
 Global Positioning System (1)

 Global Positioning System is a satellite

positioning system that is owned by the USA
 Using a GPS receiver, one is able to capture a
point location. The captured data consist of the
latitude, the longitude and the altitude of the
point where the user of the GPS receiver is
standing

20
 Global Positioning System (2)
Examples of GPS equipment:
 Super highend > 20 000 $
 Highend > 5 000 $
 Middlecost > 2 000 $
 Lowcost ~ 100 $

21
 Spatial data from elsewhere (1)
 Clearinghouses / Geoportals

22
 Spatial data from elsewhere (2)

Clearinghouse (or Spatial Data Clearinghouses)

Examples:
 www.fgdc.gov Federal Geogrpahic Data
Committee
 www.geodata.gov U.S. maps & data
 www.geoconnections.org Canadian GDI
 http://www.gsdi.org/SDILinks.asp GSDI links
 http://www.geographynetwork.com/ ESRI
geography network
 http://data.geocomm.com/ GIS Data Depot
 http://geoportal.jrc.it EU geoportal
 …

23
 Spatial data from elsewhere (3)
Data format and Data standards:
 There are many data formats and data standards used in GIS
 There are also tools to convert from one format to another

Coverage
Shapefile Geodatabase

Internet Map
CAD Service

Raster Tables

Layers
ArcGIS
24
 Data preparation (1)

 Spatial data preparation consists of editing data

before usage.
 Images may require enhancements and
corrections of the classification scheme of the
data
 Vector data may require editing, such as
trimming of overshoots of lines at intersections,
deleting duplicate lines closing gaps in lines,
and generating polygons
 Data may need to be converted to either vector
format or raster format to match other data
sets

25
 Data preparation (2)

 Data preparation seems to make acquired data

fit for use by:
 data conversion (format, representation)
 data repairing
 data editing
 associating attributes to data
 feature selection
 cartographic generalization
 i.e: data preparation aims to discover errors

26
 Data preparation (3)

Checking for consistency and completeness

 Geometric quality
 About the location and extent of fields and objects (are the
coordinates correct?)
 Semantic quality
 About their meaning, attributes (does the data make
sense?)
 Topological quality
 About established spatial relationships (are the
relationships correct?)

Data quality (definition by ISO):

• Totality of characteristics of a product that bears on its ability to
satisfy stated (implicitly or explicitly) or implied needs i.e. “fitness
for use”.

27
 Data preparation (4)
Clean-up operations for vector data

BeforeCleanup After Cleanup Description BeforeCleanup After Cleanup Description

Erase duplicates Extend

or sliver lines undershoots

Erase short Snap clustered

objects nodes

Break crossing Erase dangling

objects objects or
overshoots

1 1
Dissolve Dissolve
2 2 polygons pseudo-nodes
3

28
 Data preparation (5)
Topology and Spatial Relationships
• Topology deals with
spatial relationship
between features?
 For example,
topological
relationships can be
“Overlap” topological relationship
used to check data
consistency after
digitizing
(Make sure you don’t
have overlapping
polygons)

29
 Data preparation (6)
Topology and Spatial Relationships

Topological
consistency : consists of
a set of rules that
Rule 1
determines what are valid
spatial arrangements.
Rules of topological
consistency:
1. Every line must be
bounded by two nodes

30
Page Number: 56
 Data preparation (7)
Topology and Spatial Relationships

To node Right 2. Every line borders two

polygon polygons, namely the
left and the right
Left polygon
Polygon
From node 3. Every polygon has a
Rule 2 closed boundary
consisting of an
alternating (and cyclic)
sequence of points and
lines

Rule 3
31
 Data preparation (8)
Topology and Spatial Relationships

4. Around every point

exists an alternating
(and cyclic)
sequence of lines
Rule 4
and polygons
5. Lines only intersect
at their bounding
nodes

Rule 5

32
 Data preparation (9)
Combining multi-source data
 When data from different sources are to be combined
there are 3 cases to consider:
 Data about the same area but with difference in
accuracy
 Data about the same area but with difference in
the choice of representation
 Data about adjacent areas and that have to be
merger into a single data set

33
 Data preparation (10)
Combining data with differences in
accuracy
 If the polygons of two digitized maps at different
scales are overlaid, the resulting polygons do not
perfectly coincide due to scale differences

Silver polygons
(caused by boundary
mismatch)

Which lines
should have priority ?

34
 Data preparation (11)
Combining data with differences in
representation
 Some advanced GIS applications require the
possibility of representing the same geographic
phenomenon in different ways
 For instance, a phenomenon can be represented as
a point, and at other times as a polygon
 Example:
o buildings represented as points on a small-scale map but
represented as polygons on a large-scale map
 The systems that support multi-representation
(multi-representation systems) maintain links
between various corresponding representations to
enable switching between them.

35
 Data preparation (12)
Merging data sets of adjacent areas
 Some GISs have merge or edge-matching functions to solve the
problems arising from merging data of adjacent areas

 Edge-matching is an editing procedure used to ensure that all

features along shared borders have the same edge locations.
Coordinates of the objects along shared borders are adjusted to
match those in the neighbouring data sets

36
 Data preparation (13)
Edge-Matching
• Need for edge-matching

37
 Data preparation (14)
Setting Snapping Tolerance
 While editing spatial data, in a
GIS, you may need to set the
snapping tolerance.
 It helps to prevent digitzing
errors

 Snapping lines
 if a node is within a specified
tolerance it is snapped to a
nearby line
 Snapping nodes
 if a node is within a
specified tolerance it is
snapped to a nearby node

38
39
 GIS and Remote Sensing

Global Positioning System

By Sylion Muramira
[email protected]
+25078867944
6/18/2023 40
Outline

 What is GPS?
 How does GPS work?
 What GPS can do for us?

6/18/2023 41
What is GPS?

• GPS : Global Positioning System

– Known as the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System
• NAVSTAR NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging
– Declared operational in 1994, it is operated and
controlled by US Department of Defense
• Precise Positioning Services are provided to US, allied
military forces and US government agencies
• Standard Positioning Services are accessed by civilians
throughout the world (free access, no fee)

6/18/2023 42
What is GPS? (cont)

• GPS consist of a network of 24 satellites (see

image next slide)
• Each satellite orbits our planet in 11h58 minutes
at an altitude of 20, 200 km
– i.e. satellites are organized in six orbital planes
– A receiver on Earth can have between five and
eight (rarely can go even up to twelve)
satellites in view at any point in time

6/18/2023 43
 What is GPS? (cont.)
• Constellation of
satellites in
GPS system
– Here are four
satellites shown
in one orbit
plane

6/18/2023 44
 How does GPS work?
• Each satellite broadcasts its orbital
position as a modulated signal
• A receiver determines the difference
between the time signal from the
satellite and its own internal clock
– The distance from the satellite can be
calculated using the speed of light
(300,000 km/second)
• Position and distance from 3 or 4
satellites allows triangulation of
receiver’s position

6/18/2023 45
 How does GPS work? (cont.)

6/18/2023 46
 How does GPS work? (cont.)
1. SPACE SEGMENT
 The space segment consists of the satellites themselves.
 24 orbiting satellites
2. CONTROL SEGMENT : five Control Stations around the
world
 The control segment is a group of ground stations that
monitor and operate the GPS satellites.
 Stations monitor satellites as they pass overhead by
measuring the distance from the Control Station to the
satellites
 4 monitoring stations spaced around the globe and one
Master Control Station located in Colorado Springs. Each
station sends information to the Control Station which
then updates and corrects the navigational message of the
satellites.

6/18/2023 47
 How does GPS work? (cont.)

6/18/2023 48
 How does GPS work? (cont.)
3. USER SEGMENT

• The user requires a GPS receiver in order to receive the transmissions

from the satellites.
• The GPS receiver calculates the location based on signals from the
satellites.
• Accuracy is dependent on the kind of receiver
• Navigation (Recreation) grade – least accurate
• Mapping grade – accurate
• Survey grade – most accurate
• Costs range from $100 to $30,000
6/18/2023 49
 Transportability
ǃ Projections and datums are important when converting
unprojected coordinates to a map

Source: Auslig, Commonwealth of Australia

6/18/2023 50
 GIS and Remote Sensing

AN OVERVIEW OF DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

(DBMS)

By Sylion Muramira
[email protected]
+25078867944
 What is a DBMS?
2

 A large, integrated collection of data

 Models a real-world enterprise

🞑 Entities (e.g., Students, Courses)
🞑 Relationships (e.g., Alice is enrolled in 145)

A Database Management
System (DBMS) is a piece of
software designed to store and
manage databases
Simplified database
system environment
Key

 Overview of DBMS
 Need for DBMS
 Types of Databases
 Components of DBMS
 Application of DBMS
 Advantages of DBMS
 Disadvantages of DBMS
Basic Definitions

 “Data” – are raw facts

-It must be formatted for storage, processing, and
presentation.
 “Database” –collection of logically interrelated data
 “Database Management”-the creation &
maintenance of a collection of organized data.
 “Database Management System (DBMS) ” - It is
a software package designed to define, manipulate,
retrieve and manage data in a database.
Example of a
Database
 Mini-world for the example:
🞑 Part of a UNIVERSITY environment.
 Some mini-world entities:
🞑 STUDENTs
🞑 COURSEs
🞑 SECTIONs (of COURSEs)
🞑 (academic) DEPARTMENTs
🞑 INSTRUCTORs
Example of a Database
(cont’d.)
 Some mini-world relationships:
🞑 SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs
🞑 STUDENTs take SECTIONs
🞑 COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs
🞑 INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs
🞑 COURSEs are offered by DEPARTMENTs
🞑 STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs

 Note: The above entities and relationships are typically

expressed in a conceptual data model, such as the
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP data model
Example of a simple
database
Example of a simplified
database catalog
Need for DBMS
 Provide a highly efficient method for handling
large amount of different types of data with
ease.

 Database allows data to be stored

systematically.

 Data can be easily retrieved, filtered, sorted

and updated efficiently and accurately.
Types of Databases
1. Centralized Database:
Based on Database location(s)

2. Distributed Database:
Components of
DBMS

1. Database Users
2. Data
3. Software and Procedures
4. Hardware
5. Database Access Language
1. Database
Users
🞑 End-users: They use the data for queries,
reports and some of them update the database
content. End-users can be categorized into:
 Sophisticated: These include business analysts, scientists,
engineers, others thoroughly familiar with the system
capabilities.
 Naive or Parametric: They use previously well-defined
functions against the database.
Examples are bank-tellers or reservation clerks who do this
activity for an entire shift of operations using standard types
of queries.
Database Users
(cont’d.)
🞑 Database administrators:
Responsible for authorizing access to the database, for
coordinating and monitoring its use, acquiring software
and hardware resources, controlling its use and
monitoring efficiency of operations.

🞑 Application programmers(Software
Engineers):
Responsible for writing database application programs
in some programming language.
2.
Data

 The collection of facts stored in the

database
 data is stored, updated and retrieved to
from a database.
 Database contains both operational data
and metadata.
3. Software

 Operating System software

 DBMS software
 Network Software
 Application Programs and utility software
 Procedures: instructions and rules that govern the
design and use of the database system.
4. Hardware

 PC
 Network of computers
 Various Storage devices
 Input devices
 Output Devices
5. Database
Languages
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
Create, Alter, Drop
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Insert, Select, Update, Delete
• Data Control Language (DCL)
Grant, Revoke
• Transaction Control Language (TCL)
Commit, Rollback.
Application of DBMS
 Banking  Credit and Transactions

 Airline
 Sales

 Universities
 Human resource
Application of DBMS
(cont’d.)
 Traditional Applications:
🞑 Numeric and Textual Databases

 More Recent Applications:

🞑 Multimedia Databases
🞑 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
🞑 Data Warehouses
🞑 Real-time and Active Databases
🞑 Many other applications
Advantages of Using the
Database Approach
 Controlling redundancy in data storage and in
development and maintenance efforts.
🞑 Sharing of data among multiple users.
 Restricting unauthorized access to data.
 Providing Storage Structures (e.g. indexes) for
efficient Query Processing.
 Providing backup and recovery services.
 Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of
users.
 Representing complex relationships among data.
 Enforcing integrity constraints on the database.
When not to use a DBMS

 🞑 If the database and applications are simple, well

 defined, and not expected to change.
 🞑 High initial investment and possible
need for additional hardware.
 🞑 Overhead for providing generality, security,
concurrency control, recovery, and integrity
functions.
 🞑 If access to data by multiple users is not required.
What are the trends
current
??
 Multimedia Databases

 Distributed Database

 Document-oriented Databases

 Mobile & embedded Databases